Trade and empire in the eighteenth century atlantic world

www.ebook3000.com Trade and Empire in the Eighteenth-Century Atlantic World www.ebook3000.com www.ebook3000.com Trade and Empire in the Eighteenth-Century Atlantic World By Andrew Hamilton Cambridge Scholars Publishing www.ebook3000.com Trade and Empire in the Eighteenth-Century Atlantic World, by Andrew Hamilton This book first published 2008 by Cambridge Scholars Publishing 12 Back Chapman Street, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2XX, UK British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Copyright © 2008 by Andrew Hamilton All rights for this book reserved No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner ISBN (10): 1-84718-837-0, ISBN (13): 9781847188373 www.ebook3000.com TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements vii Introduction Political Economy and the Changing Face of Empire The language of commercial ideology viii Liberalism and mercantilism: disaggregation as a method xvi Chapter One Laissez-faire and Reason of State A genealogy of laissez-faire Anglo-American or French genealogy? Gournay, d’Argenson and laissez-faire The providential argument and its early modern carriers 12 Reason of state and the rich country-poor country model 17 Chapter Two Toward a Common Liberal Vision of the Atlantic World Shelburne and his circle 25 Shelburne’s views on commercial expansion in the modern world 29 Shelburne’s theory of informal empire 32 Shelburne and the Dissenters 35 Benjamin Vaughan enters circle 41 Chapter Three Commonwealthmen, Dissenters, and American Radicals: Benjamin Vaughan in his Circle Positioning Vaughan within the larger circles 51 Early biographical connections and the Club of Honest Whigs 54 Importance of Vaughan’s editing of Franklin’s writings 61 The Wedderburn Affair 66 Vaughan and the peace negotiations of 1782-3 69 Interlude between peace and revolution 72 Remnants of the circle 74 www.ebook3000.com vi Table of Contents Chapter Four From Conquest to Commerce The Union debate as context 77 Raison d’état and the shift from the passions to the interests 82 Doux-commerce, Hugo Grotius, and society 90 The Spanish question, mercantilism, and the shift to doux-commerce as a policy decision 97 Conquest to commerce as a philosophy of history 105 Chapter Five Benjamin Vaughan and the Liberal Moment Vaughan’s writings before 1788 111 Vaughan’s New and Old Principles of Trade 124 The rich country-poor country model in Vaughan’s writing 125 Doux-commerce language in New and Old Principles of Trade 132 Theory and practice 135 Providential distribution of goods and the cosmopolitan vision 138 Chapter Six John Adams, Nationalism, and the Retreat from the Liberal Moment John Adams and free trade 147 The collapse of the liberal moment 150 Bibliography 157 Index 166 www.ebook3000.com ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I take great pleasure in acknowledging my graduate advisor, Laurence Dickey, for his clear direction and continuing support of this work, originally begun as a Ph.D dissertation at the University of WisconsinMadison I am indebted to him for introducing me to the study of intellectual history I also wish to thank the staff of the Clements Library at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor for their assistance in procuring access to the Shelburne and Paine papers in their collection, as well as the archivists and librarians at the American Philosophical Society in Philadelphia Much of the formative conceptual work concerning empire and the Atlantic world benefited from the astute comments and critiques of participants in the 1999 International Seminar on the History of the Atlantic World, 1500-1800, conducted by Bernard Bailyn at Harvard University I am most grateful to my loving wife, Krista, for her assistance in the preparation of this manuscript, and for her tireless push for clarification in my writing www.ebook3000.com INTRODUCTION POLITICAL ECONOMY AND THE CHANGING FACE OF EMPIRE The language of commercial ideology In the late eighteenth century, revolutionary ideas about commercial society began to cause momentous change in Western political thought Adam Smith’s Wealth of Nations (1776) systematized new theories of political economy and had far-reaching effects on ideas of society, international relations, and politics Some of the most remarkable transformations in the conceptions of modern social and political life took place within the context of the British-American Empire As the North American colonies pressed for independence from Britain, political figures on both sides of the Atlantic, including Lord Shelburne, Benjamin Vaughan, and John Adams, used Smith’s economic doctrines to defend policy decisions during the period leading up to and directly following the American Revolution This study traces the development of early modern theories of trade and empire for the purpose of revealing the practical application of Smith’s theories to political settlements during a time of considerable change and upheaval, when the definition of empire was shifting from military conquest to commercial domination The conceptual models central to this book principally derive from three historians The first is J.G.A Pocock, whose emphasis on language has added a productive new approach and vocabulary to the study of political history, and has equipped intellectual historians with innovative tools for engaging texts, their authors, and readers The work of Pocock and the closely aligned Cambridge School has significantly increased our understanding of political economy and the nuances of the Scottish Enlightenment, “the period of great intellectual achievement in eighteenthcentury Scottish history that is associated with the names of Hugh Blair, Adam Ferguson, David Hume, Lord Kames, John Millar, William www.ebook3000.com Trade and Empire in the Eighteenth-Century Atlantic World ix Robertson, and James Steuart, as well as Adam Smith.”1 The second figure, Bernard Bailyn, is recognized for his influential explorations of British-American culture and politics, and as the originator of the new field of historical study known as Atlantic History His approach calls attention to the transatlantic connections that existed in the early modern period between the metropolis in Europe and the colonies in the New World, in contrast to conventional interpretations that separate such studies along continental or national boundaries The third historian is Felix Gilbert, whose largely overlooked publication, To the Farewell Address, identified the complex role of commercial ideology in forming early American foreign policy.2 In his book, Gilbert suggested the subtle manner in which competing discourses of commercial relations informed the attitudes of eighteenth-century Americans toward their new country and its relationship with Europe The models developed by these three authors form the foundation of this historical investigation of trade and empire theories in the early modern era As mentioned, Pocock’s work has given historians a new historiographical model for understanding texts In the introduction to his landmark study, Virtue, Commerce, and History, he described the changing landscape of political history, suggesting that intellectual historians have witnessed a movement away from emphasizing history of thought (and even more sharply, ‘of ideas’) toward emphasizing something rather different for which ‘history of speech’ or ‘history of discourse,’ although neither of them unproblematic or irreproachable, may be the best terminology so far found.3 Laurence Dickey, “Editorial Preface,” Adam Smith, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, ed L Dickey (Indianapolis/Cambridge: Hackett Publishing Co., 1993), p vii Felix Gilbert, To the Farewell Address: Ideas of Early American Foreign Policy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1961) Gordon Wood pointed out that while many historians have ignored the issue, Gilbert has shown how early American foreign policy “attempted to embody…liberal ideas about war and commerce.” Gordon Wood in David Womersley, ed., Liberty and American Experience in the Eighteenth Century (Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, 2006), p 442, n 42 J.G.A Pocock, Virtue, Commerce, and History: Essays on Political Thought and History, Chiefly in the Eighteenth Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), p www.ebook3000.com 154 Chapter Six arms before the independence of America was recognized Neither France nor America were to conclude a separate peace, and they entered into arrangements for military cooperation This was not a document of a “new diplomacy”; it was a political alliance pure and simple, conceived and written in the terms of old-style diplomacy.20 Soon afterward, the Americans began to construct “efficiently functioning administrative machinery,” and adopted many of the traditional trappings and practices of diplomacy.21 Gilbert illustrated how the young American republic was characterized by two tendencies running side by side, almost from its inception On the one hand, there existed an idealistic vision of cosmopolitanism that sought only commercial connections with the world community; on the other, hand, there was a return to traditional European power politics based upon reason of state Adams pushed the internationalist position as far as he could by endorsing the free trade attitude he found in Pownall’s writings in 1780-1, but he was too much of a patriot and a realist to ignore the political situation of the mid-1780s Neither Britain nor France had given America a “truly liberal system of commerce,” and Adams wondered, “would it be necessary for America to subordinate commerce to political ends, to use trade for achieving favorable agreements with individual powers, and to adapt a policy of prohibitions and exclusions?”22 Abandoning his former cosmopolitan optimism in foreign relations, by 1785 Adams turned back to the old policy of Machiavellian international politics These points are not introduced to disparage Adams To be sure, the founder of modern political economy, Adam Smith himself, asserted that there certainly are cases when a country might reasonably change its policy from one of free international trade relations to protectionism: The case in which it may sometimes be a matter of deliberation how far it is proper to continue the free importation of certain foreign goods, is, when some foreign nation restrains by high duties or prohibitions the importation of some of our manufactures into their country Revenge in this case naturally dictates retaliation, and that we should impose the like duties and prohibitions upon the importation of some or all of their manufactures into ours Nations accordingly seldom fail to retaliate in this manner.23 20 Gilbert, To the Farewell Address, pp 84-85 Gilbert, To the Farewell Address, p 84 22 Gilbert, To the Farewell Address, p 88 23 Adam Smith, Wealth of Nations, ed Laurence Dickey, p 131 21 John Adams, Nationalism, and the Retreat from the Liberal Moment 155 Smith held that the purpose of such retaliatory policies should be to cause the first nation to remove its offending trade barriers Smith’s own optimism toward free international trade was surprisingly limited, and he built safeguards into his system that reflected a pessimism about its mutually beneficial effects Recall that David Hume’s automatic mechanism worked to regulate the specie flows between trading nations, and that his theory argued against balance-of-trade attitudes which sought to aggregate and retain specie in particular countries In the context of the rich country-poor country debate, the automatic mechanism is what allowed a relatively poor country or region to trade successfully with a relatively rich one In his edition of Smith’s Wealth of Nations, Laurence Dickey described how Smith dismissed the mercantilists for attempting to regulate and police against this “economic pendulum pull” of the automatic mechanism However, Dickey went on to demonstrate that, at a fundamental level, Smith only differed with this aspect of the mercantilists to the extent that he believed they had developed the wrong policies to achieve their goal Smith was nervous about the tendency of money to “fly” from country to country, and sought means for a developed country to avoid being depleted of its potential investment capital by a poorer, low-wage competitor On this issue, Smith reoriented from an internationalist or cosmopolitan vision of mutual benefit through free trade, to a nationalist, protectionist stance Like the French Physiocrats, he found a solution to the problem in agricultural investment: …Smith depicts merchants as cosmopolitans who move wealth from place to place (within and without particular countries) as the automatic mechanism shifts business opportunities from rich regions/countries to poor regions/countries and then back By contrast…capital investment in agriculture is presented to the merchant community of a rich country as an opportunity for it to express its political commitment to the well-being of a particular country Needless to say, this does not sound very cosmopolitan In fact…it sounds like the ‘responsible patriotism’ a Scot would exhibit when confronted with the prospect of Scottish money running south [to England] rather than into the Scottish countryside.24 In light of the automatic mechanism and rich country-poor country contexts, historians must reconsider how accurate it is to categorize Smith as liberal If we look past Smith’s attempt to position himself as liberal in contrast to the narrow monopolistic mercantilists, it appears that his 24 Dickey, Appendix III to Smith’s Wealth of Nations, pp 240-241 156 Chapter Six program, emphasizing an “agrarian bias,” was in fact “patriotic,” and based in “power politics and economic nationalism.”25 Smith’s economic system was, like that of the mercantilists he chastised, directly linked to politics In this context, Adams’s shift from a cosmopolitan attitude to one of nationalism and protectionism becomes easier to explain, with all its ramifications For a young and economically untested nation like America, the rich country-poor country model held great promise By adopting the cosmopolitan vision of free trade in the Atlantic, Adams was promoting a means by which his new nation might catch up with its economically advanced trading partners in Europe It is also understandable that when viewed from across the ocean, the upstart nation posed a threat as a young economy where cheap wages might very well produce goods at a damagingly competitive price The dense aggregation of languages available in the Wealth of Nations becomes evident when it is recalled that all of these distinct attitudes were justified by reference to Adam Smith: John Adams in 1780 bolstered his free trade argument with references to Smith; the European states might also be said to have been following Smith in their use of trade restrictions to protect their money from flying across the Atlantic; and then Adams, in the mid-1780s, again relied on Smith for justification in enacting retaliatory trade restrictions The Wealth of Nations represents a fine example of an extremely rich text at a very full moment in history It is ironic that it was Shelburne who came closest to realizing in political form the ideal of a transatlantic trading community Ironic because his vision of free trade to the mutual benefit of all was, of course, an imperial vision Almost as soon as America had broken away as an independent state, concerns of national security began to obscure this idealistic attitude Only a truly cosmopolitan thinker like Benjamin Vaughan, unswayed by concerns of short-term national security, could continue to support such an expansive plan for a mutually beneficial system of free trade in the Atlantic It is in this sense, given what we now know about him, that we must acknowledge Benjamin Vaughan and his New and Old Principles of Trade as having pushed the theories of liberal political economy to their furthest extent in the eighteenth century 25 Dickey, ed., p 241 BIBLIOGRAPHY Primary Sources Adams, John The Adams Papers, ed Richard Alyn Ryerson Belknap Press, 1996 — The Works of John Adams, Second President of the United States: with a Life of The Author, Notes and Illustrations, by his Grandson, Charles Francis Adams Boston: Little, Brown, and Company, 1853 Anonymous “The Origin and Dissolution of Lord Shelburne’s Connection with the Dissenters,” in Gentleman’s Magazine and Historical Chronicle, 1783, vol LIII, Part I (January), pp 22-23 Barbon, Nicholas A Discourse of Trade, ed and reprinted by Jacob Hollander Johns Hopkins Press, 1905 Originally published in London by Thomas Milbourn, 1690 Belloni, Marquis “A Letter to the Author of the Journal concerning the Dissertation upon Commerce, by the Marquis Belloni,” in Selected Essays on Commerce, Agriculture, Mines, Fisheries, and other Useful Subjects London: D Wilson and T Durham, 1754 Cantillon, Richard Essai sur la Nature du Commerce en General, ed Henry Higgs London: MacMillan and Co., 1931 Child, Josiah Selected Works, 1668-1697 Reprinted from the Goldsmiths’ Library Of Economic Literature, University of London Farnborough, Gregg, 1968 Condorcet, Marquis de (Marie Jean Antoine Nicholas de Caritat) The Life of M Turgot, translated from the French London: J Johnson, 1787 Éphémérides du citoyen, ou Chronique de l’esprit national Paris: Nicolas Augustin Detalain, 1768, Tome Septieme Franklin, Benjamin The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin, ed Leonard W Labaree New Haven: Yale University Press, 1964 — Papers of Benjamin Franklin New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1959 — Political, Miscellaneous, and Philosophical Pieces, ed Benjamin Vaughan London: J Johnson, 1779 — The Works of Benjamin Franklin, ed Jared Sparks Chicago: T MacCoun, 1882 158 Bibliography Freneau, Philip The Poems of Philip Freneau, ed Fred Lewis Pattee Princeton: The University Library, 1902 Gournay, Jacques C.M Vincent de Traites sur le Commerce de Josiah Child avec les Remarques inédites de Vincent de Gournay, ed Takumi Tsuda Tokyo: Kinokuniya Company Limited, 1983 Grotius, Hugo The Freedom of the Seas, or the Right Which Belongs to the Dutch To Take Part in the East Indian Trade, ed James Brown Scott, trans Ralph Van Deman Magoffin New York: Oxford University Press, 1916 — De Jure Belli ac Pacis, Libri Tres, ed James Brown Scott, trans Francis W Kelsey Oxford: Clarendon Press, and London: Humphrey Milford, 1925 — Prolegomena to the Law of War and Peace, ed Edward Dumwald, trans Frances W Kelsey Indianapolis and New York: The Liberal Arts Press, 1957 Hume, David Essays Moral, Political, and Literary, ed Eugene F Miller Indianapolis: Liberty Classics, 1987 Montesquieu, Baron de L’Esprit des Lois, trans Thomas Nugent New York: Hafner Publishing Co., 1949 Morellet, L’Abbé Lettres de L’Abbé Morellet de LAdadộmie Franỗaise a Lord Shelburne, Depuis Marquis de Lansdown, 1772-1803, ed Lord Edmund Fitzmaurice Paris: E Plon, Nourrit et Cie, 1898 Mun, Thomas England’s Treasure by Foreign Trade, reprinted by Augustus M Kelley New York, 1986 Originally published in London by Thomas Clark, 1664 Thomas Paine Collection, Clements Library, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor Price, Richard The Correspondence of Richard Price, ed W Bernard Peach and D.O Thomas Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1994 Priestley, Joseph Autobiography of Joseph Priestley, ed Jack Lindsay Bath: Adams and Dart, 1970 — History and Present State of Electricity London: Dodsley, Johnson, Davenport, and Cadell, 1767 — Letters to the Right Honourable Edmund Burke New York: Woodstock Books, 1997 Originally published in Birmingham by T Pearson, 1791 — Memoirs of Joseph Priestley, ed John T Boyer Washington: Barcroft Press, 1964 Rohan, Henri de De l’intérêt des princes et des Etats de la chrétienté, ed Christian Lazzeri Paris: Press Universitaires de France, 1995 Trade and Empire in the Eighteenth-Century Atlantic World 159 Shelburne, Lord “Shelburne Expounds his Western Policy to the Cabinet, Sept 11, 1767,” ed Clarence Walworth Alvord and Clarence Edwin Carter, in Western Policy, Collections of the State Historical Society, vol XVI, British Series, vol III, Trade and Politics, 1767-1769 Illinois State Historical Library, 1921 — Shelburne Papers, Shelburne Collection, Clements Library, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor Smith, Adam An Inquiry Into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, ed Laurence Dickey Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Co., 1983 — An Inquiry Into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, ed E Cannan New York: Random House, 1937 Stewart, Dugald Account of the Life and Writings of Adam Smith, LL.D., in the Glasgow Edition of the Works and Correspondence of Adam Smith, ed W.P.D Wightman, J.C Bryce, and I.S Ross Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1987 — The Collected Works of Dugald Stewart, ed Sir William Hamilton Edinburgh: Gregg International Publishers Limited, 1971 — Lectures 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Atlantic Monthly Press, 1995 Crane, Verner W “The Club of Honest Whigs,” in William and Mary Quarterly, no 23, (1966), pp 210-233 DeLuna, D.N., ed The Political Imagination in History: Essays Concerning J.G.A Pocock Baltimore: The Archangul Foundation, 2006 Dickey, Laurence “Power, Commerce, and Natural Law in Daniel Defoe’s Political Writings, 1698-1707,” in John Robertson, ed., A Union for Empire: Political Thought and the British Union of 1707 Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995, ch — “Doux-Commerce and Humanitarian Values: Free Trade, Sociability and Universal Benevolence in Eighteenth-Century Thinking,” Grotiana (New Series), vol 22/23 (2001/2002), pp 271-317 Reprinted in Hans W Blom and Laurens C Winkel, eds Grotius and the Stoa (Royal Van Gorcum, 2004) Disraeli, Benjamin Sibil; or the Two Nations London: H Colburn, 1845 Edney, Matthew H “Cartographic culture and nationalism in the early United States: Benjamin Vaughan and the choice for a prime meridian, 1811,” in Journal of Historical Geography, 20, (1994), pp 384-395 Edwards, Charles S Hugo Grotius, the Miracle of Holland: A Study in Political and Legal Thought (Chicago: Nelson Hall, 1981) Trade and Empire in the Eighteenth-Century Atlantic World 161 Fitzmaurice, Edmond George Petty (Baron Fitzmaurice) Life of William, Earl of Shelburne, Afterward First Marquess of Lansdowne vols London: MacMillan and Co., 1912 Fruchtman, Jack Jr “The Apocalyptic Politics of Richard Price and Joseph Priestley: A Study in Late Eighteenth-Century English Republican Millennialism,” in Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, vol 73, part 4, 1983 Gardiner, R.M Memoir of Dr Benjamin Vaughan Collection of the Maine Historical Society, vol 6, 1859, pp 84-92 Gauchi, Perry The Politics of Trade: The Overseas Merchant in State and Society, 1660-1720 Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001 Gibbs, F.W Joseph Priestley, Adventurer in Science and Champion of Truth London: T Nelson, 1965 Gilbert, Felix To the Farewell Address: Ideas of Early American Foreign Policy Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1961 — A European Past: Memoirs, 1905-1945 London and New York: W.W Norton and Co., 1988 Greene, Jack P., and J.R Pole, eds Colonial British America Johns Hopkins University Press, 1984 Groenewegen, Peter D., ed The Economics of A.R.J Turgot The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1977 — “Turgot and Adam Smith,” in Scottish Journal of Political Economy, 16, 1969, pp 271-287 — “Turgot, Beccaria and Smith,” in Altro Polo: Italian Economics Past and Present, ed P Groenewegen and Joseph Halevi Sydney: Frederick May Foundation for Italian Studies, 1983 — “Turgot’s Place in the History of Economic Thought,” in History of Political Economy, 15:4, 1983, Duke University Press, republished in Pioneers in Economics, vol 9, ed P Groenewegen and Mark Blaug Haggenmacher, Peter “Grotius and Gentil: A Reassessment of Thomas E Holland’s Inaugural Lecture,” in Hugo Grotius and International Relations, ed Hedley Bull, Benedict Kingsley, and Adam Roberts Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990 Hancock, David Citizens of the World: London Merchants and the Integration of The British Atlantic Community, 1735-1785 Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995 Harlow, Vincent T The Founding of the Second British Empire, 17631793 London, New York, Toronto: Longman’s, Green and Co., 1952 Hirschman, Albert The Passions and the Interests: Political Arguments for Capitalism Before Its Triumph Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1977 162 Bibliography — Rival Views of Market Society and Other Recent Essays New York: Viking, 1986 Holt, Anne A Life of Joseph Priestley London: Oxford University Press, 1931 Hont, Istvan, and Michael Ignatieff, eds Wealth and Virtue: The Shaping of Political Economy in the Scottish Enlightenment Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983 — “Free Trade and the Economic Limits to National Politics: NeoMachiavellian Political Economy Revisited,” in John Dunn, ed., The Economic Limits to Modern Politics Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990 Hutchison, Terrence Before Adam Smith: The Emergence of Political Economy, 1662-1776 Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1988 Isaacson, Walter Benjamin Franklin, An American Life New York: Simon and Schuster, 2003 Jacobson, David L., ed The English Libertarian Heritage Indianapolis: Bobbs- Merrill, 1965 Keohane, Nannerl Philosophy and the State in France: The Renaissance to the Enlightenment Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1980 Knorr, Klaus British Colonial Theories, 1570-1850 Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1944 Kuhn, Thomas The Structure of Scientific Revolutions Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1962 Langer, Gary F The Coming of Age of Political Economy, 1815-1825 New York: Greenwood Press, 1987 Langford, Paul A Polite and Commercial People, England, 1727-1783 Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989 Lincoln, Anthony Some Political and Social Ideas of English Dissent, 1763-1800 New York: Octagon Books, 1971 Löwith, Karl Meaning in History Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1960 MacGregor, D.H Economic Thought and Policy London: Oxford University Press, 1949 Malone, Dumas, ed Dictionary of American Biography New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1936 Matthew, H.C.G., and Brian Harrison, eds Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004 McCulloch, John Ramsay, ed The Literature of Political Economy: A Classified Catalogue of Select Publications in the Different Departments of that Science, with Historical, Critical, and Trade and Empire in the Eighteenth-Century Atlantic World 163 Bibliographical Notes London: Longman, Brown, Green and Longmans, 1845 —, ed A Select Collection of Scarce and Valuable Tracts on Commerce New York: Augustus M Kelley, 1966 Originally published in London, 1859 McCullough, David John Adams New York: Simon and Schuster, 2001 Meek, Ronald Precursors of Adam Smith London: Dent, 1973 Minchinton, W E., ed The Growth of English Overseas Trade in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries London: Methuen and Co., 1969 Murray, Craig C Benjamin Vaughan (1751-1835), the Life of an AngloAmerican Intellectual New York: Arno Press, 1982 Norris, John Shelburne and Reform London: MacMillan and Co., 1963 Oberfohren, Ernst Die Idee der Universalokonomie in der franzosischen wirtschafts wissenschaftlichen Literatur bis auf Turgot Jena: Verlag von Gustav Fischer, 1915 Pagden, Anthony Lords of All the World: Ideologies of Empire in Spain, Britain And France, c 1500-c 1800 New Haven, London: Yale University Press, 1995 Palmer, R.R The Age of the Democratic Revolution: A Political History of Europe and America, 1760-1800 Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1959 Pocock, J.G.A The Ancient Constitution and the Feudal Law: A Study of English Historical Thought in the Seventeenth Century Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987 — The Machiavellian Moment: Florentine Political Thought and the Atlantic Republican Tradition Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1975 — Politics, Language, and Time: Essays on Political Thought and History Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1971 — Virtue, Commerce, and History: Essays on Political Thought and History, Chiefly in the Eighteenth Century Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985 Rae, John Life of Adam Smith London: MacMillan and Co., 1895, reprinted with an introduction by Jacob Viner, “Guide to John Rae’s Life of Adam Smith.” NewYork: Augustus M Kelley, 1965 Ramsay, David History of the American Revolution London: J Stockdale, 1793 Rashid, Salim “Adam Smith’s Rise to Fame: A Reexamination of the Evidence,” in The Eighteenth Century: Theory and Interpretation, vol 23, 1982, no 1, pp 64-85 164 Bibliography — The Myth of Adam Smith Cheltenham, UK; Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar, 1998 Ritcheson, Charles British Politics and the American Revolution Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1954 Robbins, Caroline The Eighteenth-Century Commonwealthman Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1961 Roberts, Hazel Van Dyke Boisguilbert: Economist of the Reign of Louis XIV New York: Columbia University Press, 1935 Robertson, John, ed A Union for Empire: Political Thought and the British Union of 1707 Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995 Romilly, Jacqueline de The Rise and Fall of States According to Greek Authors Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1991 Ross, Ian Simpson The Life of Adam Smith Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995 Rothbard, Murray N The Brilliance of Turgot Auburn University and Washington, D.C.: The Ludwig von Mises Institute, 1986 Rothkrug, Lionel Opposition to Louis XIV: The Political and Social Origins of the French Enlightenment Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1965 Rowell, George S “Benjamin Vaughan–Patriot, Scholar, Diplomat,” in The Magazine of History New York: William Abbot, vol xxii, March, 1916, pp 43-57 Schelle, Gustave Vincent de Gournay Paris: Guillaumin and Co., 1897 Schneider, Louis The Scottish Moralists: On Human Nature and Society Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1967 Schofield, Robert The Enlightenment of Joseph Priestley: A Study of his Life and Work from 1733 to 1773 University Park, Pennsylvania: The Pennsylvania State University Press, 1997 — A Scientific Autobiography of Joseph Priestley (1733-1804): Selected Scientific Correspondence Cambridge, Massachusetts: M.I.T Press, 1966 Schumpeter, Joseph A History of Economic Analysis New York: Oxford University Press, 1954 Scott, William Robert Adam Smith as Student and Professor Glasgow: Jackson, Son and Co., 1937 Shields, David Oracles of Empire: Poetry, Politics, and Commerce in British America, 1690-1750 Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1990 Shy, Arlene Phillips Guide to the Manuscript Collections of the William L Clements Library G.K Hall and Co., 1978 Skinner, Quentin The Foundations of Modern Political Thought Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978 Trade and Empire in the Eighteenth-Century Atlantic World 165 Stone, Lawrence, ed An Imperial State at War: Britain from 1689 to 1815 London, New York: Routledge, 1994 Spiegel, Gabrielle “History, Historicism, and the Social Logic of the Text in the Middle Ages,” in Speculum, 1990, no 65 Stephen, Sir Leslie and Sir Sidney Lee, eds Dictionary of National Biography Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1917 Thomas, David Oswald Richard Price, 1723-1791 Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1976 Tuck, Richard Philosophy and Government, 1572-1651 Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993 Van Doren, Carl Benjamin Franklin Garden City, New York: Garden City Publishing Co., 1941 Vernier, Richard “Adam Smith’s Revolution of 1776,” in Nicholas Elliot, ed., Adam Smith’s Legacy: His Thought in Our Time London: Adam Smith Institute, 1990, pp 71-94 Viner, Jacob Essays on the Intellectual History of Economics, ed Douglas A Irwin Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991 — The Role of Providence in the Social Order: An Essay in Intellectual History Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1972 — Studies in the Theory of International Trade New York: Augustus M Kelley, 1965 Walworth, Clarence and Clarence Edwin Carter, eds Trade and Politics, 1767-1769 Springfield: Illinois State Historical Library, 1921, Collections of the Illinois State Historical Library, vol XVI, British Series, vol III, pp 78-79 Woloch, Isser Eighteenth-Century Europe: Tradition and Progress, 17151789 New York: W.W Norton and Co., 1982 Womersley, David, ed Liberty and American Experience in the Eighteenth Century Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, 2006 INDEX Adams, John, viii, xv, xvi, xxii, xxiv, xxv, 24, 45, 48, 56, 69, 76, 77, 108, 111, 112, 147-154, 156 American Revolution, viii, xiii, xv, 27, 40, 57, 58, 71, 73, 79, 103, 113, 140, 141 Argenson, René-Louis, marquis d’, 7, 8, 11, 12 Disraeli, Benjamin, 26, 29 Dissenters, 25-27, 35-38, 41, 42, 46, 51, 52, 54, 58, 60, 72, 74 doux-commerce, xii, xiii, xxiv, 81, 90-92, 95-97, 101-103, 105, 121, 122, 125, 131-134, 137, 140 Dumont, Pierre Etienne Louis, 29, 38 Bailyn, Bernard, vii, ix, xiii, xiv, 36, 52, 53 Baker, Keith Michael, xx, xxi, 117119 Barbon, Nicholas, 78, 95 Barré, Isaac, 28, 29, 31 Beloni, Marquis, Bentham, Jeremy, 37, 38, 41 Boisguilbert, Pierre le Pesant de, 17 Bowood (Shelburne Estate), 29, 31, 37, 38, 39, 41, 51, 57, 135 Fletcher, Andrew, 78 Forster, Johann Reinhold, 42 Franklin, Benjamin, xv, xvi, xxii, 2, 7-9, 31-33, 42-49, 52, 53, 5557, 60-75, 109, 110, 116, 141, 149 free trade, xv, xvi, xix, xx-xxii, xxiv, xxv, 4, 5, 7, 11, 12, 1524, 33, 42, 47, 72, 77, 81, 82, 92, 99-101, 105, 111-113, 115, 119-125, 128-136, 139, 140, 143, 144, 147, 149, 150, 152156 French Revolution, xv, xx, xxi, 4, 24, 36, 42, 46, 49, 55, 65, 72, 106, 112, 124 Freneau, Philip, 78, 79, 103-108 Cambridge School, viii, xi, xii Campanella, Tomaso, 15, 16 Cantillon, Richard, 6, 10, 21, 22 Child, Sir Josiah, 3, 9, 10, 103 Club of Honest Whigs, 53, 55-57 Condorcet, Marquis De, xxii, 116119 cosmopolitanism, xiv, xv, xxi-xxv, 24, 29, 36, 49, 50, 108, 113, 124, 126, 138-141, 143, 145, 152-156 Crucé, Emeric, 15 Davenant, Charles, 19-21, 23, 24 Defoe, Daniel, 78-81, 122 Dickey, Laurence, ix, 5, 9, 79-81, 98, 154-156 Gilbert, Felix, ix, xiv, xxiv, 77, 109112, 153, 154 Gournay, Vincent de, 3, 4, 7-12, 117 Grenville, Thomas, 27, 45, 69, 70 Grotius, Hugo, 81, 90-95, 100, 101 Harlow, Vincent, xiv, xv, xx, xxiv, 53, 57, 70, 72, 116, 126, 135 Heckscher, Eli, xvii, 143 Helvétius, Claude Adrien, 86 Trade and Empire in the Eighteenth-Century Atlantic World Hirschman, Albert O., xii, xiii, xxiv, 82-90, 96, 101-103, 132-134, 137 Holbach, Paul-Henri, Baron d', 29 Hont, Istvan, xii, 5, 17-23, 92, 122, 138, 143 House of Commons, 27, 34, 47, 72 House of Lords, 26-28, 34, 35, 39, 43, 44, 47, 59 Hume, David, viii, xvi, xx, 2, 5-7, 18, 21-23, 38, 80, 95, 96, 102, 123, 125, 126, 142, 155 Hutchison, Terrence, xviii, xix, xxi Ingenhousz, John, 29 Isaacson, Walter, xvi, 56, 57, 60, 65, 68, 69, 72 Jefferson, Thomas, 49, 73, 75, 106 Keohane, Nannerl, 12, 16, 17 Knorr, Klaus, xvii, xviii, xx Kuhn, Thomas, x, xi laissez-faire, xix-xxii, 3, 5, 7, 9-12, 16, 17, 19, 21, 23, 49, 117, 119, 123, 124, 147 Langer, Gary, 12, 123 Laurens, Henry, 44, 45, 69 Mandeville, Bernard, xix, 85 McCulloch, John Ramsay, 96, 97, 122-136, 138-142 McCullough, David, xvi, 108 mercantilism, xvi-xxi, xxiii, 5, 8, 11, 15, 16, 21-24, 42, 57, 82, 83, 97-101, 109, 122, 125, 134136, 139, 143, 145, 147, 155, 156 Mill, James, 122 Mirabeau, Victor, Marquis de, 29, 48, 73, 74 monopoly, 10, 22, 28, 125, 129, 130, 132-134, 144, 145, 151 167 Montesquieu, Charles de Secondat, baron de, 84, 90, 91, 95, 102, 103, 123, 136 Morellet, André, 1, 3, 10, 29, 31, 32, 37, 39 Murray, Craig C., 42-49, 54-57, 6163, 65, 66, 69-75, 113, 115, 116, 119, 120, 135 Necker, Jacques, Newcome’s School, Hackney, 35, 42, 54 Pagden, Anthony, xxiii, 32, 78, 103, 142, 143 Paine, Thomas, vii, 37, 40, 48, 73, 75 Parliament, 25, 28, 34, 39, 41, 45, 47, 51, 52, 55, 56, 60, 61, 71, 72, 74, 79, 80, 115, 150 Physiocrats, 2, 10, 11, 12, 77, 116, 119, 130, 152 Pocock, J.G.A, viii-xii, xiv, 35, 51, 132, 133, 143 political economy, viii, xii, xiv-xvi, xix, xxi-xxiii, 1, 2, 5-8, 10-12, 18, 32, 41, 82, 109, 112, 119, 120, 123, 125, 152, 154, 156 Postel, Guillaume, 15, 16 Pownall, Thomas, xvi, 77, 147-149, 152, 154 Price, Richard, xxii, 36-40, 43, 46, 48, 49, 52-66, 72, 73, 75, 140, 141 Priestley, Joseph, xxii, 31, 37, 3943, 46, 48, 52-61, 63, 64, 67, 68, 72, 73, 75, 76 Quesnay, Francois, 1, 3, 4, 6, 12, 152 Raleigh, Sir Walter, 78, 104 Ricardo, David, 123 Riqueti, Victor, 29 Robbins, Caroline, 36, 51-53 168 Romilly, Sir Samuel, 29, 38, 48, 73, 74 Rush, Benjamin, 75 Shelburne, Lord, viii, xv, xx, xxii, xxiv, 25-39, 41-49, 51-53, 5557, 62, 67, 69-74, 77-79, 82, 105, 109, 110, 112-117, 119, 124, 126, 135-137, 156 Shields, David, 14, 78, 99, 100 Smith, Adam, viii, ix, xi, xiv-xxi, xxiii, xxiv, 1-7, 12, 13, 17, 24, 29-32, 35, 41, 42, 44, 57, 78, 96, 98, 102, 109, 116, 119-124, 130, 139, 143-145, 149, 150, 154-156, 165 Speck, W.A., xvi, xvii Stewart, Dugald, 1-5, 7, 8, 9, 12, 17, 30, 31, 44, 48, 119, 122-124 Sully, Duc de, 16 Temple, William, 18, 96, 97, 122 Trenchard, John, 77, 78 Tuck, Richard, 82, 83, 97, 98, 101 Index Tucker, Josiah, xvi, xix, xx, 2, 7, 10, 21-24, 57, 81, 82, 122, 15 Turgot,Anne-Robert-Jacques, Baron de, xxiii, 1, 4-6, 8-10, 12, 73, 116-119, 130, 137 Vanderlint, Jacob, xix, xx, 4, Vaughan, Benjamin, viii, xv, xxiixxv, 23-25, 41-50, 53, 54, 5658, 61, 62-66, 68-76, 82, 110, 112-117, 119, 120, 122-145, 152, 156 Viner, Jacob, xvii, xviii, xix, xx, 5, 12-15, 21, 22, 91, 93, 94, 98, 99, 101, 122, 125, 138, 139, 143-145 Warrington, Dissenters' Academy, 35, 42, 54, 56 Washington, George, 57, 58, 106 West Indies, xx, 42, 48, 71, 153 Wilkes, John, 27, 28, 55 Woloch, Isser, 33, 77, 165 Wood, Gordon, ix .. .Trade and Empire in the Eighteenth- Century Atlantic World www.ebook3000.com www.ebook3000.com Trade and Empire in the Eighteenth- Century Atlantic World By Andrew Hamilton Cambridge... by and constitute the social and discursive formations which they may sustain, resist, contest or seek to transform, depending on the case at hand.” Trade and Empire in the Eighteenth- Century Atlantic. .. significance The second half of the book reveals how Vaughan pushed the theory of liberal political economy, as developed in the context of empire, to its Trade and Empire in the Eighteenth- Century Atlantic