Endovascular treatment of peripheral vas

Endovascular Treatment of Peripheral Vascular Disease Suhail Allaqaband, MD, FACC, FCCP, FSCAI, Romas Kirvaitis, MD, Fuad Jan, MD, and Tanvir Bajwa, MD, FACC, FSCAI Abstract: Peripheral arterial disease (PAD) affects about 27 million people in North America and Europe, accounting for up to 413,000 hospitalizations per year with 88,000 hospitalizations involving the lower extremities and 28,000 involving embolectomy or thrombectomy of lower limb arteries Many patients are asymptomatic and, among symptomatic patients, atypical symptoms are more common than classic claudication Peripheral arterial disease also correlates strongly with risk of major cardiovascular events, and patients with PAD have a high prevalence of coexistent coronary and cerebrovascular disease Because the prevalence of PAD increases progressively with age, PAD is a growing clinical problem due to the increasingly aged population in the United States and other developed countries Until recently, vascular surgical procedures were the only alternative to medical therapy in such patients Today, endovascular practice, percutaneous transluminal angioplasty with or without stenting, is used far more frequently for all types of lower extremity occlusive lesions, reflecting the continuing advances in imaging techniques, angioplasty equipment, and endovascular expertise The role of endovascular intervention in the treatment of limb-threatening ischemia is also expanding, and its promise of limb salvage and symptom relief with reduced morbidity and mortality makes percutaneous transluminal angioplasty/stenting an attractive alternative to surThe authors have no conflicts of interest to disclose Curr Probl Cardiol 2009;34:359-476 0146-2806/$ – see front matter doi:10.1016/j.cpcardiol.2009.05.001 Curr Probl Cardiol, September 2009 359 gery and, as most endovascular interventions are performed on an outpatient basis, hospital costs are cut considerably In this monograph we discuss current endovascular intervention for treatment of occlusive PAD, aneurysmal arterial disease, and venous occlusive disease (Curr Probl Cardiol 2009;34:359-476.) eripheral arterial disease (PAD) is most commonly a manifestation of atherosclerosis, although it can also result from thrombosis, embolism, fibromuscular dysplasia, or vasculitis and accounts for up to 20% of primary care visits, affecting some 8-10 million people in the United States.1 The term peripheral vascular disease (PVD), by contrast, encompasses a group of diseases that affect blood vessels, including not only PAD (lower and upper extremities) but also other atherosclerotic conditions (eg, renal artery disease, carotid disease, as well as venous thrombosis, venous insufficiency, aneurysmal disease, and lymphatic disorders) PAD correlates strongly with risk of major cardiovascular events, and patients with PAD have a high prevalence of coexistent coronary and cerebrovascular disease In several large epidemiologic series, the prevalence of PAD, based on an abnormal ankle/brachial index (ABI), is reported to be anywhere from 3% in people aged 45-64 years2 to about 18%-27% in people over the age of 60,3,4 and generally higher in men than women and in blacks than non-Hispanic whites In the same population-based studies, the prevalence of associated clinical cardiovascular disease may be as high as 47%-54%.3,4 Moreover, stroke and myocardial infarction are also seen to occur times as frequently in patients with PAD compared with those without PAD, even among patients with no vascular symptoms.5 Angiographically significant coronary artery disease (CAD) occurs in approximately 60%-80% of patients with PAD.6 Also, patients with PAD, even in the absence of a history of myocardial infarction or ischemic stroke, have approximately the same relative risk of death from cardiovascular causes as patients with a history of coronary or cerebrovascular disease.7,8 Two large international registries, REACH (REduction in Atherothrombosis for Continued Health) and AGATHA (A Global ATHerothrombosis Assessment),9,10 have detected a high coprevalence of CAD and cerebrovascular disease, with 62% of patients in REACH having both PAD and cerebrovascular disease, while 50% of patients with PAD in AGATHA had established CAD, prior stroke, transient ischemic attack, or carotid artery revascu- P 360 Curr Probl Cardiol, September 2009 FIG Risk of developing lower extremity PAD The range for each risk factor is estimated from epidemiologic studies The relative risks consider current smokers vs former smokers and nonsmokers, presence vs absence of diabetes and hypertension, and highest vs lowest quartile of homocysteine and C-reactive protein The estimate for hypercholesterolemia is based on a 10% risk for each 10 mg/dL rise in total cholesterol (Adapted from Dormandy JA, et al for the TransAtlantic Inter-Society Consensus (TASC) Working Group Management of peripheral arterial disease (PAD) J Vasc Surg 2000;31:S1-S288.) larization Nevertheless, patients with PAD are often underdiagnosed and undertreated compared to patients with CAD Thus, establishing a diagnosis of PAD is important, because of both the prognostic and the therapeutic implications D.R Holmes: The statistics of peripheral arterial disease are staggering—not only in terms of the frequency of the condition but also in the risk that patients have with this disease Not only is there a strong relationship between peripheral arterial disease and coronary artery disease but also between peripheral arterial disease and cerebrovascular disease Risk Factors and Pathophysiology The major risk factors for PAD are the same as those for CAD and include older age (over 50 years), cigarette smoking, diabetes mellitus, hyperlipidemia, and hypertension The risk of developing PAD increases progressively with the burden of contributing factors (Fig 1) Cigarette smoking is an exceptionally powerful risk factor for PAD11 and is 2-3 times more likely to cause lower extremity PAD than CAD.11,12 Lower extremity PAD may also be caused by thromboangiitis obliterans or Curr Probl Cardiol, September 2009 361 Buerger’s disease and systemic arteritis such as Takayasu’s arteritis Current evidence supports the concept that the pathogenesis of PAD involves inflammation, and thus levels of leukocyte adhesion molecules, C-reactive protein, and fibrinogen independently correlate with the development of PAD.13 The American Diabetes Association currently recommends annual screening for PAD in people with diabetes The screening should document any history of claudication and include palpation of pedal pulses However, although routine screening for PAD in the general asymptomatic population is not currently supported by major organizations, including the U.S Preventive Services Task Force, clinicians are expected to be alert to symptoms of PAD in persons at increased risk (over age 50, smokers, diabetics) and patients who have clinical evidence of vascular disease Our experience suggests it is prudent to screen for CAD in the following groups of patients: a Age Ͻ 50 years with diabetes, and additional risk factor (eg, smoking, dyslipidemia, hypertension, or hyperhomocysteinemia) b Age 50-69 years and history of smoking or diabetes c Age 70 years and older d Leg symptoms suggestive of claudication or ischemic rest pain e Abnormal lower extremity pulse examination f Known atherosclerotic coronary, carotid, or renal artery disease D.R Holmes: The authors extend the indications for screening for peripheral arterial disease to include several groups of patients An important group (e) includes patients with “abnormal lower extremity pulse examination.” This is a very important point Training programs in primary care and cardiovascular medicine need to enhance the curricula devoted to peripheral vasculature Clinical Presentation and Classification PAD of the lower extremity is associated with a progressive decline in walking endurance and an increased rate of depression.14,15 Although classically associated with leg pain, features of intermittent claudication (Latin claudicare “to limp”) include pain in or both legs on walking, primarily affecting the calves, that does not go away with continued walking and is relieved by rest Most patients with PAD describe other leg pain symptoms or have no symptoms at all.16 Patients with upper extremity involvement usually present with pain in the distribution of the affected artery, with cold hands and fingers, numbness, and pallor The natural history of PAD of the lower extremities is depicted in Fig 362 Curr Probl Cardiol, September 2009 FIG The natural history of atherosclerotic lower extremity peripheral arterial disease (PAD) Individuals with atherosclerotic lower extremity PAD may (a) be asymptomatic (without identified ischemic leg symptoms, albeit with a functional impairment); (b) present with leg symptoms (classic claudication or atypical leg symptoms); or (c) present with critical limb ischemia All individuals with PAD face a risk of progressive limb ischemic symptoms, as well as a high short-term cardiovascular ischemic event rate and increased mortality These event rates are most clearly defined for individuals with claudication or critical limb ischemia (CLI), and less well defined for individuals with asymptomatic PAD CV, cardiovascular; MI, myocardial infarction (Adapted with permission from Weitz JI, et al Diagnosis and treatment of chronic arterial insufficiency of the lower extremities: A critical review Circulation 1996;94:3026-49.) Among those with lower extremity intermittent claudication, 25% experience clinical deterioration, while less than 5%-10% of patients have critical leg ischemia (CLI) defined as ischemic pain in the distal foot, ischemic ulceration, or gangrene.17-21 Classification of PAD considers the severity of symptoms and abnormalities detected on physical examination This provides a framework for the established guidelines for therapeutic intervention Although various classifications have been suggested, the Fontaine and Rutherford classifications are widely accepted (Table 1) D.R Holmes: It is important to remember that patients with peripheral arterial disease may not have symptoms of claudication either because the severity of disease is not as far advanced or for other reasons Equally important factors may be that either the patients are limited in their exercise tolerance Curr Probl Cardiol, September 2009 363 TABLE Classification of peripheral arterial disease: Fontaine’s stages and Rutherford’s categories Fontaine Rutherford Stage Clinical Grade Category Clinical I Iia Iib Asymptomatic Mild claudication Moderate-severe claudication Ischemic rest pain Ulceration or gangrene I I I II III IV Asymptomatic Mild claudication Moderate claudication Severe claudication Ischemic rest pain Minor tissue loss Ulceration or gangrene III IV Reproduced with permission from Dormandy JA, Rutherford RB, for the TransAtlantic InterSociety Consensus (TASC) Working Group, Management of peripheral arterial disease (PAD) J Vasc Surg 2000;31:S1-S296 Copyright Elsevier 2000 by the presence of coronary artery disease or lung disease or the patient may be leading a sedentary lifestyle This latter circumstance may be particularly true in very elderly patients Diagnosis Diagnosis of PAD requires screening that includes the following: obtaining thorough medical history, specifically eliciting leg symptoms, and identifying risk factors, targeting areas of the physical examination to findings specific to the disease, and potential supplemental diagnostic testing Chronically, decreased blood flow contributes to signs of pallor, dependent rubor, and atrophic skin and nails, and to the development of ischemic ulcers from areas of minor trauma.22 Significant narrowing of the blood vessels at the various anatomic segments may also manifest as absent or reduced pulses or arterial bruits.23 Ancillary physical examination techniques for PAD include capillary refill time, Buerger’s test, and venous filling time The ABI (ratio of the highest ankle systolic pressure divided by the highest brachial systolic pressure) is the accepted reference standard for the diagnosis of PAD It is highly sensitive (95%) and specific (100%) when a threshold of Ͻ 0.9 is used to indicate an abnormal result.24,25 Other diagnostic tests include duplex ultrasound, contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance angiography, and contrast computed tomography (CT) angiography However, the ABI is widely used because it is noninvasive, less expensive, and readily available Not only does the ABI effectively identify patients with disease and accurately predict future vascular events,26 but the result also correlates with the severity of the 364 Curr Probl Cardiol, September 2009 disease The risk of death related to CAD increases dramatically as the ABI decreases The risk of 5-year mortality for a patient with an ABI Ͻ 0.85 is 10% and approaches 50% if the ABI drops to Ͻ 0.40 The bedside ABI serves as the pragmatic reference standard for PAD because it has been validated in clinical epidemiologic research.27 An ABI of 0.71-0.90 indicates the presence of mild PAD; an ABI of 0.41-0.70 indicates moderate PAD, and an ABI of 0.40 or less indicates severe PAD.28,29 Pain at rest or severe occlusive disease typically occurs with an ABI of less than 0.50, while ischemic or gangrenous extremities are associated with an ABI of less than 0.20.30 Heavily calcified arteries, as seen in diabetics and patients with end-stage renal disease, can lead to noncompressibility and ABI values well above normal (Ն 1.30) Very high ABI values are associated with increased mortality31 and should prompt further noninvasive testing (ie, duplex ultrasonography or toebrachial index measurement)30 to diagnose PAD D.R Holmes: As previously mentioned, in the past, training programs, primary care, internal medicine, and cardiovascular medicine have included scant portions on the curriculum devoted to peripheral arterial disease In some institutions, this has been exacerbated by the fact that both vascular and general surgeons may provide the long-term care of patients with established peripheral arterial disease It could be argued that bedside ABI should be a routine part of the physical examination of patients at risk for peripheral arterial disease Medical Treatment of Peripheral Artery Disease Treatment of patients with PAD is aimed at relief of exertional symptoms, improved walking capacity and quality-of-life, and, most importantly, prevention or slowing of the progression of systemic atherosclerosis and the related adverse cardiovascular outcomes The 2005 Consensus Statement from the American College of Cardiology and the American Heart Association (ACC/AHA)6 on the management of patients with PAD recommends that all patients with PAD receive aggressive therapy to prevent subsequent atherosclerotic disease and clinical events The guidelines for secondary prevention strategy include tobacco cessation, physical activity, dietary modification, weight maintenance, blood pressure control, cholesterol control, antiplatelet therapy, glycemic control, and angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor therapy Risk Factor Modification and Exercise Rehabilitation Smoking cessation is the most important modifiable risk factor in PAD, and smoking cessation favorably changes the natural history of the Curr Probl Cardiol, September 2009 365 disease Antiplatelet therapy is recommended for all patients with PAD to prevent associated cardiovascular morbidity and mortality.6 Control of hypertension is an important component of all atherosclerosis risk reduction and thus an integral part of the treatment plan in patients with PAD The goal hypertension level remains the same as for patients with CAD or diabetes The recommended low-density lipoprotein cholesterol goal in patients with PAD is less than 100 mg/dL, but when the risk is very high, a low-density lipoprotein cholesterol goal of less than 70 mg/dL is a therapeutic option because of available clinical trial evidence An HMG-CoA reductase inhibitor is the ideal first-line agent based on several studies showing beneficial effects of statin therapy in patients with PAD.32-35 Current guidelines recommend that patients with PAD and diabetes be treated to achieve a hemoglobin A1C of Ͻ 7%.6 A walking program is an essential component of treatment, with the recommendation that patients walk to the level of near-maximal pain for initial, supervised 30-minute walking sessions times a week for months In 21 nonrandomized and randomized studies, exercise increased pain-free walking distance in patients with intermittent claudication by 180% and maximal walking distance by 120%.36 Pharmacotherapy Effective pharmacotherapy for symptomatic PAD has not evolved as rapidly as pharmacotherapy to treat CAD and most studies on the use of vasodilator drugs in patients with intermittent claudication have been disappointing While additional agents (eg, naftidrofuryl) have been used in Europe, South America, and Asia, the only drugs approved for use in the United States by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) are pentoxifylline and cilostazol Pentoxifylline has been shown to increase absolute claudication distance by 40-50 m, whereas the reported increase on cilostazol (the preferred agent) is 45-50 m.37,38 The former is usually associated with tachyphylaxis, while use of the latter sometimes results in diarrhea, headache, and palpitations and is contraindicated in patients with left ventricular dysfunction (ejection fraction Ͻ 40%) D.R Holmes: Given the overlap in risk factors for peripheral arterial disease, coronary artery disease, and carotid arterial disease, risk stratification and modification are of crucial importance The role of exercise is of particular note as mentioned in the 21 nonrandomized and randomized studies Careful follow-up care is essential for optimizing adherence to the therapeutic recommendations 366 Curr Probl Cardiol, September 2009 Carotid Artery D.R Holmes: Much literature divides patients into those patients with peripheral arterial disease and those with cerebrovascular disease These two groups then are often discussed separately The authors of this current article chose to include these two groups together, although that is not routine The field of carotid revascularization continues to evolve Several metaanalyses of carotid endarterectomy vs carotid arterial stenting have been published, some of which reached very different conclusions As the authors point out, embolic protection devices are essential The soon to be completed CREST trial should shed important light on the field Issues remain in terms of patient selection (symptomatic vs asymptomatic), reimbursement, training program standards, and others Longer term data from EVA-3S53,54 and SPACE55,56 are important A good rule of thumb is that good stenting is better than bad surgery; good surgery is better than bad stenting, and good surgery and good stenting yield similar results Stroke is the third leading cause of death and the number cause of disability in adults living in the United States Most strokes are ischemic in nature, with carotid artery stenosis being a leading cause Carotid endarterectomy (CEA) has been the standard of care for stroke prevention for a long time NASCET (North American Symptomatic Carotid Endarterectomy Trial) randomized symptomatic patients (those with nondisabling stroke or transient ischemic attack within 180 days) with Ն 50% stenosis by angiography.39 The ACAS (Asymptomatic Carotid Atherosclerosis Study) Trial randomized asymptomatic patients with Ն 60% stenosis by angiography.40 Both NASCET and ACAS demonstrated that CEA plus aspirin (ASA) was superior to medical treatment alone In 1995 and 1998, ad-hoc committees of the AHA published guidelines for CEA Surgical risks, ranging from 3% to 6%, were considered acceptable.41 However, there is an important subset of patients with symptomatic or asymptomatic carotid disease: those who are at high risk for both stroke and CEA due to comorbidities or anatomic limitations In such patients, there is considerable documentation in the literature of complication rates well above the ad-hoc committee’s recommended up to 6% acceptable limit The following criteria indicate patients considered at high risk for CEA: CAD requiring urgent coronary artery bypass surgery Stable or unstable angina Congestive heart failure (CHF) Evolving or recent myocardial infarction (Ͻ 30 days) Curr Probl Cardiol, September 2009 367 FIG A 78-year-old woman with multiple comorbidities presenting with a transient ischemic attack Angiogram shows severe stenosis in the left internal carotid artery (arrow) (A) Filter wire during stenting of left internal carotid artery (arrow) under BEACH study protocol (B) Angiogram after stent implantation (C) CCA, common carotid artery; ECA, external carotid artery; LICA, left internal carotid artery (Reproduced with permission from Allaqaband et al Endovascular treatment of peripheral vascular disease Curr Probl Cardiol 2006;31:711-60.) 10 Previous ipsilateral CEA Contralateral occlusions of the carotid artery Chronic renal failure with creatinine Ն 1.5 mg/dL Age Ն 80 years Surgically inaccessible lesions Tracheotomy and contralateral laryngeal nerve paralysis Current medical options offer little hope for these high-risk patients In the NASCET Trial, medically treated patients with a stenosis Ն 70% had a 26% cumulative risk of an ipsilateral stroke within years In the same trial, medically treated patients with a stenosis of 50%-69% had a 22.2% risk for ipsilateral stroke within years In the ACAS Trial, asymptomatic patients with Ն 60% stenosis who were treated medically had a 5-year aggregate risk for any stroke or death of 11% In contrast, outcomes for the same high-risk patient population who underwent carotid stenting (Fig 3) have been favorable Results of the first carotid stenting study, which used independent neurologic assessment, were published by Yadav et al in 1997.42 In 107 patients, most whom met NASCET exclusion criteria for CEA, the success rate was 100% Thirty-day risk for major stroke and death was only 2.4% In 2000, Wholey et al published the second global review of carotid stenting In 4757 patients, 5210 carotid artery stents were placed, with a success rate of 98.4% The risk of major/minor stroke was again very low, 4.2% Restenosis rate was 3.5% at 12 months.43 368 Curr Probl Cardiol, September 2009 188 neous Viabahn stent grafts vs prosthetic femoral-popliteal bypass in the treatment of superficial femoral arterial occlusive disease J Vasc Surg 2007;45:10-6 Kazemi S, Tumuluri R, Allaqaband S, et al Percutaneous revascularization of femoropopliteal arteries with self-expanding nitinol stents—Immediate success and one-year results J Am Coll Cardiol 2005;3(suppl 1):68A Alimi Ys, Hakam Z, Hartung O, et al Efficacy of Viabahn in the treatment of severe superficial femoral artery lesions: Which factors influence long term patency? 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48:215-7 476 Curr Probl Cardiol, September 2009 ... al Endovascular treatment of peripheral vascular disease Curr Probl Cardiol 2006;31:711-60.) Vertebrobasilar Artery D.R Holmes: The inclusion of a vascular neurologist on the team taking care of. .. Allaqaband et al Endovascular treatment of peripheral vascular disease Curr Probl Cardiol 2006;31:711-60.) Subclavian Artery Although occlusive disease of the subclavian artery is most often asymptomatic,... arterial disease Medical Treatment of Peripheral Artery Disease Treatment of patients with PAD is aimed at relief of exertional symptoms, improved walking capacity and quality -of- life, and, most importantly,