Principles of General Chemistry v 1.0 This is the book Principles of General Chemistry (v 1.0) This book is licensed under a Creative Commons by-nc-sa 3.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/ 3.0/) license See the license for more details, but that basically means you can share this book as long as you credit the author (but see below), don't make money from it, and make it available to everyone else under the same terms This book was accessible as of December 29, 2012, and it was downloaded then by Andy Schmitz (http://lardbucket.org) in an effort to preserve the availability of this book Normally, the author and publisher would be credited here However, the publisher has asked for the customary Creative Commons attribution to the original publisher, authors, title, and book URI to be removed Additionally, per the publisher's request, their name has been removed in some passages More information is available on this project's attribution page (http://2012books.lardbucket.org/attribution.html?utm_source=header) For more information on the source of this book, or why it is available for free, please see the project's home page (http://2012books.lardbucket.org/) You can browse or download additional books there ii Table of Contents About the Authors Acknowledgments Dedication Preface Chapter 1: Introduction to Chemistry Chemistry in the Modern World 11 The Scientific Method 17 A Description of Matter 26 A Brief History of Chemistry 46 The Atom 58 Isotopes and Atomic Masses 69 Introduction to the Periodic Table 85 Essential Elements for Life 93 Essential Skills 98 End-of-Chapter Material 118 Chapter 2: Molecules, Ions, and Chemical Formulas 123 Chemical Compounds 125 Chemical Formulas 150 Naming Ionic Compounds 166 Naming Covalent Compounds 183 Acids and Bases 211 Industrially Important Chemicals 223 End-of-Chapter Material 235 Chapter 3: Chemical Reactions 238 The Mole and Molar Masses 240 Determining Empirical and Molecular Formulas 261 Chemical Equations 291 Mass Relationships in Chemical Equations 309 Classifying Chemical Reactions 338 Chemical Reactions in the Atmosphere 368 Essential Skills 381 End-of-Chapter Material 390 iii Chapter 4: Reactions in Aqueous Solution 402 Aqueous Solutions 404 Solution Concentrations 419 Stoichiometry of Reactions in Solution 439 Ionic Equations 453 Precipitation Reactions 459 Acid–Base Reactions 473 The Chemistry of Acid Rain 502 Oxidation–Reduction Reactions in Solution 509 Quantitative Analysis Using Titrations 531 Essential Skills 544 End-of-Chapter Material 552 Chapter 5: Energy Changes in Chemical Reactions 559 Energy and Work 561 Enthalpy 576 Calorimetry 621 Thermochemistry and Nutrition 641 Energy Sources and the Environment 654 Essential Skills 671 End-of-Chapter Material 680 Chapter 6: The Structure of Atoms 685 Waves and Electromagnetic Radiation 687 The Quantization of Energy 697 Atomic Spectra and Models of the Atom 709 The Relationship between Energy and Mass 732 Atomic Orbitals and Their Energies 746 Building Up the Periodic Table 773 End-of-Chapter Material 796 Chapter 7: The Periodic Table and Periodic Trends 802 The History of the Periodic Table 804 Sizes of Atoms and Ions 815 Energetics of Ion Formation 833 The Chemical Families 867 Trace Elements in Biological Systems 893 End-of-Chapter Material 901 iv Chapter 8: Ionic versus Covalent Bonding 904 An Overview of Chemical Bonding 906 Ionic Bonding 908 Lattice Energies in Ionic Solids 916 Lewis Electron Dot Symbols 937 Lewis Structures and Covalent Bonding 942 Exceptions to the Octet Rule 978 Lewis Acids and Bases 988 Properties of Covalent Bonds 995 Polar Covalent Bonds 1009 End-of-Chapter Material 1021 Chapter 9: Molecular Geometry and Covalent Bonding Models 1025 Predicting the Geometry of Molecules and Polyatomic Ions 1027 Localized Bonding and Hybrid Atomic Orbitals 1069 Delocalized Bonding and Molecular Orbitals 1090 Polyatomic Systems with Multiple Bonds 1134 End-of-Chapter Material 1149 Chapter 10: Gases 1154 Gaseous Elements and Compounds 1156 Gas Pressure 1165 Relationships among Pressure, Temperature, Volume, and Amount 1181 The Ideal Gas Law 1191 Mixtures of Gases 1219 Gas Volumes and Stoichiometry 1230 The Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases 1241 The Behavior of Real Gases 1265 Essential Skills 1278 End-of-Chapter Material 1284 v Chapter 11: Liquids 1290 The Kinetic Molecular Description of Liquids 1292 Intermolecular Forces 1297 Unique Properties of Liquids 1320 Vapor Pressure 1334 Changes of State 1351 Critical Temperature and Pressure 1370 Phase Diagrams 1377 Liquid Crystals 1386 Essential Skills 1395 End-of-Chapter Material 1400 Chapter 12: Solids 1403 Crystalline and Amorphous Solids 1405 The Arrangement of Atoms in Crystalline Solids 1412 Structures of Simple Binary Compounds 1426 Defects in Crystals 1442 Correlation between Bonding and the Properties of Solids 1463 Bonding in Metals and Semiconductors 1476 Superconductors 1494 Polymeric Solids 1503 Contemporary Materials 1511 End-of-Chapter Material 1521 Chapter 13: Solutions 1525 Factors Affecting Solution Formation 1527 Solubility and Molecular Structure 1539 Units of Concentration 1559 Effects of Temperature and Pressure on Solubility 1577 Colligative Properties of Solutions 1590 Aggregate Particles in Aqueous Solution 1630 End-of-Chapter Material 1639 vi Chapter 14: Chemical Kinetics 1643 Factors That Affect Reaction Rates 1646 Reaction Rates and Rate Laws 1656 Methods of Determining Reaction Order 1679 Using Graphs to Determine Rate Laws, Rate Constants, and Reaction Orders 1713 Half-Lives and Radioactive Decay Kinetics 1721 Reaction Rates—A Microscopic View 1735 The Collision Model of Chemical Kinetics 1749 Catalysis 1765 End-of-Chapter Material 1776 Chapter 15: Chemical Equilibrium 1785 The Concept of Chemical Equilibrium 1787 The Equilibrium Constant 1794 Solving Equilibrium Problems 1826 Nonequilibrium Conditions 1852 Factors That Affect Equilibrium 1869 Controlling the Products of Reactions 1891 Essential Skills 1900 End-of-Chapter Material 1903 Chapter 16: Aqueous Acid–Base Equilibriums 1911 The Autoionization of Water 1913 A Qualitative Description of Acid–Base Equilibriums 1926 Molecular Structure and Acid–Base Strength 1959 Quantitative Aspects of Acid–Base Equilibriums 1971 Acid–Base Titrations 2000 Buffers 2031 End-of-Chapter Material 2059 Chapter 17: Solubility and Complexation Equilibriums 2063 Determining the Solubility of Ionic Compounds 2065 Factors That Affect Solubility 2087 The Formation of Complex Ions 2094 Solubility and pH 2112 Qualitative Analysis Using Selective Precipitation 2131 End-of-Chapter Material 2136 vii Chapter 18: Chemical Thermodynamics 2140 Thermodynamics and Work 2142 The First Law of Thermodynamics 2155 The Second Law of Thermodynamics 2170 Entropy Changes and the Third Law of Thermodynamics 2191 Free Energy 2204 Spontaneity and Equilibrium 2228 Comparing Thermodynamics and Kinetics 2244 Thermodynamics and Life 2253 End-of-Chapter Material 2266 Chapter 19: Electrochemistry 2273 Describing Electrochemical Cells 2275 Standard Potentials 2292 Comparing Strengths of Oxidants and Reductants 2322 Electrochemical Cells and Thermodynamics 2332 Commercial Galvanic Cells 2366 Corrosion 2378 Electrolysis 2388 End-of-Chapter Material 2404 Chapter 20: Nuclear Chemistry 2411 The Components of the Nucleus 2413 Nuclear Reactions 2426 The Interaction of Nuclear Radiation with Matter 2458 Thermodynamic Stability of the Atomic Nucleus 2473 Applied Nuclear Chemistry 2494 The Origin of the Elements 2510 End-of-Chapter Material 2521 Chapter 21: Periodic Trends and the s-Block Elements 2525 Overview of Periodic Trends 2527 The Chemistry of Hydrogen 2539 The Alkali Metals (Group 1) 2552 The Alkaline Earth Metals (Group 2) 2579 The s-Block Elements in Biology 2598 End-of-Chapter Material 2608 viii Chapter 22: The p-Block Elements 2613 The Elements of Group 13 2614 The Elements of Group 14 2638 The Elements of Group 15 (The Pnicogens) 2663 The Elements of Group 16 (The Chalcogens) 2684 The Elements of Group 17 (The Halogens) 2703 The Elements of Group 18 (The Noble Gases) 2718 End-of-Chapter Material 2731 Chapter 23: The d-Block Elements 2736 General Trends among the Transition Metals 2737 A Brief Survey of Transition-Metal Chemistry 2749 Metallurgy 2777 Coordination Compounds 2788 Crystal Field Theory 2813 Transition Metals in Biology 2837 End-of-Chapter Material 2862 Chapter 24: Organic Compounds 2866 Functional Groups and Classes of Organic Compounds 2868 Isomers of Organic Compounds 2873 Reactivity of Organic Molecules 2898 Common Classes of Organic Reactions 2906 Common Classes of Organic Compounds 2919 The Molecules of Life 2951 End-of-Chapter Material 2966 Appendix A: Standard Thermodynamic Quantities for Chemical Substances at 25°C 2971 Appendix B: Solubility-Product Constants (Ksp) for Compounds at 25°C 2984 Appendix C: Dissociation Constants and pKa Values for Acids at 25°C 2990 Appendix D: Dissociation Constants and pKb Values for Bases at 25°C 2993 Appendix E: Standard Reduction Potentials at 25°C 2994 Appendix F: Properties of Water 3001 Appendix G: Physical Constants and Conversion Factors 3003 Appendix H: Periodic Table of Elements 3005 Appendix I: Experimentally Measured Masses of Selected Isotopes 3012 ix Art and Photo Credits 3014 Molecular Models 3015 Photo Credits 3016 x Chapter 32 Appendix H: Periodic Table of Elements List of Elements Name Symbol Atomic Number Atomic Mass Nobelium No 102 [259]* Osmium Os 76 190.23(3) Oxygen O 15.9994(3) Palladium Pd 46 106.42(1) Phosphorus P 15 30.973762(2) Platinum Pt 78 195.084(9) Plutonium Pu 94 [244]* Polonium Po 84 [209]* Potassium K 19 39.0983(1) Praseodymium Pr 59 140.90765(2) Promethium Pm 61 [145]* Protactinium Pa 91 231.03588(2)* Radium Ra 88 [226]* Radon Rn 86 [222]* Rhenium Re 75 186.207(1) Rhodium Rh 45 102.90550(2) Roentgenium Rg 111 [280]* Rubidium Rb 37 85.4678(3) Ruthenium Ru 44 101.07(2) Rutherfordium Rf 104 [267]* Samarium Sm 62 150.36(2) Scandium Sc 21 44.955912(6) *Element has no stable isotope A value enclosed in brackets, e.g [209], indicates the mass number of the longest-lived isotope of the element Three such elements (Th, Pa, and U), however, have a characteristic terrestrial isotopic composition, and an atomic mass is given for them An uncertainty in the last digit in the Atomic Mass column is shown by the number in parentheses; e.g., 1.00794(7) indicates ±0.00007 †Element 112 named shortly before the release of this text Other periodic tables in this version of the text may refer to it as Ununbium (Uub) 3009 Chapter 32 Appendix H: Periodic Table of Elements List of Elements Name Symbol Atomic Number Atomic Mass Seaborgium Sg 106 [271]* Selenium Se 34 78.96(3) Silicon Si 14 28.0855(3) Silver Ag 47 107.8682(2) Sodium Na 11 22.98976928(2) Strontium Sr 38 87.62(1) Sulfur S 16 32.065(5) Tantalum Ta 73 180.94788(2) Technetium Tc 43 [98]* Tellurium Te 52 127.60(3) Terbium Tb 65 158.92535(2) Thallium Tl 81 204.3833(2) Thorium Th 90 232.03806(2)* Thulium Tm 69 168.93421(2) Tin Sn 50 118.710(7) Titanium Ti 22 47.867(1) Tungsten W 74 183.84(1) Ununhexium Uuh 116 [293]* Ununpentium Uup 115 [288]* Ununquadium Uuq 114 [289]* Ununtrium Uut 113 [284]* Uranium U 92 238.02891(3)* *Element has no stable isotope A value enclosed in brackets, e.g [209], indicates the mass number of the longest-lived isotope of the element Three such elements (Th, Pa, and U), however, have a characteristic terrestrial isotopic composition, and an atomic mass is given for them An uncertainty in the last digit in the Atomic Mass column is shown by the number in parentheses; e.g., 1.00794(7) indicates ±0.00007 †Element 112 named shortly before the release of this text Other periodic tables in this version of the text may refer to it as Ununbium (Uub) 3010 Chapter 32 Appendix H: Periodic Table of Elements List of Elements Name Symbol Atomic Number Atomic Mass Vanadium V 23 50.9415(1) Xenon Xe 54 131.293(6) Ytterbium Yb 70 173.04(3) Yttrium Y 39 88.90585(2) Zinc Zn 30 65.409(4) Zirconium Zr 40 91.224(2) *Element has no stable isotope A value enclosed in brackets, e.g [209], indicates the mass number of the longest-lived isotope of the element Three such elements (Th, Pa, and U), however, have a characteristic terrestrial isotopic composition, and an atomic mass is given for them An uncertainty in the last digit in the Atomic Mass column is shown by the number in parentheses; e.g., 1.00794(7) indicates ±0.00007 †Element 112 named shortly before the release of this text Other periodic tables in this version of the text may refer to it as Ununbium (Uub) Source of data: Atomic weights of the elements 2001 (IUPAC Technical Report) as supplemented by the Table of Standard Atomic Weights 2005 (to be published in Pure and Applied Chemistry) on the IUPAC web site, and “Nuclear Data Sheets for A-266-294” (to be published in Nuclear Data Sheets) at http://www.nndc.bnl.gov/superheavy.pdf 3011 Chapter 33 Appendix I: Experimentally Measured Masses of Selected Isotopes Isotope Mass (amu) Isotope Mass (amu) Isotope Mass (amu) H 1.007825 14 N 14.003074 208 Po 207.981246 H 2.014102 16 O 15.994915 210 Po 209.982874 H 3.016049 52 Cr 51.940508 222 Rn 222.017578 He 3.016029 56 Fe 55.934938 226 Ra 226.025410 He 4.002603 59 Co 58.933195 230 Th 230.033134 Li 6.015123 58 Ni 57.935343 234 Th 234.043601 Li 7.016005 60 Ni 59.930786 234 Pa 234.043308 Be 9.012182 90 Rb 89.914802 233 U 233.039635 10 B 10.012937 144 Cs 143.932077 234 U 234.040952 11 B 11.009305 206 Pb 205.974465 235 U 235.043930 12 C 12 207 Pb 206.975897 238 U 238.050788 13 C 13.003355 208 Pb 207.976652 239 Pu 239.052163 14 C 14.003242 Data source: G Audi, A H Wapstra, and C Thibault, The AME2003 atomic mass evaluation This table is provided as a reference Isotope Mass (amu) Isotope Mass (amu) B 8.024607 209 Fr 208.99592 40 K 39.963998 210 Po 209.982874 52 Cr 51.940508 212 At 211.990745 58 Ni 57.935343 214 Pb 213.999797 3012 Chapter 33 Appendix I: Experimentally Measured Masses of Selected Isotopes Isotope Mass (amu) Isotope Mass (amu) 59 Co 58.933195 214 Bi 213.998712 60 Co 59.933817 216 Fr 216.003198 60 Ni 59.930786 199 Pb 198.972917 90 Sr 89.907738 222 Rn 222.017578 92 Kr 91.926156 226 Ra 226.025410 141 Ba 140.914411 227 Ra 227.029178 143 Xe 142.935110 228 Ac 228.031021 167 Os 166.971550 230 Th 230.033134 171 Pt 170.981240 233 U 233.039635 194 Hg 193.965439 234 Th 234.043601 194 Tl 193.971200 234 Pa 234.043308 199 Pb 198.972917 233 U 233.039635 199 Bi 198.977672 234 U 234.040952 206 Pb 205.974465 235 U 235.043930 207 Pb 206.975897 238 Pa 238.054500 208 Pb 207.976652 238 U 238.050788 208 Bi 207.979742 239 Pu 239.052163 208 Po 207.981246 245 Pu 245.067747 3013 Chapter 34 Art and Photo Credits 3014 Chapter 34 Art and Photo Credits 34.1 Molecular Models We wish to thank the Cambridge Crystallographic Data Centre (CCDC) and the Fachinformationszentrum Karlsruhe (FIZ Karlsruhe) for allowing Imagineering Media Services (IMS) to access their databases of atomic coordinates for experimentally determined three-dimensional structures CCDC’s Cambridge Structural Database (CSD) is the world repository of small molecule crystal structures (distributed as part of the CSD System), and in FIZ Karlsruhe’s Inorganic Crystal Structure Database (ICSD) is the world’s largest inorganic crystal structure database The coordinates of organic and organometallic compounds in CSD and inorganic and intermetallic compounds in ICSD were invaluable in ensuring the accuracy of the molecular models produced by IMS for this textbook The authors, the publisher, and IMS gratefully acknowledge the assistance of both organizations Any errors in the molecular models in this text are entirely the responsibility of the authors, the publisher, and IMS The CSD System: The Cambridge Structural Database: a quarter of a million crystal structures and rising Allen, F.H., Acta Cryst (2002), B58, 380–388 ConQuest: New Software for searching the Cambridge Structural Database and visualizing crystal structures Bruno, I.J., Cole, J.C., Edgington, P.R., Kessler, M., Macrae, C.F., McCabe, P., Pearson, J., Taylor, R., Acta Cryst (2002), B58, 389–397 IsoStar: IsoStar: A Library of Information about Nonbonded Interactions Bruno, I.J., Cole, J.C., Lommerse, J.P.M., Rowland, R.S., Taylor, R., Verdonk, M., Journal of Computer-Aided Molecular Design (1997), 11-6, 525–537 The Inorganic Crystal Structure Database (ICSD) is produced and owned by Fachinformationszentrum Karlsruhe (FIZ Karlsruhe) and National Institute of Standards and Technology, an agency of the U.S Commerce Department’s Technology Administration (NIST) 3015 Chapter 34 Art and Photo Credits 34.2 Photo Credits Chapter "Introduction to Chemistry": Opening photo IBM Almaden Research Center Visualization Laboratory; Figure 1.1 "Chemistry in Everyday Life" Kristin Piljay, Benjamin Cummings Publishers, Pearson Education; Figure 1.2 "Evidence for the Asteroid Impact That May Have Caused the Extinction of the Dinosaurs"(a) Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory; Figure 1.2 "Evidence for the Asteroid Impact That May Have Caused the Extinction of the Dinosaurs"(b) left and right Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory; Figure 1.6 "The Three States of Matter" center Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs; Figure 1.6 "The Three States of Matter" left and right Dorling Kindersley; Figure 1.7 "A Heterogeneous Mixture" left Michael Dalton/Fundamental Photographs; Figure 1.7 "A Heterogeneous Mixture" right Dorling Kindersley; Figure 1.8 "The Distillation of a Solution of Table Salt in Water" Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs; Figure 1.9 "The Crystallization of Sodium Acetate from a Concentrated Solution of Sodium Acetate in Water" Richard Megna/ Fundamental Photographs; Figure 1.10 "The Decomposition of Water to Hydrogen and Oxygen by Electrolysis" Charles D Winters/Photo Researchers; Figure 1.12 "The Difference between Extensive and Intensive Properties of Matter" left and right Dorling Kindersley; Figure 1.13 "An Alchemist at Work" The Alchemist’s Workshop, 1570, Jan van der Straet (Joannes Stradanus), Palazzo Vecchio, Florence, Italy; Bridgeman Art Library; Figure 1.16 "A Gas Discharge Tube Producing Cathode Rays" Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs; Section 1.5.2 "Radioactivity" Laboratoire Curie, Institut du Radium, Paris Chapter "Molecules, Ions, and Chemical Formulas": Opening photo Courtesy of ConocoPhillips; Figure 2.7 "Sodium Chloride: an Ionic Solid" Jeremy Burgess/ Photo Researchers, Inc.; Figure 2.9 "Loss of Water from a Hydrate with Heating" top and bottom Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs; Section 2.3 "Naming Ionic Compounds" (The bottom of a boat) Dave G Houser/CORBIS; Section 2.3 "Naming Ionic Compounds" (Pigment in dark green paints) top and bottom Dorling Kindersley; Section 2.6.2 "Sulfuric Acid" The Canadian National Railway Historic Photograph Collection Chapter "Chemical Reactions": Opening photo Chip Clark; Figure 3.1 "Samples of Mol of Some Common Substances" Chip Clark; Figure 3.3 " "(a) Christine Chase; Figure 3.3 " "(b) David Scharf/Peter Arnold, Inc.; Figure 3.7 "An Ammonium Dichromate Volcano: Change during a Chemical Reaction" left and right Chip Clark; Section 3.3.1 "Interpreting Chemical Equations" Associated Press; Figure 3.9 "An Example of a Combustion Reaction" Richard Megna/ Fundamental Photographs; Figure 3.10 "Balancing Equations" Carey B Van Loon; 3016 Chapter 34 Art and Photo Credits Section 3.3.2 "Balancing Simple Chemical Equations" (Commercial use of fermentation) Stephen J Kron, University of Chicago; Section 3.4.1 "Stoichiometry Problems" NASA; Section 3.3.2 "Balancing Simple Chemical Equations"(Commercial use of fermentation) bottom Mason Morfit/Taxi; Section 3.4.2 "Limiting Reactants" Michael Freeman/CORBIS; Section 3.4.3 "Percent Yield" top Dorling Kindersley; Section 3.4.3 "Percent Yield" bottom Chip Clark; Section 3.5.2 "Condensation Reactions" (AgCl(s) precipitates) Chip Clark; Section 3.5.3 "Catalysts" Johnson Matthey PLC Science Photo Library/ Photo Researchers; Figure 3.15 "Satellite Photos of Earth Reveal the Sizes of the Antarctic Ozone Hole over Time" NASA Chapter "Reactions in Aqueous Solution": Opening photo Richard Megna/ Fundamental Photographs; Figure 4.4 "The Effect of Ions on the Electrical Conductivity of Water" (a)–(c) Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs; Figure 4.9 "Dissolution of mol of an Ionic Compound" Dorling Kindersley; Section 4.3.2 "Limiting Reactants in Solutions" (A Breathalyzer ampul) Richard Megna/ Fundamental Photographs; Figure 4.11 "What Happens at the Molecular Level When Solutions of AgNO" Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs; Section 4.5.1 "Predicting Solubilities" (An x-ray) Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs; Section 4.5.2 "Precipitation Reactions in Photography" (Silver bromide crystals) Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs; Figure 4.13 "Outline of the Steps Involved in Producing a Black-and-White Photograph" PhotoDisc; Section 4.6.1 "Definitions of Acids and Bases" top and bottom Dorling Kindersley; Figure 4.14 "The Reaction of Dilute Aqueous HNO" Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs; Section 4.6.5 "Neutralization Reactions" (Stomach acid) Digital Vision; Figure 4.16 "Two Ways of Measuring the pH of a Solution: pH Paper and a pH Meter" Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs; Figure 4.18 "Acid Rain Damage to a Statue of George Washington" Spencer Platt/Getty Images; Figure 4.19 "Acid Rain Damage to a Forest in the Czech Republic" Oliver Strewe/Stone; Figure 4.20 "Rust Formation" Ferrell McCollough/Visuals Unlimited; Figure 4.21 "The Single-Displacement Reaction of Metallic Copper with a Solution of Silver Nitrate" Peticolas/Megna/ Fundamental Photographs; Section 4.8.2 "Redox Reactions of Solid Metals in Aqueous Solution" (Corroded battery terminals) Ed Degginger/Color-Pic; Figure 4.22 "The Activity Series" Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs; Figure 4.23 "The Titration of Oxalic Acid with Permanganate" left and right Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs Chapter "Energy Changes in Chemical Reactions": Opening photo Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs; Section 5.5.1 "Fuels" (Measuring crude oil) Reuters/CORBIS; Figure 5.1 "Forms of Energy"(a) NASA; Figure 5.1 "Forms of Energy"(b) Joanna B Pinneo/Aurora & Quanta Productions Inc.; Figure 5.1 "Forms of Energy"(c) Herrmann/Starke/CORBIS; Figure 5.1 "Forms of Energy"(d) Los 34.2 Photo Credits 3017 Chapter 34 Art and Photo Credits Alamos National Laboratory; Figure 5.1 "Forms of Energy"(e) Robert Llewellyn/ CORBIS; Figure 5.2 "Interconversion of Forms of Energy" David W Hamilton/ Image Bank; Figure 5.3 "An Example of Mechanical Work" Bettmann/CORBIS; Figure 5.10 "Elemental Carbon" General Electric Corporate Research & Development Center; Figure 5.12 "An Instant Hot Pack Based on the Crystallization of Sodium Acetate" Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs; Section 5.5.1 "Fuels" (Measuring crude oil) Reuters/CORBIS; Figure 5.20 "A Peat Bog" Brian Lightfoot/Agefotostock Chapter "The Structure of Atoms": Opening photo Richard Megna/ Fundamental Photographs; Figure 6.1 "A Wave in Water" Alex Howe/Image State; Figure 6.4 "The Electromagnetic Spectrum" Andrew Davidhazy; Figure 6.5 "Blackbody Radiation" left PhotoDisc Red; Figure 6.5 "Blackbody Radiation" right Dorling Kindersley; Figure 6.8 "A Beam of Red Light Emitted by a Ruby Laser" agefotostock; Figure 6.9 "The Emission of Light by Hydrogen Atoms"(a) Charles Winters/Photo Researchers; Figure 6.9 "The Emission of Light by Hydrogen Atoms"(b) top Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs; Figure 6.13 "The Emission Spectra of Elements Compared with Hydrogen"(a)–(c) “Simultaneous Display of Spectral Images and Graphs Using a Web Camera and Fiber Optic Spectrometer” by Brian Niece Journal of Chemical Education Section 6.3.3 "Applications of Emission and Absorption Spectra" (Absorption of light) the International Dark-Sky Association, www.darksky.org; Figure 6.14 "The Visible Spectrum of Sunlight" the International Dark-Sky Association, www.darksky.org; Section 6.3.3 "Applications of Emission and Absorption Spectra" (Sodium and mercury spectra) the International Dark-Sky Association, www.darksky.org; Figure 6.15 "The Chemistry of Fireworks"(a) Jeff Hunter/The Image Bank/Getty Images; Section 6.3.3 "Applications of Emission and Absorption Spectra" (CD) Laboratory forMicroscopy and Micro-analysis, University of Pretoria, South Africa; Figure 6.17 "A Comparison of Images Obtained Using a Light Microscope and an Electron Microscope" (a) and (b) Chris Hollis; Section 6.3.3 "Applications of Emission and Absorption Spectra" (He emission spectrum) “Simultaneous Display of Spectral Images and Graphs Using a Web Camera and Fiber Optic Spectrometer” by Brian Niece Journal of Chemical Education Chapter "The Periodic Table and Periodic Trends": Opening photo Science & Society Picture Library/Science Museum, London; Section 7.4.1 "The Main Group Elements" Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs Chapter "Ionic versus Covalent Bonding": Opening photo Richard Megna/ Fundamental Photographs; Figure 8.6 "G N Lewis and the Octet Rule" University Archives, the Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley; Figure 8.10 "The 34.2 Photo Credits 3018 Chapter 34 Art and Photo Credits Three Allotropes of Phosphorus: White, Red, and Black" Justin Urgitis/ www.chemicalforums.com Chapter "Molecular Geometry and Covalent Bonding Models": Opening photo Jian-Min Zuo, Miyoung Kim, Michael O’Keefe and John Spence, Arizona State University; Figure 9.27 "Liquid O" Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs Chapter 10 "Gases": Opening photo CORBIS; Figure 10.15 "The Diffusion of Gaseous Molecules" Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs; Figure 10.16 "A Simple Experiment to Measure the Relative Rates of the Diffusion of Two Gases" Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs; Figure 10.18 "A Portion of a Plant for Separating Uranium Isotopes by Effusion of UF" U.S Department of Energy/ Photo Researchers, Inc.; Figure 10.25 "A Liquid Natural Gas Transport Ship" Network Photographers/Alamy Chapter 11 "Liquids": Opening photo Oleg D Lavrentovich, Liquid Crystal Institute, Kent State University; Figure 11.2 "Why Liquids Flow" Kristen Brochmann Fundamental Photographs; Figure 11.10 "The Effects of the High Surface Tension of Liquid Water"(a) Chip Clark; Figure 11.10 "The Effects of the High Surface Tension of Liquid Water"(b) Herman Eisenbeiss/ Photo Researchers, Inc.; Figure 11.11 "The Phenomenon of Capillary Action" Richard Megna/ Fundamental Photographs; Figure 11.12 "The Effects of Capillary Action"(b) Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs; Figure 11.18 "The Sublimation of Solid Iodine" Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs; Figure 11.21 "Supercritical Benzene" Division of Chemical Education, Inc., American Chemical Society; Figure 11.25 "Cholesteryl Benzoate"(a)–(b) Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs; Figure 11.29 "An Inexpensive Fever Thermometer That Uses Liquid Crystals" Liquid Crystal Resources Chapter 12 "Solids": Opening photo M C Escher’s “Symmetry Drawing E128” © 2005 The M C Escher Company—Holland All rights reserved www.mcescher.com; Section 12.1 "Crystalline and Amorphous Solids" all photos Dorling Kindersley;Figure 12.13 "X-Ray Diffraction"(b) ArsNatura; Figure 12.16 "Edge Dislocations" left Dorling Kindersley; Section 12.4.2 "Memory Metal" Photo Researchers, Inc.; Section 12.4.3 "Defects in Ionic and Molecular Crystals" all photos Dorling Kindersley; Figure 12.29 "The Meissner Effect"(b) J.H Rector courtesy of R Griessen, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Figure 12.33 "Sintering" Suminar Pratapa and Brian O’Connor (Curtin University of Technology) and Brett Hunter (ANSTO), Bragg Institute, Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation 34.2 Photo Credits 3019 Chapter 34 Art and Photo Credits Chapter 13 "Solutions": Opening photo TPL Distribution/Photolibrary; Figure 13.2 "Commercial Cold Packs for Treating Injuries" Dorling Kindersley; Figure 13.5 "Immiscible Liquids" Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs; Figure 13.8 "Effect of a Crown Ether on the Solubility of KMnO" Richard Megna/ Fundamental Photographs; Figure 13.19 "Effect on Red Blood Cells of the Surrounding Solution’s Osmotic Pressure"(a)–(c) Sam Singer/ArsNatura; Figure 13.22 "Tyndall Effect, the Scattering of Light by Colloids" Richard Megna/ Fundamental Photographs; Figure 13.23 "Sickle-Cell Anemia" Oliver Meckes & Nicole Ottawa/Photo Researchers, Inc.; Figure 13.24 "Formation of New Land by the Destabilization of a Colloid Suspension" John F Kennedy Space Center/NASA Chapter 14 "Chemical Kinetics": Opening photo Fritz Goro; Figure 14.1 "The Effect of Concentration on Reaction Rates" Chip Clark; Figure 14.2 "The Effect of Temperature on Reaction Rates" Chip Clark; Figure 14.3 "The Effect of Surface Area on Reaction Rates" Chip Clark; Figure 14.4 "The Effect of Catalysts on Reaction Rates" Chip Clark; Figure 14.28 "A Catalytic Defense Mechanism" Thomas Eisner Chapter 15 "Chemical Equilibrium": Opening photo James Whitlow Delano/ Redux; Figure 15.1 "The " Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs; Section 15.3.2 "Calculating Equilibrium Concentrations from the Equilibrium Constant" (Laboratory apparatus) Deutsches Museum, Munich; Figure 15.12 "The Effect of Changing the Volume (and Thus the Pressure) of an Equilibrium Mixture of N" Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs; Figure 15.13 "The Effect of Temperature on the Equilibrium between Gaseous N" Richard Megna/ Fundamental Photographs Chapter 16 "Aqueous Acid–Base Equilibriums": Opening photo Richard Megna/ Fundamental Photographs; Figure 16.22 "Naturally Occurring pH Indicators in Red Cabbage Juice" Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs; Figure 16.24 "Choosing the Correct Indicator for an Acid–Base Titration" Richard Megna/ Fundamental Photographs; Figure 16.25 "pH Paper" Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs Chapter 17 "Solubility and Complexation Equilibriums": Opening photo Andrew Syred/Photo Researchers; Section 17.1.1 "The Solubility Product" (A crystal of calcite) Chip Clark; Figure 17.4 "The Formation of Complex Ions" Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs; Figure 17.5 "An MRI Image of the Heart, Arteries, and Veins" Wesley Vick and Taylor Chung, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston; Figure 17.6 "The Chemistry of Cave Formation"(a) Martin Siepmann/AGEfotostock; Figure 17.6 "The Chemistry of Cave Formation"(b) Chase Studio/Photo Researchers; Figure 17.7 "Solubility Equilibriums in the 34.2 Photo Credits 3020 Chapter 34 Art and Photo Credits Formation of Karst Landscapes" Carl & Ann Purcell/CORBIS; Figure 17.9 "Chromium(III) Hydroxide [Cr(OH)" Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs; Figure 17.11 "The Separation of Metal Ions from Group Using Qualitative Analysis" Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs Chapter 18 "Chemical Thermodynamics": Opening photo Robert Llewellyn/ lmage State; Figure 18.1 "Altitude Is a State Function" Robert Harding Picture Library Ltd./Photolibrary; Figure 18.2 "The Relationship between Heat and Work" top Bettmann/CORBIS; Figure 18.2 "The Relationship between Heat and Work"bottom Bettmann/CORBIS; Figure 18.6 "An Endothermic Reaction" Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs; Figure 18.7 "Illustrating Low- and High-Entropy States with a Deck of Playing Cards" Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs; Figure 18.11 "Thermograms Showing That Heat Is Absorbed from the Surroundings When Ice Melts at 0°C" James Klett, Oak Ridge National Laboratory; Figure 18.12 "Spontaneous Transfer of Heat from a Hot Substance to a Cold Substance" Olivier Grunewald/Photolibrary; Figure 18.15 "Two Forms of Elemental Sulfur and a Thermodynamic Cycle Showing the Transition from One to the Other" left Dorling Kindersley; Figure 18.15 "Two Forms of Elemental Sulfur and a Thermodynamic Cycle Showing the Transition from One to the Other" right Andrew Lambert Photography/Photo Researchers Chapter 19 "Electrochemistry": Opening photo Paul Chesley/National Geographic/Getty Images; Figure 19.2 "The Reaction of Metallic Zinc with Aqueous Copper(II) Ions in a Single Compartment" Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs; Figure 19.3 "The Reaction of Metallic Zinc with Aqueous Copper(II) Ions in a Galvanic Cell"(b) Stephen Frisch/Stock Boston; Section 19.1.1 "Galvanic (Voltaic) Cells" (A galvanic cell) Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs; Figure 19.8 "The Reaction of Dichromate with Iodide" Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs; Section 19.5.1 "Batteries".3 (Cardiac pacemaker) Charles O’Rear/CORBIS; Figure 19.23 "The Electrolysis of Water" Charles D Winters/Photo Researchers; Figure 19.24 "Electroplating" Sam Ogden/ Photo Researchers Chapter 20 "Nuclear Chemistry": Opening photo US Dept of Energy/SPL/Photo Researchers; Figure 20.9 "A Linear Particle Accelerator"(a) Michael Collier; Figure 20.10 "A Synchrotron" Fermilab Visual Media Services; Figure 20.11 "Radiation Damage" Dwayne Anthony and the National Insulator Association; Section 20.5 "Applied Nuclear Chemistry" (Pitchblende) Thomas Seilnacht; Figure 20.19 "A “Fossil Nuclear Reactor” in a Uranium Mine Near Oklo in Gabon, West Africa" Robert D Loss, WAlSRC; Figure 20.20 "The Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant" NOVOSTI/SIPA; Figure 20.22 "Two Possible Designs for a Nuclear Fusion Reactor"(a) Plasma Physics Laboratory, Princeton University; Figure 20.22 "Two Possible Designs for a Nuclear Fusion Reactor"(b) Lawrence 34.2 Photo Credits 3021 Chapter 34 Art and Photo Credits Livermore National Laboratory; Figure 20.23 "Medical Imaging and Treatment with Radioisotopes"(a) Chris Priest/SPL/Photo Researchers; Figure 20.23 "Medical Imaging and Treatment with Radioisotopes"(b) Simon Fraser/SPL/ Photo Researchers; Figure 20.24 "The Preservation of Strawberries with Ionizing Radiation" International Atomic Energy Agency; Figure 20.28 "A Supernova" Space Telescope Science Institute Chapter 21 "Periodic Trends and the ": Opening photo Journal of Chemical Education; Figure 21.6 "The Explosive Properties of Hydrogen" Bettmann/ CORBIS; Section 21.3.3 "Reactions and Compounds of the Alkali Metals" (A crystal of spodumene) Dorling Kindersley; Figure 21.8 "The Trisulfide Anion Is Responsible for the Deep Blue Color of Some Gemstones" Dorling Kindersley; Figure 21.10 "Reacting Sodium with Water" Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs; Figure 21.11 "Alkali Metal–Liquid Ammonia Solutions" Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs; Section 21.4.1 "Preparation of the Alkaline Earth Metals" (A crystal of beryl and a crystal of strontianite) Dorling Kindersley; Figure 21.13 "Magnesium Alloys Are Lightweight and Corrosion Resistant" Hulton Archive/Getty Images Chapter 22 "The ": Opening photo Roger Hayward; Figure 22.1 "Borax Deposits"(a) Dorling Kindersley; Figure 22.1 "Borax Deposits"(b) The Dial Corporation; Section 22.1.2 "Reactions and Compounds of Boron" (Cubic BN crystals and natural industrial diamonds) Indus Global Superabrasives; Figure 22.5 "Very Small Particles of Noncrystalline Carbon Are Used to Make Black Ink"(a) Dorling Kindersley; Figure 22.5 "Very Small Particles of Noncrystalline Carbon Are Used to Make Black Ink"(b) Brooklyn Museum of Art/CORBlS; Figure 22.6 "Crystalline Samples of Carbon and Silicon, the Lightest Group 14 Elements"(a) AP/Wide World Photos; Figure 22.6 "Crystalline Samples of Carbon and Silicon, the Lightest Group 14 Elements"(b) Texas Instruments lncorporated; Section 22.2.2 "Reactions and Compounds of Carbon" (Miner’s lamp) lnner Mountain Outfitters; Section 22.2.3 "Reactions and Compounds of the Heavier Group 14 Elements" (Child with Silly Putty) Roger Ressmeyer/CORBIS; Figure 22.10 "The Ancient Egyptians Used Finely Ground Antimony Sulfide for Eye Makeup"(a) Dorling Kindersley; Figure 22.10 "The Ancient Egyptians Used Finely Ground Antimony Sulfide for Eye Makeup"(b) Erich Lessing/Art Resource NY; Section 22.4 "The Elements of Group 16 (The Chalcogens)" (Sulfur deposit) David Cavagnaro/Visuals Unlimited; Section 22.4.1 "Preparation and General Properties of the Group 16 Elements" (Iron pyrite) Photolibrary; Section 22.5 "The Elements of Group 17 (The Halogens)" (A crystal of fluorite) Paul Silverman/Fundamental Photographs; Figure 22.14 "Isolation of Elemental Fluorine" Science & Society Picture Library/Science Museum, London; Figure 22.15 "A Subterranean Salt Mine" Ferdinando Scianna/Magnum Photos; Section 22.6.2 "Reactions and Compounds of the Noble Gases" (“Burning snowballs”) 34.2 Photo Credits 3022 Chapter 34 Art and Photo Credits Kazuhiro Nogi/AFP/Getty lmage; Figure 22.1 "Borax Deposits".7 Walter Gruber, University of British Columbia Collection of Neil Bartlett Chapter 23 "The ": Opening photo Txomin Sáez/AGEfotostock; Figure 23.4 "Aqueous Solutions of Vanadium Ions in Oxidation States of +2 to +5" Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs; Figure 23.5 "Compounds of Manganese in Oxidation States +2 to +7" Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs; Section 23.2.3 "Groups 8, 9, and 10" (Coins) Doug Smith; Section 23.2.4 "Groups 11 and 12" (Gold nugget) Ted Aljibe/AEP/Getty Images; Section 23.2.4 "Groups 11 and 12" (Chuquicamata copper mine) Martin Bernetti/AFP/Getty Images; Figure 23.6 "Froth Flotation" Johnson Matthey; Figure 23.7 "A Blast Furnace for Converting Iron Oxides to Iron Metal" Margaret Bouke-White/Time Life Pictures/Getty Images; Figure 23.8 "A Basic Oxygen Furnace for Converting Crude Iron to Steel" Alex Webb/Magnum Photos; Section 23.5.5 "Crystal Field Stabilization Energies" (Crystals of ruby and emerald) Dorling Kindersley Chapter 24 "Organic Compounds": Opening photo After Eddaoudi, M.; Kim, J.; O'Keeffe, M.; Yaghi, O M J Am Chem Soc 2002, 124, 376, Figure Crystallographic data (ja017154e_s2.cif) available at http://pubs.acs.org; Figure 24.24 "Plaque in an Artery" Eye of Science/Photo Researchers; Section 24.2.3 "Stereoisomers" (Milk and tobacco) Dorling Kindersley; Section 24.2.3 "Stereoisomers".2left (Caraway seeds) Dorling Kindersley; Section 24.2.3 "Stereoisomers".2 right (Spearmint oil) James Baigrie/Foodpix/Jupiter Images; Section 24.5.6 "Carboxylic Acid Derivatives" (Fruit fly and banana) Dorling Kindersley 34.2 Photo Credits 3023 ... Extinction of the Dinosaurs") This layer was deposited at about the time dinosaurs disappeared from the fossil record Although iridium is very rare in most rocks, accounting for only 0. 000 000 1% of Earth’s... Factors 300 3 Appendix H: Periodic Table of Elements 300 5 Appendix I: Experimentally Measured Masses of Selected Isotopes 301 2 ix Art and Photo Credits 301 4 Molecular... × 10- 12 meters.) 10 Chapter Introduction to Chemistry 1.1 Chemistry in the Modern World LEARNING OBJECTIVE To recognize the breadth, depth, and scope of chemistry Chemistry1 is the study of matter