Transnational Labour Solidarity The book examines the integration of the European trade union movement and explores the prospects for European or transnational solidarity among workers Contrary to much existing research and despite national differences, Gajewska examines how trade unions cooperate and the forms in which this cooperation takes place Drawing on four case studies illustrating experiences of Polish, German, British, Latvian and Swedish trade unions in various sectors and workers’ representatives at a multinational company, this book investigates the conditions under which trade unions and workers formulate their interests in non-national/regional terms, and analyzes the character, limits and potentials of solidarity in a transnational context Seeking to generate a new theory of European integration of labour and to contribute to sociological approaches on the European integration and Europeanization of society, this book will be of interest to students and scholars of European politics, European integration, labour/industrial relations, trade unionism and sociology Katarzyna Gajewska is currently a postdoctoral Research Fellow at the Center for Study of Democracy (ZDEMO) at Leuphana University, Lüneburg, Germany, having completed her PhD at the University of Bremen Her articles have been published in Comparative European Politics, European Journal of Industrial Relations, and Industrial Relations Journal Routledge Advances in European Politics Russian Messianism Third Rome, revolution, Communism and after Peter J.S Duncan Ethnic Cleansing in the Balkans Nationalism and the destruction of tradition Cathie Carmichael European Integration and the Postmodern Condition Governance, democracy, identity Peter van Ham Democracy and Enlargement in Post-Communist Europe The democratisation of the general public in fifteen Central and Eastern European countries, 1991–98 Christian W Haerpfer Nationalism in Italian Politics The stories of the Northern League, 1980–2000 Damian Tambini International Intervention in the Balkans since 1995 Edited by Peter Siani-Davies 10 Private Sector Involvement in the Euro The power of ideas Stefan Collignon and Daniela Schwarzer Widening the European Union The politics of institutional change and reform Edited by Bernard Steunenberg 11 Europe A Nietzschean perspective Stefan Elbe Institutional Challenges in the European Union Edited by Madeleine Hosli, Adrian van Deemen and Mika Widgrén 12 European Union and E-Voting Addressing the European Parliament’s internet voting challenge Edited by Alexander H Trechsel and Fernando Mendez Europe Unbound Enlarging and reshaping the boundaries of the European Union Edited by Jan Zielonka 13 European Union Council Presidencies A comparative perspective Edited by Ole Elgström 14 European Governance and Supranational Institutions Making states comply Jonas Tallberg 15 European Union, NATO and Russia Martin Smith and Graham Timmins 16 Business, The State and Economic Policy The case of Italy G Grant Amyot 17 Europeanization and Transnational States Comparing Nordic central governments Bengt Jacobsson, Per Lægreid and Ove K Pedersen 18 European Union Enlargement A comparative history Edited by Wolfram Kaiser and Jürgen Elvert 19 Gibraltar British or Spanish? Peter Gold 20 Gendering Spanish Democracy Monica Threlfall, Christine Cousins and Celia Valiente 21 European Union Negotiations Processes, networks and negotiations Edited by Ole Elgström and Christer Jönsson 22 Evaluating Euro-Mediterranean Relations Stephen C Calleya 23 The Changing Face of European Identity A seven-nation study of (supra) national attachments Edited by Richard Robyn 24 Governing Europe Discourse, governmentality and European integration William Walters and Jens Henrik Haahr 25 Territory and Terror Conflicting nationalisms in the Basque country Jan Mansvelt Beck 26 Multilateralism, German Foreign Policy and Central Europe Claus Hofhansel 27 Popular Protest in East Germany Gareth Dale 28 Germany’s Foreign Policy Towards Poland and the Czech Republic Ostpolitik revisited Karl Cordell and Stefan Wolff 29 Kosovo The politics of identity and space Denisa Kostovicova 30 The Politics of European Union Enlargement Theoretical approaches Edited by Frank Schimmelfennig and Ulrich Sedelmeier 31 Europeanizing Social Democracy? The rise of the party of European socialists Simon Lightfoot 32 Conflict and Change in EU Budgetary Politics Johannes Lindner 33 Gibraltar, Identity and Empire E.G Archer 34 Governance Stories Mark Bevir and R.A.W Rhodes 35 Britain and the Balkans 1991 until the present Carole Hodge 36 The Eastern Enlargement of the European Union John O’Brennan 37 Values and Principles in European Union Foreign Policy Edited by Sonia Lucarelli and Ian Manners 38 European Union and the Making of a Wider Northern Europe Pami Aalto 45 The Europeanization of National Political Parties Power and organizational adaptation Edited by Thomas Poguntke, Nicholas Aylott, Elisabeth Carter, Robert Ladrech and Kurt Richard Luther 46 Citizenship in Nordic Welfare States Dynamics of choice, duties and participation in a changing Europe Edited by Bjørn Hvinden and Håkan Johansson 39 Democracy in the European Union Towards the emergence of a public sphere Edited by Liana Giorgi, Ingmar Von Homeyer and Wayne Parsons 47 National Parliaments within the Enlarged European Union From victims of integration to competitive actors? Edited by John O’Brennan and Tapio Raunio 40 European Union Peacebuilding and Policing Michael Merlingen with Rasa Ostrauskaite 48 Britain, Ireland and Northern Ireland since 1980 The totality of relationships Eamonn O’Kane 41 The Conservative Party and European Integration since 1945 At the heart of Europe? N.J Crowson 49 The EU and the European Security Strategy Forging a global Europe Edited by Sven Biscop and Jan Joel Andersson 42 E-Government in Europe Re-booting the state Edited by Paul G Nixon and Vassiliki N Koutrakou 43 EU Foreign and Interior Policies Cross-pillar politics and the social construction of sovereignty Stephan Stetter 44 Policy Transfer in European Union Governance Regulating the utilities Simon Bulmer, David Dolowitz, Peter Humphreys and Stephen Padgett 50 European Security and Defence Policy An implementation perspective Edited by Michael Merlingen and Rasa Ostrauskaite 51 Women and British Party Politics Descriptive, substantive and symbolic representation Sarah Childs 52 The Selection of Ministers in Europe Hiring and firing Edited by Keith Dowding and Patrick Dumont 53 Energy Security Europe’s new foreign policy challenge Richard Youngs 55 The Struggle for the European Constitution A past and future history Michael O’Neill 54 Institutional Challenges in Post-Constitutional Europe Governing change Edited by Catherine Moury and Luís de Sousa 56 Transnational Labour Solidarity Mechanisms of commitment to cooperation within the European trade union movement Katarzyna Gajewska Transnational Labour Solidarity Mechanisms of commitment to cooperation within the European trade union movement Katarzyna Gajewska First published 2009 by Routledge Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 270 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2009 To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk © 2009 Katarzyna Gajewska All rights reserved No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data A catalog record for this book has been requested ISBN 0-203-87835-3 Master e-book ISBN ISBN 978-0-415-48098-7 (hbk) ISBN 978-0-203-87835-4 (ebk) To the memory of my grandmother 216 Bibliography Visser, J and Ebbinghaus, B (1994) ‘Making the most of diversity? European integration and transnational organisation of labour’, in J Greenwood, J.R Grote and K Ronit (eds) Organised Interests and the European Community, London: SAGE Publications Wagner, A (2005) Vers une Europe syndicale ? Une enquête sur la Confédération européenne des syndicats, Bellecombe-en-Bauges: Editions du Croquant Waterman, P (1998) Globalization, Social Movements and the New Internationalisms, London: Mansel Waterman, P., Timms, J (2004) ‘Trade union internationalism and a global civil society in the making’, in M Kaldor, H Anheier and M Glasius (eds) Global Civil Society 2004/5, London: SAGE Publications Weinert, R (2005) EMF-FOCUS no 1: GME Restructuring and Framework Agreements An Example of EMF European Company Policy, Brussels: European Metalworker’s Federation Wenzel, M (2002) ‘Opinie o zwia˛ zkach zawodowych’, Centrum Badania Opinii Społecznej Online Available HTTP: (www.cbos.pl/SPISKOM.POL/2002/K_150_02 PDF) (accessed 15 March 2008) Wills, J (2000) ‘Great expectations: three years in the life of one EWC’, European Journal of Industrial Relations 6: 83–105 ——(2001) ‘Uneven geographies of capital and labour: the lessons of European Works Councils’, in P Waterman and J Wills (eds) Place, Space and the New Labour Internationalisms, Oxford/Malden: Blackwell Publishers Windolf, P (1990) ‘Productivity coalitions and the future of unionism: disintegration of generalized exchange?’, in B Marin (ed.) Governance and Generalized Exchange: Self-Organizing Policy Networks in Action, Frankfurt am Main: Campus Verlag Wintour, P (2004) ‘Blunkett urged to resist migrant crackdown’, The Guardian, 23 February Witzel, A (2000) ‘The problem-centered interview’, Forum Qualitative Social Research [Online Journal] Wolff, R (2006) ‘Gewerkschaften einig gegen GM’, die tageszeitung, 26 May Woolfson, C and Sommers J (2006) ‘Labour mobility in construction: European implications of the Laval un Partneri dispute with Swedish labour’, European Journal of Industrial Relations 12: 49–68 Wprost (2006) ‘Dyrektywa usługowa z socjalistyczna˛ twarza˛ ’, Wprost-online, 16 February Online Available HTTP: (http://wprost.pl/ar/?O=87026) (accessed February 2007) Zaremba, M (2005a) ‘The spectre drives a little car with foreign number plates; Polish-American Foundation for Economic Research and Education “Pro Publico Bono”’ (PAFERE), 10 November Online Available HTTP: (www.kapitalizm.republika pl/pafere/zaremba.html) (accessed February 2007) ——(2005b) ‘Jak Szwedzi Łotyszy szanuja˛ ’, Gazeta Wyborcza, 30 December Zeuner, B., Gester, J and Fichter, M (2007) Gewerkschaften und Rechtsextremismus, Münster: Westfälisches Dampfboot Zoll, R (1996) ‘Modernization, trade unions and solidarity’, in P Leisink, J Van Leemput and J Vilrokx (eds) The Challenges to Trade Unions in Europe: Innovation or Adaptation, Cheltenham: Edward Edgar ——(2000) Was ist Solidarität heute?, Frankfurt/Main: Suhrkamp Index action 106–32, 180; collective action 106–7; interaction 124–27; learning process and critical juncture 129–31; path dependency 107; ritual and identity 127–29; solidarity as action 4, 5, 7, 19, 30, 33, 50; structure/action 30, 34, 37, 138; transnational solidarity 15, 18–19, 25, 27; see also collective action; interaction; transnational solidarity actors: choices 4, 25, 26, 50, 163, 170; collective action 39, 41, 42, 43, 45, 46; European integration 13; interaction 14, 112, 127, 193; rational choice theory 31, 32, 35, 50, 194; reciprocity 149, 150, 153, 156, 157; solidarity 43, 180; structure/actors relation 27, 79, 163, 180, 183; transnational solidarity 14, 18, 25, 27, 30–31, 48–49, 193; see also collective action; interaction; transnational solidarity agency 40–41; agency/structure relation 13, 25, 27; see also actors agreements, legislation, regulation, treaties 17, 193, 196; agreements 17, 60, 65–66, 197; biding/non-biding agreements 6, 17, 156, 160, 171, 193; collective agreements 137; European 17, 138, 169, 199; European antidiscrimination law 68, 69; European Court of Justice (ECJ) 65, 196; free labour movement 63; labour law 56, 138; Laval case 65–66, 68–69, 70, 121, 182; Maastricht Treaty 166–67; market regulation 164, 178; multinational company, cooperation among representatives 72, 73, 75, 76, 90, 121–23, 154, 160, 182, 199; national level 17; Polish labour market 137; Service Directive, liberal version 51–59; Single European Act 61, 166; strike 75, 77, 154; Sweden 64–66, 67, 75; trade union 156; transnational solidarity 15; Treaty of Rome 165–66; Treaty on the European Union 65, 167, 171, 196, 199; United Kingdom 198; wage 149; working time 17, 76, 168, 193 Austria 37, 60, 194, 199; free labour movement 61; see also trade union bargaining 71, 90, 137, 175, 192, 193, 197; collective 10, 15, 65, 76, 85, 89–90, 137, 166, 167–68, 170, 186; concession bargaining 73, 74, 75, 78, 90, 93, 122, 139, 152, 160; interaction 112, 124, 131; Sweden 65–66, 172; transnational solidarity 15; wage 71, 78, 85; see also trade union Belgium 10, 148; cooperation among representatives of a multinational company 23, 70–78, 143 behaviour 4, 25; change of 13, 27; competitive 71, 72, 163; cooperative 163, 183; norms 198; reciprocity 133, 134, 149, 150, 151, 156–57, 159–61, 183, 186; solidaristic behaviour 4, 5, 19, 30–49, 50, 179, 181, 182, 194; structure/actors 27, 79, 163, 180, 183; trade union 13, 15, 20, 85, 86, 130, 163, 183; transnational solidarity 17; see also reciprocity; solidarity; trade union Bieler, A.: Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) 168–69, 185; European cooperation 9, 168–69, 170, 171, 178, 185, 186; trade union, national level 38, 168–69, 172, 178, 185, 186 218 Index capital 71, 137–38, 142, 170, 184; capital mobility 2, 59, 142, 143, 145, 161, 171, 172, 178, 183, 188; strategies 171; see also labour; market; market integration/trade union reaction capitalism 8, 135, 143, 164; Poland 116, 175, 176, 192, 199; values 16 case studies 22–24, 48, 50–79; case study method 4, 7, 18, 20–29; cooperation among representatives of a multinational company 3, 5, 22, 23, 28, 48, 50, 70–79, 88–95, 101–2, 105, 109, 113–14, 116, 119, 121–23, 129–30, 131, 135–36, 139, 143, 147, 147, 152, 154, 158–60, 171, 173, 174, 182, 197, 198, 199; Laval case 3, 5, 17, 22, 23, 48, 50, 64–70, 78–79, 105, 113, 119–21, 173, 181, 182, 188, 196; Polish-German trade union cooperation 3, 5, 22, 23, 48, 50, 59–64, 78–79, 103–4, 105, 116–17, 157, 181, 195, 196; Polish participation in European demonstrations against the Service Directive 2–3, 5, 22, 23, 48, 50, 51–59, 62, 63, 78–79, 82–88, 95, 96–100, 105, 108–9, 113, 139, 140, 143–44, 148–49, 150–53, 155, 157, 171, 173, 177, 180–81, 188, 194, 196; see also method citizenship: European 52, 96 civil society 46, 58, 107 class 141; class-based conflict/ location-based competition 16, 70, 93; class consciousness 11, 18; coalitions 8, 11, 71; conflict 16, 67, 70, 71, 128; interests 8–9, 13, 67, 70, 192; Poland 188, 199; see also competition collective action 39–44, 95, 106–7, 155, 179; actors 39, 41, 42, 43, 45, 46; as ritual 127–29, 131; commitment 153, 154, 158; communication 95–104, 112; framing 45–47, 96–104, 194; interaction 49, 106, 111–12; Laval case 65; learning process and critical juncture 129–31; mesomobilization 45–46, 47, 48–49, 82–84; micromobilization model 39–44, 45, 48–49, 112, 118; motivations 42; multinational company, cooperation among representatives 78; selfreinforcing process 43–44, 106, 131–32, 153, 155–56; trade union 80; see also action; interaction; mobilization; solidarity; trade union commitment 18, 117, 128, 131; collective action 153, 154, 158; principle of membership 157, 158–59; showing 151–52, 153, 158; solidarity 5, 19, 39, 86, 106; see also collective action; reciprocity; solidarity communication 117–27; building trust and solving problems 119–23, 127; collective action 95–104, 112; cooperation 117; interaction 111, 117; Internet 84, 111; networking 89, 111; persuasion 112–14; trade union 118; trade union, vertical dimension 95–104, 105; see also collective action; interaction Communism 10, 108, 110, 145, 176, 194; Communist Manifesto 144; Marx, Karl 18, 144; post-Communist Poland 10, 11, 52, 59, 144, 176, 184, 194; post-Communist trade unions 10, 113, 114, 117, 144 competition 1, 2, 3, 4, 134–41; competition/solidarity tension 135–36; competitive pressure 1, 8, 16, 21, 134, 141, 167, 182, 193; competitiveness 22, 24, 48, 57; cooperation among representatives of a multinational company 3, 5, 22, 23, 28, 48, 50, 70–79, 88–95, 101–2, 105, 109, 113–14, 116, 119, 121–23, 129, 135–36, 139, 143, 147, 152, 158–59, 173, 174, 182, 197, 198, 199; interests 133–41; limits 134; location competition 16, 75, 91, 111, 128, 135, 159, 163; market expansion 35–36, 38; opening of borders 134–35; play workers off 38, 72, 97, 114, 124, 138, 144, 171, 181, 182, 187; Poland 22, 24, 48, 57; solidarity 6, 16, 19, 21, 133–62, 182–83; trade union 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 16, 17, 21, 22, 37, 38, 48, 49, 63, 91, 98, 111, 124, 167; transnational competition 36; transnational solidarity 16, 19, 21, 24, 72, 111, 179, 182–83; unfair competition 96–100, 103, 130; see also competitive solidarity; solidarity; transnational solidarity competitive solidarity 8, 12, 24, 30, 35, 141, 163, 183, 192; as alternative to transnational solidarity 2–4, 35, 48, 50, 59, 64; identification 40; Laval case 24, 67; rational choice theory 184; Service Directive, liberal version Index 57–58, 59, 97; solidarity 8, 12, 16, 24, 30, 35, 37, 48, 134, 141, 192; Streeck, W 16, 37, 48, 134, 141; trade union 8, 12, 16, 24, 30, 35, 37, 48, 51–52, 57–58, 59, 64, 97, 134, 141, 192; see also competition; solidarity; trade union; transnational solidarity construction sector 86, 177, 181; Budowlani 59–60, 61, 62, 86–87, 115, 136, 137, 141, 142, 177, 195; Building and Wood Workers’ International (BWI) 60, 197; Byggnads (Swedish Building Workers’ Union) 64, 66, 68, 69–70, 120–21, 137–38, 146, 154–55; exploitation 17; German Union for Construction, Agriculture and Environment (IG BAU) 61, 62; Germany 23, 48, 59, 61, 62, 103, 174, 195, 198; European Federation of Building and Wood Workers (EFBWW) 49, 60, 197; free labour movement 17, 22, 23, 48, 59; International Federation of Building and Wood Workers (IFBWW) 196; Laval case 64–70; Nordic Federation of Building and Wood Workers (NFBWW) 60; Poland 23, 48, 59, 64, 195; Polish-German trade union cooperation 3, 5, 22, 23, 48, 50, 59–64, 78–79, 103–4, 105, 116–17, 157, 181, 195, 196; posted workers 195; Service Directive, liberal version 58, 86; subcontracting 17; unemployment 62; Union of Construction, Allied Trades and Technicians (UCATT) 104; United Kingdom 196; see also trade union; transnational solidarity constructivism: Europeanization 112; interaction 110, 112–13; interaction-action 124–27; social constructivism 13, 14, 31, 110, 112, 124–27, 131, 198; solidarity framing 133 contracting 1, 193; subcontracting 1, 17 cooperation 2, 3–4, 169–78; communication 117, 158; grand theory of societal reaction to market expansion 2, 5, 6, 30, 35–39; horizontal dimension 5, 106–32; intra-regional/transatlantic 192; learning process and critical juncture 129–31; motivations 3, 6, 128, 135; network 13, 43, 44, 45, 82, 107, 126, 180; obstacles for 2, 3, 7–12, 14, 24, 27, 71, 114–15, 180; organizational structures 106, 107–10, 131, 133, 163, 219 181; path dependency 3, 5, 70; reciprocity 5; ties 117–27, 148, 182; trade union 2, 3, 6, 38, 39, 49, 59–60, 61, 63–64, 109, 111, 117–27, 131, 163, 164, 169–78, 192, 196, 197, 199; trust 63, 109, 110, 117–27, 157, 160, 181; vertical dimension 5, 47, 78, 79, 80–105; see also interaction; interest; market integration/trade union reaction; solidarity; trade union, vertical dimension; transnational solidarity corporatism 97, 103, 167; northern corporatism 71, 192 decision making 126, 163; European integration 112, 125; European Union 193; horizontalism 126; process 30–49; solidarity 4, 6, 39, 117; trade union 19, 117, 124, 170, 193; verticalism 126; see also interaction; mechanism approach; policy deliberative politics: interaction 110, 112–14, 125–26 demonstration 128; France 87; Laval case 64; multinational company, cooperation among representatives 73; pan-European action day 148, 199; Polish participation in European demonstrations against the Service Directive 5, 22, 32, 50, 51–59, 62, 63, 82–88, 96, 97, 148, 194; United Kingdom 87; see also collective action; interaction Denmark 60, 66, 166–67, 171, 195 difference: interaction 114–17, 147–48, 157, 182; obstacles for transnational solidarity 8, 9–10, 12, 14, 15, 18–19, 21, 23, 24, 27, 28, 42, 71–72, 106, 111, 114–16, 124–25, 127, 131, 147–49, 174, 175, 182, 199; solidarity 39–40, 42, 174, 194; solidarity and differences 147–49, 182, 189; see also cooperation; identity; trade union; transnational solidarity Dølvik, J.E.: European Trade Union Confederation (ETUC) 165–66, 167, 185, 199; Europeanization 12–13, 165–66, 167, 168; informal institutions 186; trade union 165–66, 168, 185, 186, 199 Durkheim, É 14; competition 134; interaction 126; mechanical solidarity 8, 42, 134; moral rules 41–42; solidarity 41–42, 149 220 Index Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) 1, 166, 168–69, 185 employer 9, 38–39, 193, 197; exploitation 104, 198; Laval case 66, 68; Polish-German trade union cooperation 61; Service Directive, liberal version 55, 140; union-employers relation 10, 16, 192 employment 76, 159, 166, 171; illegal 62, 95, 101, 103, 195; redundancies 37, 72, 73, 75, 89, 93, 101, 121, 154, 159, 192; self-employment 57, 62; unemployment 62, 75, 116; see also employer; labour; worker Europe: Central and Eastern Europe (CEE) 61, 103, 108, 110, 195, 198; Eastern Europe 38; Western Europe 37, 192; see also European integration; European Union European Federation of Building and Wood Workers (EFBWW) 60, 86; mesomobilization actor 49 European Federation of Food, Agriculture and Tourism Trade Unions (EFFAT) 83, 85, 144, 146 European Industry Federations (EIFs) 17; cooperation 108; mesomobilization actor 49, 82, 83; Service Directive, liberal version 82, 83, 85, 147 European integration 4, 7, 12–14, 18, 35, 68, 165–79, 183, 186–89, 193; economic integration 12, 68, 165–66, 189; European citizenship 52, 96; European Social Model, Social Europe 97–100, 145, 148, 175, 177–78; European trade union movement 1, 6, 8, 13, 36–37, 38, 39, 49, 80, 109, 110–17, 156, 163–79, 180, 184, 186–89, 199; European Works Councils (EWC) 109; free labour movement 195–96; free market 35–36, 51; Haas, E.B 12, 36, 165; inequalities between countries 11, 187–88; interaction 110, 112; labour 2, 8, 12–14, 15, 18, 25–26, 31, 179; market integration 2, 6, 35, 38, 49, 165–79; periodization 164, 165–79 (first phase: beginning of European integration 164, 165–66; second phase: Maastricht Treaty and following developments 164, 166–69; third phase: post-functionalist market transformation 164, 169–78); political 13; social 12, 68, 179, 180; vertical dimension 49, 184; see also cooperation; identity; Europeanization; market integration/ trade union reaction; solidarity; trade union; transnational solidarity European Metalworkers’ Federation (EMF) 92, 110; multinational company, cooperation among representatives 74, 75, 76, 77, 85, 91, 92, 105; mesomobilization actor 49; organizational belonging 85 European Trade Union Committee for Education (ETUCE): Service Directive, liberal version 83–84, 85 European Trade Union Confederation (ETUC) 2, 11, 49, 96, 106, 108, 193, 197, 198; All Poland Alliance of Trade Unions (OPZZ) 194; Dølvik, J.E 165–66, 185, 199; European Social Model, Social Europe 97–100; free labour movement 61; history 165–66, 199; Independent and Self-Governing Trade Union Solidarnos´c´ (NSZZ olidarnos´c´) 194; interaction 198–99; market integration/trade union reaction 165–67, 170, 174, 175, 199; mesomobilization actor 82–84, 87, 96; pan-European action day 148, 199; Service Directive, liberal version 53, 58, 82–84, 87, 96–100; trade union, vertical dimension 81, 82–84, 87, 95, 96–100; unfair competition 96–100; see also European Union; trade union European Studies 6, 12, 189, 193 European Union 4, 108; criticism 177–78, 193; decision making 57, 87, 193; enlargement 1, 9, 38, 51, 58, 59, 61, 64, 72, 94, 110, 148–49, 153, 181, 195, 199; European anti-discrimination law 68, 69; European Commission 8, 52–53, 54, 56, 58, 61, 66, 166, 171, 198; European Council 52, 53; European Court of Justice (ECJ) 65, 196; European Employee Forum (EEF) 72, 73, 75, 92, 119; European Parliament 51, 53–54, 56, 75, 115, 188, 194; European Single Market 61, 66, 72, 166; identity 145–46; Lisbon strategy 52, 171; old/new member states 9, 17, 38, 51, 52, 58, 61, 64, 65, 67, 98, 108, 148; Party of European Socialists (PES) 51, 53, 54, 55–56; policy 82, 105, 112, 166, 167, 171, Index 199; Service Directive 2–3, 24, 48, 50–59, 62, 63, 82–88, 95, 96–100, 164, 171, 173, 177, 194; Single European Act 61, 166; trade union 2, 12, 25, 31, 49, 80, 80–105, 108, 188, 192, 193, 198; Treaty on the European Union 65, 167, 171, 196, 199; see also Europe; European integration; Europeanization; trade union European Works Councils (EWC) 14, 50, 81, 106, 129, 146, 158, 168, 197; Euro-democratic strategy 111; Euro-technocratic strategy 111; European integration 109; horizontal mobilization 106, 107, 109; interaction 110–11; multinational company, cooperation among representatives 70, 71, 72, 74, 76, 78, 87, 91–92, 109, 119, 125, 197; trade union, vertical dimension 81, 87, 88, 91–92, 105 Europeanization 4, 7, 12–14, 49, 183, 184, 188; constructivism 112, 125, 131, 133; cooperation 49; deliberative politics 110, 112–14; Dølvik, J.E 12–13, 165–66, 167, 168; European identity 18, 81, 96, 112, 117, 142, 145–46, 187, 188–89, 193–94; European Social Model, Social Europe 97–100, 145, 148, 175, 177–78; functionalism-institutionalism 12, 13–14, 19, 25, 112, 131, 164 (argumentative communication 13–14, 112, 125); globalization 133; interaction 5, 43, 44, 110, 112–17, 181–82; intergovernmentalism 12–13, 112, 131, 166; labour 12–14, 15, 18, 25–26, 31; levels of analysis 12, 193 (European 12, 13, 193; national 12, 13, 193; spheres of interaction 14, 193); social constructivism 13, 14; sociological approaches 180, 183–84, 193–94; sustainability of action 18; theories 7, 8, 12–14, 26, 43, 44, 112, 114, 180, 183–84, 193–94; trade unionism 10, 12, 47, 49, 80–105, 193, 197; see also European integration; European Union; interaction Fantasia, R.: case study method 18; collective action 44; ‘cultures of solidarity’ 19, 44, 128; solidarity 15–16, 19; sustainability of action 18 framing: collective action 45–47, 96–104, 194; multinational company, 221 cooperation among representatives 101–3; Service Directive 95, 96–100, 102, 103, 113, 148; solidarity 31–33, 42, 43, 48–49, 133–62, 182–83, 194, 198; transnational solidarity 6, 31–33, 96–103, 105, 133–62, 182–83, 198; see also media France 166, 199; demonstration 87; Service Directive 54, 56, 148; trade union 38, 60, 86–87, 97, 98, 111, 166, 198–99; see also trade union functionalism: functionalisminstitutionalism 12, 13–14, 19, 25, 112, 125, 131, 164; functionalist phase of market integration 164, 165–69; Haas, E.B 12, 36, 165; neofunctionalist mode of integration 164; Polányi, K 36; post-functionalist market transformation 164, 169–78; post-functionalist mode of integration 164; see also Europeanization Germany 170, 199; construction sector 23, 48, 59, 61, 62, 142, 174, 195; cooperation among representatives of a multinational company 23, 70–78, 90, 121–22, 147, 174, 197, 198; European cooperation 171, 174–75, 178; free labour movement 59, 61, 63, 98, 157; German Metalworkers’ Union (IG Metall) 76, 77, 90, 93–94, 160, 167–68, 170, 174, 186, 197; German Trade Union Confederation (DGB) 58, 61–62, 63, 94, 108–9, 116–17, 157, 165, 167, 168, 174, 196, 198–99; German Union for Construction, Agriculture and Environment (IG BAU) 61, 62, 63, 94–95, 103, 104, 174, 195, 198; interest representation system 92–95, 122, 146, 197–98; NordrheinWestfalen 10; Polish-German trade union cooperation 3, 5, 22, 23, 48, 50, 59–64, 78–79, 103–4, 105, 116–17, 157, 181, 195, 196; posted workers 195; protectionism 59; reciprocity 157; right-wing ideology 11, 62, 116, 198; state 38; trade union 9, 11, 24, 38, 48, 56, 61–62, 63, 70, 86, 107, 111, 151, 164, 168, 188, 196, 197, 198 (membership, shifting 60); see also market integration/trade union reaction; trade union; transnational solidarity globalization 71, 122, 176–77; Europeanization 133; free market 222 Index 35–36; grand theory of societal reaction to market expansion 35–39; Service Directive, liberal version 57, 58; solidarity 22, 193; see also European integration Gouldner, A.W 25; reciprocity 25, 149, 151, 161; see also reciprocity government 11; intergovernmentalism 12–13, 112, 131, 166; Latvia 66; Poland 54–56, 57, 58, 177; United Kingdom 177, 200; see also state Haas, E.B 12, 36, 165 Hungary 54, 58, 60, 62 Hyman, R.: solidarity 16, 194 (types 39–40); trade union 10, 11, 13 identity 18–19, 183, 188–89; collective 18, 111–12; dual identities 146–47; European identity 18, 81, 96, 112, 117, 142, 145–46, 187, 188–89, 193–94; identification 6, 32, 39, 40, 42, 48, 49, 127–29, 141–49, 158, 170, 189, 194; interaction 111–12, 127–29; interests and identification 141, 142–44, 161, 187; organizational belonging 84–86, 87, 103–4, 113, 141, 144–45, 158, 160; ritual and identity 127–29; solidarity 33, 39, 40, 48, 49, 133, 141–49, 194; static 18; trade union 8, 13, 42, 84–86, 87, 97, 103–4, 113, 192; transnational solidarity 40, 84–86, 97, 103–4, 141–49, 169; see also collective action; difference; European integration; solidarity; transnational solidarity industrial relations 9, 15, 70, 71, 87, 88, 97, 137, 156–57, 164, 167, 168, 170, 181, 192; Anglo-Saxon pluralism 71, 192; central social partnership 71, 192; Latin confrontationalism 192; northern corporatism 71, 192; Sweden 71, 154, 170, 196; trade union 9, 167, 192, 196; United Kingdom 24, 71 institution, institutionalization 16, 179; European integration 36, 168; free market 35–36; informal institutions 3, 49, 81, 127, 161, 180, 186; social institution 156; solidarity 86, 179; state 37–38; trade union 3, 16, 37–38, 49, 81, 86, 161–62, 168, 180, 186, 199; see also structure, structural factors; trade union, vertical dimension interaction 13, 14, 106–32, 143, 158, 181–82, 184, 198–99; action 127–31 (learning process and critical juncture 129–31; ritual and identity 127–29, 131); actors 14, 112, 127, 193; arguing 112–14, 125–26, 131, 182; as transformational mechanism 43–44, 49, 106–32, 181; collective action 49, 106, 111–12; communication 117–27, 158; deliberative politics 110, 112–14, 125–26, 131; Durkheim, É 126; effects 111–12; European integration 110, 112; European Works Councils (EWC) 110–11; Europeanization 5, 43, 44, 110, 112, 181–82; identity 111–12, 127–29; interaction-action 124–27; meetings 82, 108–10, 118, 119, 124, 126, 127, 129, 198; networking 40, 111; organizational structures 5, 14, 106, 107–10, 131, 181; path-dependency 130–31, 132; persuasion 112–14, 125–26, 131, 182; reciprocity 41–42; role and character 110–17, 118, 131 (as process of learning 112–14, 124; seeing differences 114–17, 147–48, 158); social ties 21, 43, 114, 117–27, 130, 131, 182, 198–99; solidarity 43, 181; trade union 5, 45, 88–89, 91, 94, 111, 179, 184; transnational solidarity 14, 19, 21, 40, 91, 94, 95, 105, 110–18, 131; trust 110, 117–27, 130–31, 181; vertical/horizontal interaction 117, 125–27; see also collective action; cooperation; transnational solidarity interest 4, 18, 112, 134–41, 161, 169, 181, 184, 189, 198; class 8–9, 13, 67, 70, 192; common interests 39, 40–41, 43, 48, 49, 124, 133, 137, 141, 149, 187, 188; competition 133, 134–41; contradicting interests 8–9, 11–12, 14, 18, 78–79, 109, 192; differing 1, 2, 3, 4, 114–15; disarticulation of interests in trade union and representation structures 92–95, 105; interdependence 14, 102, 133, 142, 149, 160, 161, 188; interdependence and local interests 136–39; interests and identification 141, 142–44, 161, 187, 189; interest formulation 22, 25, 31, 89, 92, 102, 149, 194; interest representation 1, 5, 28, 37–39, 80, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92–95, 100, 103, 105, 106, 146, 166, 168, 169, 170, 175, 178, 182, 197; long-term/short-term interests 139–41, 159, 161; self-interest 40, Index 41–43, 136–37, 142, 149, 152, 161; Service Directive: construction of Polish national interest in the press 56–58; solidarity 2, 3, 8–9, 13, 32–33, 39, 48, 49, 133, 136–41, 169, 189; trade union 13, 22, 66, 89, 134–41, 149, 184; see also class; cooperation; identity; trade union; transnational solidarity International Confederation of Free Trade Unions (ICFTU) 11, 165, 194; European Regional Organization of the ICFTU 165 Interregional Trade Union Council (ITUC) 63, 105, 196; horizontal mobilization 107, 108 Ireland 54, 197 Italy 11, 148, 166 labour 170, 184; competition 2; European integration 2, 8, 12–14, 15, 18, 25–26, 31, 179; free labour movement 9, 17, 22, 23, 48, 50, 51, 59, 61–63, 66, 98, 115, 136, 145, 148–49, 157, 195–96 (European Trade Union Confederation (ETUC) 61); harmonization principle 52, 68, 69, 98, 100, 174; integration 2, 8, 15, 18, 168; labour market 16, 62, 67, 98, 115, 134, 136–37, 142–43, 148, 160, 161, 181; standards 1, 22, 51, 52, 57, 58, 63, 87, 97, 101, 140, 144, 146; see also capital; employment; European integration; trade union; worker Latvia: agreements 65–66, 68–69, 70, 121, 157, 182; competitive solidarity 24, 67; demonstration 64; free labour movement 66; Free Trade Union Confederation of Latvia (LBAS) 68–69, 120, 121, 144–45, 197; government 66; Laval case 3, 5, 17, 22, 23, 48, 50, 64–70, 78–79, 105, 119–21, 173, 181, 182, 188, 196 (communication: building trust and solving problems 119–21, 127; impact on cooperation between Swedish and Latvian trade unions 68–70, 173, 197; political dimension and public debate 66–68, 196); Latvian Trade Union of Construction Workers (LCA) 69, 70, 113, 119–20, 197; media 64, 66–67, 68, 119–21, 188, 196; path dependency 130; reciprocity 157; trade union 113, 121, 144; see also trade union; transnational solidarity 223 lobbying 63, 92; Laval case 67; Service Directive, liberal version 87; trade union 17, 87 management 71; co-management culture 23, 24, 92, 197; multinational company, cooperation among representatives 71–78, 92–95, 101, 102, 123, 139–40, 158–59, 197, 199; Poland 195; see also multinational company, cooperation among representatives market: Common Market 165; grand theory of societal reaction to market expansion 2, 5, 6, 30, 35–39, 48; labour market 16, 62, 67, 98, 115, 134, 136–37, 142–43, 148, 160, 161, 181; liberalization 22, 35–36, 38, 50, 51, 53, 57, 176–78, 183, 188; Poland 22, 38, 51, 53, 57, 176–77; Polányi, K 2, 5, 6, 30, 35–39, 48; trade union 1, 2, 6, 35, 48, 49, 66, 183; transnational solidarity 6, 35, 168, 179, 183, 184, 189; see also market integration/trade union reaction; mechanism approach; Polányi, K.; trade union; transnational solidarity market integration/trade union reaction 1, 2, 6, 35–39, 48, 49, 132, 142–43, 162, 163–79, 183, 189; 1950s-mid 1970s: beginning of European integration 164, 165–66 (Treaty of Rome 165–66); 1970s-mid 1990s: Maastricht Treaty and following developments 164, 165, 166–69 (Maastricht Treaty 166–67; Single European Act 166; Treaty on the European Union 167, 171); 1990s onwards: post-functionalist market transformation 164, 169–78; change at the national level of trade unions 169–78; European Trade Union Confederation (ETUC) 165–67, 170, 174, 175, 199; Germany 171, 174–75, 178; market expansion 6, 35, 168, 171, 178, 179, 183, 184, 189; market regulation 164, 178; market transformation 37, 164, 169, 173, 181; neo-functionalist mode of integration 164; Nordic trade unions 168, 170, 178; Poland 171, 175–77, 178, 179; Polányi, K 165, 175, 178, 179, 183, 184; post-functionalist mode of integration 164, 169–78; Sweden 224 Index 171–74, 178–79; United Kingdom 171, 177–78; see also European integration; market; Polányi, K.; trade union; transnational solidarity Marx, Karl 18, 144 McAdam, D 39–4, 45–46; micromobilization model 39–44; see also mobilization Meardi, G.: East/West divide 9, 10, 185–86, 188, 193; Italian/Polish comparison 11, 185 mechanism approach 5, 24, 30–49, 163, 179, 180, 181, 185–86, 194; action formation mechanisms 31, 33–34, 39–43, 49, 79, 138; advantages 34–35; analysis of mechanisms 24–26, 27, 29; macro-micro-macro mechanisms 5, 30, 33, 34, 43, 48, 49; situational mechanisms 30, 31, 33, 34, 35–39, 42, 44, 49, 79, 138, 163–79, 189; transformational mechanisms 30–31, 34, 43–45, 49, 79, 106–32, 181; see also market; trade union; transnational solidarity media 24, 46, 89, 188; Latvia 66–67, 196; Laval case 64, 66–68, 119–21, 188, 196; multinational company, cooperation among representatives 122–23; Poland 48, 54, 55, 56–58, 82, 83, 97–99, 102, 139, 140, 156, 176, 188, 194, 198; Service Directive, liberal version 48, 54, 55, 56–58, 97–99, 102, 139, 140, 188, 194; Sweden 67–68, 196 metalworking sector 10, 77, 174; European Metalworkers’ Federation (EMF) 49, 74, 75, 76, 77, 85, 91, 92, 105, 110; German Metalworkers’ Union (IG Metall) 76, 77, 90, 93–94, 160, 167–68, 170, 174, 186, 197; interaction 110–11; Swedish Metal Workers’ Trade Union (IF Metall) 75, 90, 92, 125, 130, 135, 160; see also multinational company, cooperation among representatives method 185–86; analytic narrative 5, 26; case selection 20–21, 22–24, 26–27, 29 (crucial case 20–21, 22, 24, 27); case study method 4, 7, 18, 20–29; data 7, 26, 27–29; epistemology 7, 24; generalizability 4, 7, 20, 24–27, 29, 50 (model-based research 26; regularity of mechanisms 24–26; representativeness of cases 7, 26–27); interview method 7, 26, 27–29, 190–91; model 12, 26, 27, 29; relational approach 24–25, 194; substantialist approach 24, 25, 194; survey method 18; see also case studies migration 86, 104, 107, 108, 136, 148–49, 157, 174; discrimination 55; free labour movement 59, 62, 63; migrant trade union 63, 115; migrant workers 16–17, 55, 59–60, 69, 101, 104, 136, 142, 148, 149, 196; see also labour; worker meetings 82, 108–10, 118, 119, 124, 126, 127, 129, 198; see also collective action; interaction mobilization 4, 18, 32, 39–49, 80–82, 93, 101–2, 105, 118, 126, 129, 180, 187; horizontal mobilization 106, 107–10; mesomobilization 45–46, 47, 48–49, 82–84; mesomobilization actor 49, 82–84, 87, 96; micromobilization model 26, 39–44, 45, 48–49, 112, 118, 149; vertical/horizontal 117, 125–27; vertical mobilization 5, 31, 45–46, 47, 48–49, 59, 80, 81, 82–84, 87, 197; see also collective action; interaction multinational company, cooperation among representatives 3, 5, 22, 23, 28, 48, 50, 70–79, 88–95, 101–2, 105, 109, 113–14, 116, 119, 121–23, 129–30, 131, 135–36, 139, 143, 147, 147, 152, 154, 158–60, 171, 173, 174, 182, 197, 198, 199; 2000–2001: different interests and collective action 73–74; 2004: ‘beauty contests’ and the development of coordination 74–76; 2005: Delta Solidarity Pledge 76–78; agreements 72, 73, 75, 76, 90, 121–23, 160, 182; beginnings of cooperation: competition trap 72; Belgium 23, 70–78, 143; commitment 158–59; communication: building trust and solving problems 121–23, 127; competition 70–79; competition/ solidarity tension 135–36; concession 73, 74, 75, 78, 90, 93, 122, 139, 152, 160; Delta Group cooperation 72, 75, 76–78, 92, 113–14, 119, 121, 122, 123, 129, 135, 139, 143, 147, 152, 154, 158; demonstrations 73; dual identities 147; European Employee Forum (EEF) 72, 73, 75, 92, 119; European Metalworkers’ Federation (EMF) 74, Index 75, 76, 77, 85, 91, 92, 105; European Works Councils (EWC) 70, 71, 72, 74, 76, 78, 87, 91–92, 109, 119, 125, 197; framing 101–3; General Motors Europe (GM Europe) 70–78, 91–95, 101, 143; Germany 23, 70–78, 90, 121–22, 147, 174, 197, 198; identification 143; interdependence 139; location competition 74–75; management 71–78, 92–95, 101, 102, 123, 139–40, 158–59, 197, 199; media 122–23; negotiation 72, 73, 75–78, 121, 147, 181; outsourcing 139, 147; plant closure 73, 74, 75, 77, 78, 90–91, 101; Poland 23, 70–78, 89–90, 91, 101, 113–14, 116, 129, 139–40, 152–53, 157, 158–59, 197, 199; publications 28; reciprocity 152, 154, 158–60; redundancies 72, 73, 75, 89, 93, 101, 121, 159; solidarity 73, 75, 78; strike 70, 73, 75, 76, 77, 78, 89, 93; Sweden 23, 70–78, 92; United Kingdom 23, 70–78, 89, 90, 91, 101–2, 129–30, 198; wage 72, 74, 76, 78, 116, 135, 136, 159; see also trade union multinational corporations (MNCs) 57, 58 neoliberalism 35–36, 71, 199 Netherlands 10, 54, 195 network, networking 33, 189; communication 89, 111; cooperation 13, 43, 44, 45, 82, 107, 126, 180; interaction 40, 111; trade union 60, 85, 109, 146, 189, 193, 197; see also cooperation; trade union; transnational solidarity North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) 189 path dependency 2, 8, 9–10, 19; action 107; as way to transnational cooperation 44, 130–31, 132; Laval case 130, 131; new 130–31, 132; obstacle for cooperation 3, 5, 70; transnational solidarity 3, 5, 8, 9–10, 12, 19, 70, 107, 130–31, 132, 182; types of national trade unionism 10; see also cooperation; trade union; transnational solidarity Poland 192–93; agreements 17, 60; All Poland Alliance of Trade Unions (OPZZ) 51, 82, 83, 96, 97–100, 103, 176, 194, 195, 197; Budowlani 59–60, 225 61, 62, 86–87, 115, 136, 137, 141, 142, 177, 195; capitalism 116, 175, 176, 192, 199; competitiveness 22, 24, 48, 57; cooperation among representatives of a multinational company 23, 70–78, 89–90, 91, 101, 113–14, 116, 129, 139–40, 152–53, 157, 158–59, 197, 199; European cooperation 171, 175–77, 178, 179; free labour movement 61, 62, 115, 148–49, 157; government 54–56, 57, 58, 177; Independent and SelfGoverning Trade Union Solidarnos´c´ (NSZZ Solidarnos´c´) 10, 51, 58, 61, 63, 74, 83–84, 85, 96, 97–100, 101, 102–3, 104, 108–9, 115, 116, 118, 119, 124, 128, 130, 140, 144, 145, 146–47, 148–49, 150–52, 155, 175–77, 192, 194, 195, 196, 197; labour market 137; market liberalization 22, 38, 51, 53, 57, 176–77; media 48, 54, 55, 56–58, 82, 83, 97–99, 102, 139, 140, 156, 176, 188, 194, 198; PolishGerman trade union cooperation 3, 5, 22, 23, 48, 50, 59–64, 78–79, 103–4, 116–17, 181, 195, 196; Polish Miners’ Union (ZZG) 84, 85, 140, 144, 146–47, 151, 156; Polish participation in European demonstrations against the Service Directive 2–3, 5, 22, 23, 50, 51–59, 62, 63, 78–79, 82–88, 95, 96–100, 105, 108–9, 113, 139, 143–44, 148–49, 150–53, 155, 157, 171, 177, 180–81, 188, 194, 196 (construction of Polish national interest in the press 56–58, 59, 139, 140; framing of the Service Directive 95, 96–100, 102, 103, 113, 148; history of and debate over the Service Directive 52–54; mesomobilization 82–84, 197; organizational belonging 84–86; Polish political actors 54–56; reverse effect of organizational belonging 86–88; trade unions and the Service Directive 58–59); ‘Polish plumber’ 57, 67, 173; Polish Teachers’ Union (ZNP) 83, 85, 140, 148, 151, 153; post-Communism 10, 11, 52, 59, 144, 176, 184, 194; reciprocity 150–53, 155, 157; Sweden 60, 70, 195; trade union 24, 38, 48, 51–59, 62, 74, 85, 86, 89–90, 110, 113, 137, 139, 144, 149, 164, 170, 198 (changes 52, 74, 175–77; cooperation 59–60, 61, 63–64, 85, 226 Index 195, 196, 198; European level 52); Wał?sa, Lech 192; see also market integration/trade union reaction; trade union; transnational solidarity Polányi, K 6, 30, 165, 184, 189; double movement 2, 5, 36, 48, 175, 183; grand theory of societal reaction to market expansion 2, 5, 6, 30, 35–39, 48, 178; market integration/trade union reaction 165, 175, 178, 179, 183, 184 policy 75; employment 171; European integration 166, 167, 171; European policymaking 82, 105, 112, 199; Laval case 65; public 54, 65; reciprocity 187; Service Directive 54, 56–57; social 1, 57, 95, 166, 167, 171, 174, 186–87; trade union 124; see also decision making; European integration; labour; trade union; wage politics 91, 188; deliberative politics 110, 112–14, 125–26; European integration 167, 188; European Union 82, 84, 87, 96, 175, 178; Poland 52, 54, 175–76, 199; right-wing ideology 11, 62, 116, 154, 176, 195, 198; trade union 92, 94, 105, 144, 175, 176; transnational solidarity 188; see also trade union protectionism 8, 59, 167, 171; German trade unions 59; Laval case 67; Service Directive, liberal version 51, 56, 57, 58 rational choice theory 5, 20, 30–33, 141, 161, 170, 184; actors 31, 32, 35, 50, 194; Lindenberg, S 32, 33, 43; narrow version 31, 32; solidarity 32–33, 43, 48, 161; solidarity as rational behaviour 32–33, 127, 129; Streeck, W 31; wide version 31, 39, 184, 194 representatives 3, 10, 86, 88; competition 71; dual identities 147; German workers’ interest representation system 92–95, 122; interest representation 1, 5, 28, 37–39, 80, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92–95, 100, 103, 105, 106, 122, 146, 147, 166, 168, 169, 170, 175, 178, 182, 197; national/supranational level 10, 193; represented/ representatives relation 3, 80, 105; structure, structural factors 14; system segmentation 80; see also multinational company, cooperation among representatives; trade union; trade union, vertical dimension; worker reciprocity 5, 149–62; actors 149, 150, 153, 156, 157; as generalized rule of social reality 150–51, 161, 183; as investment 150, 153–54; as moral norm 40, 41–43, 133, 134, 149, 156–61, 187; as motivation 133, 149–56; as self-interest 40, 41–43, 149; behaviour 133, 134, 149, 150, 151, 156–57, 159–61, 183, 186; commitment: the principle of membership 157, 158–59, 160; dimensions 149; Gouldner, A.W 25, 149, 151, 161; internalization 40, 133, 157, 159, 160, 161, 183, 186, 187; recognition 150, 154–56; sanctions: negative reciprocity 157, 159–61; solidarity 39, 40, 41–43, 48, 49, 101–3, 129, 133, 134, 149–62; starting mechanism 150, 151–53, 161, 183; trade union 5, 42, 62, 63, 130, 149–62, 183; transnational solidarity 42, 101–3, 131–32, 134, 145, 149–62, 183, 187; see also solidarity; transnational solidarity rights 145, 178, 196; Charter of Fundamental Rights 61; human rights 16; Laval case 67; worker 2, 98, 101, 137–38, 146, 156, 173, 200 safety 17, 135, 143 shipbuilding industry 37, 192 social dialogue 10, 17, 52, 87, 97, 168, 175, 177; Social Dialogue 76 social movement 12, 39, 46, 82, 131; interaction 43, 112; social movement research 2, 5, 18, 26, 30, 34, 35, 43, 80, 82, 95, 112 social relations 36, 134, 180; reciprocity 42, 149, 151, 161; solidarity 33, 179; see also reciprocity; solidarity social standards 22, 177; harmonization principle 52, 68, 69, 98, 100, 174; Latvia 50; Service Directive, liberal version 51, 53, 57, 58, 96–100; Sweden 48, 50, 66; see also labour; worker sociology: Europeanization 180, 183–84, 193–94; relational approach 24–25, 43, 194; substantialist approach 24, 25, 194; see also social movement solidarity 3, 30–49, 133–62, 179; actors 43, 48–49, 50, 133–34, 141, 180; as Index action 4, 5, 7, 19, 30, 33, 50, 180, 181; as attitude 15, 18–19, 25, 33, 180, 181, 185–86; as moral norm 40, 183; as rational behaviour 32–33, 127, 129; assessment 4, 5, 7, 15, 17; character 3, 5; combative solidarity 40–41; commitment 5, 19, 39, 86, 106; competition 6, 16, 19, 21, 133–62, 182–83 (competition/solidarity tension 135–36); competitive solidarity 8, 12, 16, 24, 30, 35, 37, 48, 134, 141, 192; context-sensitive consideration 7, 17; ‘cultures of solidarity’ 19, 44; decision making 4; definition 4, 5, 7, 8, 15–16, 19, 134, 184; despite difference 39–40, 42; differences 147–49, 182, 189; Durkheim, É 8, 41–42, 134, 149; European trade union 1–2, 6, 15, 28–29, 48, 91, 110, 136, 144, 161, 179, 182; Fantasia, R 15–16, 19, 44, 193; framing 31–33, 42, 43, 48–49, 133–62, 182–83, 194, 198; globalization 22, 193; Hyman, R 16, 39–40, 194; identification 39, 40, 42, 48, 49, 133, 141–49, 194; identity 33, 39, 40, 48, 49, 133, 141–49, 194; interaction 43, 91, 143, 181–82; interests 2, 3, 8–9, 13, 32–33, 134–41, 169, 189 (common interests 39, 40–41, 43, 48, 49, 133, 137, 141, 149; interdependence and local interests 136–39; long-term/ short-term interests 139–41); lack of 2, 11–12, 15, 91, 180; limits 3, 5; Lindenberg, S 32, 33; McAdam, D 39–44, 45; mechanical solidarity 8, 42, 134; mechanisms of 47–49, 184; mesomobilization 45–46, 47, 48–49; micromobilization 39–44, 45, 48–49; motivations 11, 22, 39, 42, 137–38, 155, 157, 193; national bias 7, 11, 15; negotiation 18, 43, 72, 73, 109, 112, 121, 181; obstacles for 2, 3, 7–12, 21, 28, 182; organic solidarity 42, 134; potentials 3, 5, 22; productive solidarity 8, 134; rational choice theory 32–33; reciprocity 39, 40, 41–43, 48, 49, 101–3, 129, 133, 134, 149–62; self-reinforcing process 19, 153, 155–56, 182; solidaristic behaviour 4, 5, 19, 30–49, 50, 179, 181, 182, 194; structure, structural factors 14, 107–10, 138, 172, 174; theories 35; tolerance 194; trade union 1–2, 6, 15, 28–29, 48, 91, 110, 136, 227 144, 161, 182; types 39–40; see also case studies; collective action; competitive solidarity; cooperation; identity; European integration; market; transnational solidarity sourcing 1; outsourcing 1, 73, 77, 122, 139, 147 state 199; as institutionalization of interest representation 35, 37–39; bargaining 192; European integration 35–36, 166, 169; free market 35–36; sovereignty 35; trade union 37–39, 169, 199; see also government Streeck, W 48; competitive solidarity 16, 37, 48, 58, 134, 141; Europeanization of labour 8, 31 strike 18, 23, 40, 92, 93, 110, 154, 182; legislation 75, 77, 154; multinational company, cooperation among representatives 70, 73, 75, 76, 77, 78, 89, 93, 154, 198; see also collective action; interaction structure, structural factors 6, 106, 125–26, 166, 180, 182; changes 30, 36–38, 49, 95, 163, 169, 170, 172, 179, 183, 184; cooperation 106, 107–10, 131, 133, 163, 181; decision making 163; European integration 19, 125, 168; interaction 5, 14, 107–10, 131, 181; mesomobilization 45–46, 47, 48–49; national 16–17; solidarity 14, 107–10, 138, 172, 174; structure/ action 30, 34, 37, 138; trade union 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 14, 30, 36–37, 49, 79, 80–105, 131, 161–62, 166, 168, 181, 183, 185, 188, 199; transnational solidarity 106, 107–10, 131, 133, 138, 161–62, 163, 168, 181; trust 82, 85, 87, 94, 108, 109; see also European Trade Union Confederation (ETUC); European Works Councils (EWC); trade union; trade union, vertical dimension; transnational solidarity Sweden 199; bargaining 65–66, 172; Byggnads (Swedish Building Workers’ Union) 64, 66, 68, 69–70, 120–21, 137–38, 146, 154–55; class conflict 67, 70; competitive solidarity 24, 67, 75; cooperation among representatives of a multinational company 23, 70–78, 92; European cooperation 171–74, 178; free movement of labour 48, 50, 66, 195, 196; industrial relations 71, 154, 170, 196; Laval case 3, 5, 22, 23, 228 Index 48, 50, 64–70, 78–79, 105, 119–21, 157, 173, 181, 196; law 64–66, 67, 75; media 67–68, 196; path dependency 130; Poland 60, 70, 195; state 38; Swedish Metal Workers’ Trade Union (IF Metall) 75, 90, 92, 125, 130, 135, 160; Swedish Trade Union Confederation (LO) 68–69, 92, 116, 121, 124–25, 130, 138, 142, 172, 173–74, 196; trade union 9, 24, 38, 48, 50, 58, 60, 64–65, 68–70, 74–75, 107, 121, 138, 164, 171–74, 178, 181, 195, 196, 198 (blockade 65, 66); wage 65–66, 74, 75, 121, 196; see also market integration/trade union reaction; trade union; transnational solidarity trade union 1, 149–50; assessment of solidarity 22, 156, 159, 164, 169, 172, 177; Austria 38; behaviour 13, 15, 20, 85, 86, 130, 163, 183; capital mobility 2, 59, 142; changes 6, 52, 59, 64, 69– 70, 78, 79, 95, 107, 164, 169–78, 180, 182; choices 6, 25, 35, 48, 50, 163–64, 169–70, 178, 183; competition 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 16, 17, 21, 22, 37, 38, 48, 49, 63, 91, 98, 111, 124, 167; competitive solidarity 8, 12, 16, 24, 30, 35, 37, 48, 51–52, 57–58, 59, 64, 97, 134, 141, 192; cooperation 2, 3, 6, 38, 39, 49, 59–60, 61, 63–64, 109, 111, 117–27, 131, 163, 164, 169–78, 192, 196, 197, 199 (cooperation among representatives of a multinational company 70–78, 91–92, 94, 197; Laval case 68–69, 197; Polish-German trade union cooperation 63–64, 196; reactive character of trade union cooperation 37, 165, 173, 178, 182, 199); decision making 6, 19, 20, 84, 91, 117, 124, 170, 193; Delta Group cooperation 72, 75, 76–78, 92, 113, 114, 119, 121, 122, 123, 129, 135, 139, 143, 147, 152, 154, 158; elitism 45, 47, 52, 84, 88, 92, 95, 175, 185, 188–89, 193; European 2, 12, 25, 31, 49, 80, 80–105, 108, 188, 192, 193, 198 (East/ West divide 9, 10, 67–68, 177, 185–86, 188, 192–93; Eastern Europe 38, 58, 62, 110, 141, 143, 145, 146, 148, 167, 173, 199; Eastern/Western conflict 9, 48, 51–52, 57–58, 63, 78, 101, 139–41, 148, 175, 199; Eastern/Western relations 59–60, 61, 62, 64, 89, 108, 113, 114, 116, 151, 154–56, 176; North–South divide 170–71, 189); European integration 1, 6, 8, 13, 36–37, 38, 39, 49, 80, 109, 110–17, 156, 163–79, 180, 184, 186–89, 199; European level 8, 10–11, 13, 15, 17, 19, 37, 45, 52, 74, 80–105, 126, 129, 147, 161, 167, 175, 193, 196; Europeanization 10, 12, 47, 49, 88, 188, 193; France 38; Germany 9, 11, 24, 38, 48, 56, 61–62, 63, 70, 86, 107, 111, 151, 164, 168, 188, 196, 197, 198; grand theory of societal reaction to market expansion 2, 5, 6, 30, 35–39, 48, 165, 175, 178, 179, 183, 184; Hyman, R 10, 11, 13; identification 40, 84–86, 103–4, 141–49, 170; identity 8, 13, 42, 84–86, 87, 97, 103–4, 113, 192; industrial relations 9, 167, 192, 196; inequalities between countries 11, 187 (high/low standard 1, 9, 51–52, 87, 97, 188, 200; poor/ rich 1, 2, 8, 26–27, 52, 67, 167–68, 173); institution, institutionalization 3, 16, 37–38, 49, 81, 86, 161–62, 168, 180, 186, 199; institutional-cultural differences 8, 9–10, 12, 14, 15, 18–19, 21, 23, 24, 27, 28, 42, 71–72, 106, 111, 114–16, 124–25, 127, 131, 147–49, 174, 175, 182, 199; interaction 5, 45, 88–89, 91, 94, 111, 179, 184; interests 13, 22, 66, 89, 134–41, 149, 184 (contradicting interests 8–9, 11–12, 14, 18; interdependence 136–39, 142, 149); inter-union relations 7, 16–17, 19, 35, 63, 69, 70–79, 141, 161–62, 172, 182; lack of solidarity 11–12, 15, 91, 180; Latvia 113, 121, 144; literature re-considered 185–86; lobbying 17, 87; market 1, 2, 6, 35, 48, 49, 66, 183; market integration 1, 2, 6, 35–39, 48, 49, 142–43, 173, 174, 183; membership 60, 66, 85–86, 88, 113, 136, 144, 155, 158–59, 169, 177, 184; mesomobilization 45–46, 47, 48–49, 59, 82–84; micromobilization 39–44, 45, 48–49; migrant trade union 63, 115; national level 10–11, 12, 13, 15, 16, 17, 37, 45, 59, 64, 80–82, 88, 90–91, 105, 107, 130, 147, 167, 168, 175, 178, 185, 186, 193, 195 (change at the national level 169–78); networking 60, 85, 109, 146, 189, 193, Index 197; path-dependency 3, 8, 9–10, 12; Poland 24, 38, 48, 51–59, 60, 61, 62, 63–64, 74, 85, 86, 89–90, 110, 113, 137, 139, 144, 149, 164, 170, 175–77, 195, 196, 198; post-Communist 10, 113, 114, 117, 144; preferences 2, 3, 25, 106, 114, 168, 199; prestige 152; reciprocity 5, 42, 62, 63, 130, 149–62, 183; Service Directive 58–59, 62; social ties 2, 16, 91, 127, 136, 142, 148, 183, 184, 189; solidarity 1–2, 6, 15, 28–29, 48, 91, 110, 136, 144, 161, 179, 182; sovereignty 159, 175, 182, 186; state 37–39, 169, 199; strategies, repertoires of action 16–17, 30, 169–70, 175, 193; structure, structural factors 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 14, 30, 36–37, 49, 79, 80–105, 131, 161–62, 166, 168, 179, 181, 183, 184, 185, 188, 199; Sweden 9, 24, 38, 48, 50, 58, 60, 64–65, 66, 68–70, 74–75, 107, 121, 138, 164, 171–74, 178, 181, 195, 196, 198; transnational solidarity 3, 16, 24, 35, 37, 48–49, 50, 78–79, 144, 161–62, 164, 169–78, 183, 197, 198; types of national trade unionism 10; United Kingdom 24, 38, 61, 62, 70, 77, 86, 89, 90, 91, 145, 164, 167, 177, 195–96, 198, 200; United States 192, 193; see also agreements, legislation, regulation; case studies; collective action; cooperation; decision making; European integration; European Works Councils (EWC); European Trade Union Confederation (ETUC); labour; market; market integration/ trade union reaction; Poland; reciprocity; representatives; solidarity; structure, structural factors; trade union, vertical dimension; transnational solidarity trade union, vertical dimension 31, 45–49, 59, 80–105, 125, 161–62, 163, 166, 182, 185–86, 188, 193; bridging the European interests to the workforce 5, 81, 95–104 (frame bridging and frame extension 100–103; framing of the Service Directive 95, 96–100, 102, 113; symbolism and personification in building identification 103–4); communication 95–104, 105; cooperation, vertical dimension 5, 47, 58, 80–105, 182; European Industry Federation (EIF) 82, 83, 85; 229 European Trade Union Confederation (ETUC) 81, 82–84, 87, 95, 96–100 (as mesomobilization actor 82–84, 87, 96); European trade union organizations and action 5, 81–88 (fostering motivation and identification 84–86, 87, 103–4, 113; reverse effect of organizational belonging 86–88; vertical mobilization 82–84, 87, 197); European Works Councils (EWC) 81, 87, 88, 91–92, 105; framing 45–47, 96, 100–103, 105; mesomobilization 45–46, 47, 48–49, 82–84; micromobilization 80; transnational solidarity 31, 49, 64, 78, 79, 80–105, 182, 184; vertical divide 1–2, 3–4, 5, 8, 10–12, 14, 45–49, 64, 80, 88, 184, 193; vertical divide inverted 5, 81, 91–95, 104–5, 182, 184 (disarticulation of interests in trade union and representation structures 92–95, 105; Europeanization from below 91–92, 94–95, 105); vertical integration 80, 81; vertical integration, limits 5, 81, 88–91, 197; vertical mobilization 5, 31, 59, 80, 81, 82–84, 87; workforce 5, 81, 89–90, 92–104, 175–76, 182; works councils 90–91, 92–94, 110, 122, 146, 197–98; see also case studies; European Trade Union Confederation (ETUC); European Works Councils (EWC); Poland; structure, structural factors; trade union; transnational solidarity Trades Union Congress (TUC) 87, 108, 145, 150, 167, 168, 195 transnational solidarity 2, 14–19, 24, 35, 49, 144, 183, 186–89; action 15, 18–19, 25, 27, 180; actors 14, 18, 25, 27, 30–31, 48–49, 127, 193; agency/ structure 25, 27; as alternative to competitive solidarity 2–4, 35, 48, 50, 59, 64, 163; assessment 3, 5, 7, 15, 16, 18, 19, 22, 156, 159, 172, 177, 187; attitudes 15, 18–19, 25, 116, 180, 185–86; bargaining 15, 16; communication 95–104, 105; competition 16, 19, 21, 24, 72, 111, 179, 182–83; competitive solidarity 24; concept 12, 15–17, 19; Delta Group cooperation 72, 75, 76–78, 92, 113–14, 119, 121, 122, 123, 129, 135, 139, 143, 147, 152, 154, 158; dynamic process 19, 44–45; East/West solidarity 110; 230 Index European Works Councils (EWC) 71; framing 6, 31–33, 96–103, 105, 133–62, 182–83, 198; grand theory of societal reaction to market expansion 2, 5, 6, 30, 35–39, 48, 165, 175, 178, 179, 183, 184; identification 40, 84–86, 97, 103–4, 141–49, 169; institutions and legal measures 15–17, 19; interaction 14, 19, 21, 40, 91, 94, 95, 105, 110–18, 131; interest formulation 22, 25, 92, 102; institutionalization 86; legislation 15, 16; limits 105; market expansion 6, 35, 168, 179, 183, 184, 189; mechanisms of 47–49, 184; mesomobilization 45–46, 47, 48–49, 82–84; micromobilization 39–44, 45, 48–49; model 12, 26, 27, 29, 44–45, 48–49; motivations 22, 84–86, 128, 134, 149; multinational company, cooperation among representatives 73, 75, 78; obstacles for 2, 4, 7–12, 14, 15, 23, 24, 180, 182 (contradicting interests 8–9, 11–12, 14, 18, 78–79, 109, 134; institutional-cultural differences 8, 9–10, 12, 14, 15, 18–19, 21, 23, 24, 27, 28, 42, 71–72, 106, 111, 114–16, 124–25, 127, 131, 147–49, 174, 175, 182, 199; path-dependency 3, 5, 8, 9–10, 12, 19, 70, 107, 130–31, 132, 182; vertical divide 8, 10–12, 14, 45–49, 64, 88); organizational structures 106, 107–10, 131, 133, 138, 161–62, 163, 168, 181; politics 188; reciprocity 42, 101–3, 131–32, 134, 145, 149–62, 183, 187; social ties 21; sustainability of action 18; sustainability of solidarity 22; trade union 3, 16, 24, 35, 37, 48–49, 50, 78–79, 144, 161–62, 164, 169–78, 183, 197, 198; trust 19, 74, 82, 85, 108, 109, 110, 117–27, 160, 181; vertical dimension 31, 49, 64, 78, 79, 80–105, 182, 184; vertical mobilization 5, 31, 45–46, 47, 48–49; see also bargaining; case studies; competitive solidarity; cooperation; interaction; market integration/trade union reaction; solidarity; trade union; trade union, vertical dimension transport: civic aviation 193; maritime transport 193; railway 193 UNISON (The Public Service Union) 87, 178 United Kingdom 199; Amicus 90, 92, 104, 109, 118, 124, 129–30, 158, 177–78; Anglo-Saxon pluralism 24, 192; Britain’s General Union (GMB) 196; cooperation among representatives of a multinational company 23, 70–78, 89, 90, 91, 101–2, 129–30, 198; demonstration 87; European cooperation 171, 177–78; free labour movement 195; government 177, 200; Service Directive, liberal version 54, 87; strike 77, 89; trade union 24, 38, 61, 62, 70, 77, 86, 89, 90, 91, 145, 164, 167, 177, 195–96, 198, 200; Trades Union Congress (TUC) 87, 145, 177; see also market integration/trade union reaction; trade union; transnational solidarity United States 93, 126, 171, 193; Service Employees International Union (SEIU) 176; trade union 192, 193 wage 9, 63, 71, 108, 136; agreements 149; bargaining 71, 78, 168; construction sector 17, 64, 65–66, 67, 196; discrimination 54, 65, 66; dumping 52, 64, 75, 135, 141, 149, 173, 181, 195; Laval case 64, 65–66, 67, 196; minimum wage 66, 68; multinational company, cooperation among representatives 72, 74, 76, 78, 116, 135, 136, 159; Sweden 65–66, 74, 121, 173, 196; see also Latvia; trade union worker: European integration 188 200; exploitation 16–17, 58, 59–60, 62, 63, 104, 144, 146, 173, 195, 198; foreign 1, 3, 59–60, 94–95, 103, 136; lack of solidarity 11; migrants 16–17, 55, 59–60, 69, 101, 104, 136, 142, 148, 149, 196, 198; play workers off 38, 72, 97, 114, 124, 138, 144, 171, 181, 182, 187; posted 51, 54, 56, 63, 65, 103, 195; rights 2, 98, 101, 137–38, 146, 156, 173, 200; social dumping 17, 56, 69, 87, 95, 97, 98, 101, 121, 124, 137–38, 148–49, 167, 174, 196; trade union 66; workforce 5, 81, 89–90, 92–104, 110, 175–76, 182; working time 17, 76, 136, 168, 175, 193; see also employment; labour; representatives; trade union; trade union, vertical dimension World Confederation of Labour 194 ... Labour Solidarity Mechanisms of commitment to cooperation within the European trade union movement Katarzyna Gajewska Transnational Labour Solidarity Mechanisms of commitment to cooperation within. . .Transnational Labour Solidarity The book examines the integration of the European trade union movement and explores the prospects for European or transnational solidarity among... Furthermore, a vertical divide within the trade unions is assumed: the lower levels of trade union structure being less internationally oriented than the top leadership and the European trade union