Joint structure and function, a comprehensive analysis 5th ed p levangie, c norkin (f a davis, 2011)

Disclaimer: This eBook does not include ancillary media that was packaged with the printed version of the book 2362_FM_i-xxii.qxd 2/3/11 4:24 PM Page i Joint Structure and Function FIF TH EDITION A Comprehensive Analysis 2362_FM_i-xxii.qxd 2/3/11 4:24 PM Page iii Joint Structure and Function FIF TH EDITION A Comprehensive Analysis Pamela K Levangie, PT, DSc, FAPTA Professor and Associate Chairperson Department of Physical Therapy MGH Institute of Health Professions Boston, Massachusetts Cynthia C Norkin, PT, EdD Former Director and Associate Professor School of Physical Therapy Ohio University Athens, Ohio 2362_FM_i-xxii.qxd 2/3/11 4:24 PM Page iv F A Davis Company 1915 Arch Street Philadelphia, PA 19103 www.fadavis.com Copyright © 2011 by F A Davis Company Copyright © 2011 by F A Davis Company All rights reserved This product is protected by copyright No part of it may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without written permission from the publisher Printed in the United States of America Last digit indicates print number: 10 Acquisitions Editor: Melissa Duffield Manager of Content Development: George W Lang Developmental Editor: Karen Carter Art and Design Manager: Carolyn O’Brien As new scientific information becomes available through basic and clinical research, recommended treatments and drug therapies undergo changes The author(s) and publisher have done everything possible to make this book accurate, up to date, and in accord with accepted standards at the time of publication The author(s), editors, and publisher are not responsible for errors or omissions or for consequences from application of the book, and make no warranty, expressed or implied, in regard to the contents of the book Any practice described in this book should be applied by the reader in accordance with professional standards of care used in regard to the unique circumstances that may apply in each situation The reader is advised always to check product information (package inserts) for changes and new information regarding dose and contraindications before administering any drug Caution is especially urged when using new or infrequently ordered drugs Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Joint structure and function : a comprehensive analysis / [edited by ] Pamela K Levangie, Cynthia C Norkin.—5th ed p ; cm Rev ed of : Joint structure and function / Pamela K Levangie, Cynthia C Norkin 4th ed c2005 Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN-13: 978-0-8036-2362-0 ISBN-10: 0-8036-2362-3 Human mechanics Joints I Levangie, Pamela K II Norkin, Cynthia C III Levangie, Pamela K Joint Structure and function [DNLM: Joints—anatomy & histology Joints—physiology WE 300] QP303.N59 2011 612.7’5—dc22 2010033921 Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use, or the internal or personal use of specific clients, is granted by F A Davis Company for users registered with the Copyright Clearance Center (CCC) Transactional Reporting Service, provided that the fee of $.25 per copy is paid directly to CCC, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923 For those organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged The fee code for users of the Transactional Reporting Service is: 8036–2362/11 + $.25 2362_FM_i-xxii.qxd 2/3/11 4:24 PM Page v PREFACE TO THE FIFTH EDITION With the fifth edition of Joint Structure and Function, we maintain a tradition of excellence in education that began more than 25 years ago We continue to respond to the dynamic environment of publishing, as well as to changes taking place in media, research technology, and in the education of individuals who assess human function We include use of two- and four-color line drawings, enhanced instructor’s tools, and new videos that all support and enhance the reader’s experience Our contributors are chosen for their expertise in the areas of research, practice, and teaching—grounding their chapters in best and current evidence and in clinical relevance Patient cases (in both “Patient Case” and “Patient Application” boxes) facilitate an understanding of the continuum between normal and impaired function, making use of emerging case-based and problem-based learning educational strategies “Concept Cornerstones” and “Continuing Exploration” boxes provide the reader or the instructor additional flexibility in setting learning objectives What remains unchanged in this edition of Joint Structure and Function is our commitment to maintaining a text that provides a strong foundation in the principles that underlie an understanding of human structure and function while also being readable and as concise as possible We hope that our years of experience in contributing to the education of health-care professionals allow us to strike a unique balance We cannot fail to recognize the increased educational demands placed on many entry-level healthcare professionals and hope that the updates to the fifth edition help students meet that demand However, Joint Structure and Function, while growing with its readers, continues to recognize that the new reader requires elementary and interlinked building blocks that lay a strong but flexible foundation to best support continued learning and growth in a complex and changing world We very much appreciate our opportunity to contribute to health care by assisting in the professional development of the students and practitioners who are our readers PAMELA K LEVANGIE CYNTHIA C NORKIN v 2362_FM_i-xxii.qxd 2/3/11 4:24 PM Page vi 2362_FM_i-xxii.qxd 2/3/11 4:24 PM Page vii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The fifth edition of Joint Structure and Function is made possible only by the continued and combined efforts of many people and groups We are, first and foremost, grateful for the time, effort, and expertise of our esteemed contributors with whom it has been a pleasure to work Our thanks, therefore, to Drs Sam Ward, Sandra Curwin, Gary Chleboun, Diane Dalton, Julie Starr, Pam Ritzline, Paula Ludewig, John Borstad, RobRoy Martin, Lynn Snyder-Mackler, Michael Lewek, Erin Hartigan, Janice Eng, and Sandra Olney, as well as to Ms Noelle Austin and Mr Benjamin Kivlan Additionally, we want to express our appreciation to the individuals who helped develop the ancillary materials that support the fifth edition, including the Instructor’s Resources developed by Ms Christine Conroy and the videos developed by Dr Lee Marinko and Center City Film & Video We would also like to acknowledge and thank the individuals who contributed their comments and suggestions as reviewers (listed on page xi), as well as those who passed along their unsolicited suggestions through the years, including our students We extend our continuing gratitude to F A Davis for their investment in the future of Joint Structure and Function and its ancillary materials Particular thanks go to Margaret Biblis (Publisher), Melissa Duffield (Acquisitions Editor), Karen Carter (Developmental Editor), Yvonne Gillam (Developmental Editor), George Lang (Manager of Content Development), David Orzechowski (Managing Editor), Robert Butler (Production Manager), Carolyn O’Brien (Manager of Art and Design), Katherine Margeson (Illustration Coordinator), and Stephanie Rukowicz (Assistant Developmental Editor) who provided great support As always we must thank the artists who, through the years, provided the images that are so valuable to the readers These include artists of past editions, Joe Farnum, Timothy Malone, and Anne Raines New to the fifth edition is Dartmouth Publishing, Inc., adding both new figures and enhanced color to the text Finally, we acknowledge and thank our colleagues and families, without whose support this work could not have been done and to whom we are eternally indebted vii 2362_FM_i-xxii.qxd 2/3/11 4:24 PM Page viii 2362_FM_i-xxii.qxd 2/3/11 4:24 PM Page ix CONTRIBUTORS Noelle M Austin, PT, MS, CHT Michael Lewek, PT, PhD CJ Education and Consulting, LLC Woodbridge, Connecticut www.cj-education.com The Orthopaedic Group Hamden, Connecticut Assistant Professor Division of Physical Therapy University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Chapel Hill, North Carolina Paula M Ludewig, PT, PhD John D Borstad, PT, PhD Assistant Professor Physical Therapy Division Ohio State University Columbus, Ohio Associate Professor Program in Physical Therapy University of Minnesota Minneapolis, Minnesota RobRoy L Martin, PT, PhD, CSCS Gary Chleboun, PT, PhD Professor School of Physical Therapy Ohio University Athens, Ohio Sandra Curwin, PT, PhD Associate Professor School of Physiotherapy Dalhousie University Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada Diane Dalton, PT, DPT, OCS Clinical Assistant Professor Physical Therapy Program Boston University Boston, Massachusetts Janice J Eng, PT, OT, PhD Professor Department of Physical Therapy University of British Columbia Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada Associate Professor Duquesne University Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Sandra J Olney, PT, OT, PhD Professor Emeritus School of Rehabilitation Therapy Queens University Kingston, Ontario, Canada Pamela Ritzline, PT, EdD Associate Professor Department of Physical Therapy University of Tennessee Health Science Center Memphis, Tennessee Lynn Snyder-Mackler, PT, ScD, SCS, ATC, FAPTA Alumni Distinguished Professor Department of Physical Therapy University of Delaware Newark, Delaware Julie Ann Starr, PT, DPT, CCS Erin Hartigan, PT, PhD, DPT, OCS, ATC Assistant Professor Physical Therapy Department University of New England Portland, Maine Clinical Associate Professor Physical Therapy Program Boston University Boston, Massachusetts Sam Ward, PT, PhD Benjamin Kivlan, PT, SCS, OCS, CSCS Doctoral Student Duquesne University Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Departments of Radiology, Orthopaedic Surgery, and Bioengineering University of California San Diego La Jolla, California ix 2362_Index-569-602.qxd 574 2/3/11 4:23 PM Page 574 Index Force(s) (Continued) in posture, 489–490, 489f on hip joint in bilateral stance, muscle function and, 379–380, 380f in unilateral stance, muscle function and, 380–385, 381f, 381t, 383f, 385f internal, 12 joint reaction, joint compression and, 28–29, 28f of kinetic friction, 31 by lever system, analysis of, limitations of, 50 moment arm of, 33 See also Moment arm (MA) moment of, 33–39 See also Torque (τ) muscle, 39–41, 39f, 40f, 41f measuring, 39–40 naming of, 14 normal, 23 parallel, 50 in parallel force system, composition of, 36 primary rules of, 12 reaction, 22 tensile forces and, 24–25, 25f resistance, 46 resolution of, 50 into components, 51, 51f trigonometric, 53, 53f resultant, 15 See also Resultant forces shear, 30, 30f, 32 tensile, 23–25, 24f, 25f, 26f units of, 11 weight as, 11 Force couple, 33 Force systems concurrent resultant forces in, determining, 21–22, 22f translatory motion in, 21–22, 22f linear additional considerations in, 23–32 resultant forces in, determining, 19–20, 19f, 20f translatory motion in, 19–20, 19f, 20f parallel, 35–38, 35f, 36f, 37f, 38f Force vectors, 12–14, 12f, 13f, 14f characteristics of, 14 ground reaction, 489 length of, 12–13, 12f point of application of, 12, 13, 13f Force-velocity curve, 121, 121f Force-velocity relationship, in muscle, 121–122, 121f Forearm long axis of, 283–284, 283f muscles of, aging effects on, 298 Forefoot, 441, 441f See also Foot Forefoot varus, 463, 463f, 467 Fovea, 273, 274f, 358, 358f Fovea capitis, 358 Fracture(s), 83 healing of exercise during, 79–80 materials involved in, 73 living tissues affected by, 67 of hip, 388–389 of radius, 308, 309f Freeway space, 223 Friction kinetic, 30–32 static, 30–32 tendon, 56–57, 57f Friction force, 30–32, 30f, 31f Frontal plane, of body, 8, 8f Frontal plane joint angles, in gait, 534, 534f Frontal plane moments, in gait, 537, 540f, 541f Frontal plane powers, in gait, 542, 544f Functional curves, in scoliosis, 506 Functional impairment, in abnormal gait, 562–564 Functional residual capacity, 200, 200t Fusiform muscles, 115, 117 G Gait(s), 524–567 abnormal, 561–564 adaptation/compensation for, 563 functional impairment and, 562–564 structural impairment in, 562 age and, 559–560 analysis of, 525, 525f antalgic, 383 assistive devices and, 561 center of pressure in, 534, 535f characteristics of from initial contact to midstance, 549t from midstance to toe-off, 550t energies in, 558 frontal plane moments in, 537, 540f, 541f frontal plane powers in, 542, 544f gender and, 560–561 gluteus medius, 383 initiation of, 550–551 avoiding instability in, 551 inverse dynamic approach to, 525 kinetics of, methods of study of, 530 moments in, 558 muscle activity in, 545–549 orthoses and, 561 pathological, 383 pelvic rotation in, 372, 372f power and work in, understanding, 542 powers in, 558 running, 555–558, 556f, 557f sagittal plane joint angles in, 532, 533f, 534 sagittal plane moments in, 535–536, 537f, 538f, 539f sagittal plane powers in, 540, 540t, 543f, 549t, 550t speed of, hip fractures in elderly and, 389 stair, 553–555, 554f, 555t support moment in, 536 tasks of, major, 525 termination of, 551 terminology of, 527–531 kinematic, 528–529 kinetic, 529–531 for time and distance, 527–528, 528f treadmill, 553 Trendelenburg, 383 trunk and, 552–553, 552f upper extremity in, 553 walking, mechanical energy of, 542, 545, 545f Gait cycle, phases of, 525–527, 526f, 527f Gastrocnemius bursa, 411 Gastrocnemius muscle, 402, 471 in ankle dorsiflexion, 448 in gait, 545, 546, 548 in knee flexion, 417–418 in running gait, 558 shortening of, 471–472 Gemellus inferior muscle, in hip rotation, lateral, 378 Gemellus superior muscle, in hip rotation, lateral, 378 Gender elbow function and, 297–298 gait and, 560–561 posture and, 516–517 Q-angle and, 431 General motion, Geniohyoid muscle, 221, 221f Genu recurvatum, 415, 500, 500f Genu valgum, 398, 399f, 505, 506f knee osteoarthritis and, 399 Genu varum, 398, 399f, 505–506, 506f knee osteoarthritis and, 399 Gibbus deformity, 501, 501f Glenohumeral joint, 245–257, 245f articulating surfaces of, 245, 246f bursae of, 251 capsule of, 247–248, 247f, 248f in glenohumeral joint stability, 252–253 coracoacromial arch in, 250, 250f hypomobility of, 262 impingement of, 250, 251 ligaments of, 247–250, 247f, 248–249f motions of, 251–252, 252f in shoulder complex function, 258–259, 258f, 259f stabilization of dynamic, 253–257 costs of, 256–257 deltoid muscle in, 253–254, 254f rotator cuff in, 254–255, 254f supraspinatus muscle in, 254f, 255 static, 253 Glenohumeral ligaments, 247–248, 247f, 248–249f Glenoid labrum, 245, 247f Gluteus maximus muscle, 180, 180f in hip extension, 376, 377 in hip flexion, 376 at knee in weight-bearing, 418–419, 419f in running gait, 556 Gluteus medius gait, 383 Gluteus medius muscle in hip abduction, 377–378 in gait, 549 in hip extension, 376 in running gait, 556 Gluteus minimus muscle, in hip abduction, 377–378 in gait, 549 Glycoproteins, 70, 72, 73t Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs), 70, 71t, 72f Golgi tendon organs, muscle function and, 130, 131f Gomphosis joint, 88 Gracilis muscle, 412 in hip adduction, 376 hip joint ROM and, 369 in knee flexion, 418, 418f Grasping, in postural control, 487, 488 Gravitational forces, on posture, 489 Gravity, 11 center of, 14, 15f See also Center of gravity (CoG) forces of, 14–17, 15f, 16f, 17f composition of, 15, 15f contact forces and, 22–23, 23f Grip/grasp cylindrical, 344–345, 345f finger flexor, 326, 326f hook, 345–346, 346f power, 343, 343f, 344–346 spherical, 345, 346f 2362_Index-569-602.qxd 2/3/11 4:23 PM Page 575 Index Ground reaction forces (GRFs), 529 in gait, 534, 535f, 536f muscle activity and, in gait analysis, 548 in posture, 489–490, 489f Ground substance, 70 H H zone, 110, 110f Hallux, 463 Hallux rigidus, 465 Hallux valgus, 465–466, 467, 467f Hamate, 306f, 307 Hammer toe deformity, 465 Hammer toes, 498–499, 499f Hamstring muscles in hip extension, 376, 377 in gait, 545 hip joint ROM and, 368 in knee flexion, 407, 417 in gait, 548 in running gait, 558 Hand complex, 319–343 anti-deformity positioning for, 325, 325f claw, 331–332, 332f fingers of See Finger(s) functional position of, 348–349, 349f intrinsic plus position of, 332, 338, 339f nomenclature relevant to, 307 power grip of, 344–346 cylindrical, 344–345, 345f hook, 345–346, 346f spherical, 345, 346f prehension activities of, 343–348, 343f See also Prehension relationship of elbow complex to, 295–296 thumb, 339–343, 339f–342f See also Thumb Head forward posture of, 502, 503t in child, 516, 516f in lateral view postural deviations, 502 movement of, through space, 372–373, 373f in standing posture analysis, 496, 497f Head groups, of myofilaments, 109–110, 110f Head-stabilizing strategies, in postural control, 488–489 Heel-off, in stance phase of gait cycle, 526f, 527 Heel strike, in stance phase of gait cycle, 526, 527 Helical axis of motion (HaM), Heparin, 70, 71t Heparin sulfate, 70, 71t Hindfoot, 441, 441f See also Foot pronation of, weight-bearing, 459, 459f supination of, weight-bearing, 459–460, 461f Hinge joints, 92, 93, 93f Hip complex, 355–394 See also Hip joint Hip joint, 94, 94f articular congruence of, 362–363, 363f articular surface of distal, 358–362 proximal, 356–358, 357f capsule of, 363–364 capsuloligamentous tension in, 366 compression of in bilateral stance, calculating, 380 calculations of, 381t with cane contralaterally, 384–385, 385f calculation of, 384 with cane ipsilaterally, 383 calculation of, 384 with lateral lean of trunk, 381t, 382–383 in unilateral stance, calculating, 382 dysplastic, 389–390 anteverted, range of motion in, 369 articular contact in, 363, 363f function of, 368–379 angle of torsion variations and, 361–362 closed-chain, 373–374, 375f motions in coordinated, 372–374, 373f, 374t of femur on acetabulum, 368–369 of pelvis on femur, 369–371 lateral, pain in, 378 leg length discrepancy and, 374 ligaments of, 364–366, 364f, 365f musculature of, 374–379 abductor, 377–378 in gait, 549 adductor, 376 in bilateral stance, 379–380, 380f extensor, 376–377 in gait, 545, 546 flexor, 375–376 in gait, 546, 548 lateral rotator, 378–379 medial rotator, 379 in unilateral stance, 380–385, 381f, 381t, 383f, 385f pain in, reduction of, strategies for, 385 pathology of, 385–390 arthrosis as, 387–388 femoroacetabular impingement as, 385–387, 386f fracture as, 388–389 labral, 387 range of motion of, needed for walking, 534 rotation of, pelvic rotation and, 372 rotator cuff of, 379 in stance bilateral, forces and muscle function in, 379–380, 380f unilateral, forces and muscle function in, 380–385, 381f, 381t, 383f, 385f in standing posture analysis, 493–494, 494f structure of, 356–368, 356f adaptations of, to weight-bearing, 366–368, 366f, 367f Hip synergy, in postural control, 487, 488 Hoffa’s fat pad, 402 Hook grip, 345–346, 346f Hoop stresses, in collagen, 87 Horizontal linear equilibrium, 32 Horizontal linear force systems, 30 Horns, of meniscus of knee, 400 Housemaid’s knee, 433 Humeroulnar joint, 272–288 articulating surfaces of, 272, 273f articulation at, 273, 275, 275f axis of motion of, 281–284, 281f, 282f, 283f, 284f capsule of, 276–277, 276f carrying angle of, 283–284, 283f, 284t close-packed position of, 285 function of, 281–288 Humeroradial joint, 272–288 articulating surfaces of, 272, 273f articulation at, 275–276, 276f axis of motion of, 281–284, 281f, 282f, 283f, 284f capsule of, 276–277, 276f function of, 281–288 Humerus articulating surfaces on, 272, 273f long axis of, 283–284, 283f retroversion of, 245, 246f, 247f 575 Hyaline cartilage, 77 design of, 78 structure of, 77f Hyaluronan, 70, 71t, 72f Hydrodynamic lubrication, of joints, 92 Hydrostatic lubrication, of joints, 92 Hydroxyapatite, in bone, 78 Hyoid bone, 214, 214f Hypermobile joint, 95 Hypermobility, of temporomandibular joint, 225–226 Hypomobile joint, 95–96 Hypothenar eminence, muscles of, in cylindrical grip, 344 Hysteresis, 84, 85f I I (isotropic) band, 110, 110f Iliacus muscle, 184 in hip flexion, 375 Iliococcygeus muscle, 186–187, 186f Iliocostalis lumborum muscle, 180, 181f Iliofemoral ligament, 365–366, 365f Iliolumbar ligaments, 150t, 167–168, 168f, 172, 173f Iliopsoas muscle in gait, 546, 548, 549 in hip flexion, 375 in running gait, 556 Iliotibial band, of knee, 403, 411, 411f of hip, 376 hip joint ROM and, 369 Iliotibial tract, 117, 118f Ilium, articulating surfaces on, 172 Immobilization cartilage and, 78 effects of, on joints, 99–100 mechanical properties of connective tissue and, 83 muscular effects of, 132 in lengthened position, 132 in shortened position, 132 Impingement femoroacetabular, 385–387, 386f of glenohumeral joint, 250, 251 Inertia moment of, 18 Newton’s law of, 18 revisiting, 29–30 Inertial forces, on posture, 489 Infantile scoliosis, 506 Infants, postural control in, 515–516 Inferior glenohumeral ligament complex, in glenohumeral stabilization, 248–249f, 250 Inferior pubic ligament, 174, 174f Infrahyoid muscle groups, 221, 221f Infrapatellar fat pad, 400f, 402 Infraspinatus muscle function of, 263 in glenohumeral stabilization, 254 Initial contact, in stance phase of gait cycle, 526, 526f Injury See also under anatomy; specific injury effects of, 133 on joints, 99 to elbow, 298–300, 298f, 299f, 300f muscle, eccentric exercise-induced, 133 prevention of, squat lift vs stoop lift in, 185, 186f Innervation, of temporomandibular joint, 222 Innominate bone, 356 2362_Index-569-602.qxd 576 2/3/11 4:23 PM Page 576 Index Inputs/outputs, absent or altered, in posture control, 485–486 Inspiratory capacity, 200, 200t Inspiratory reserve volume, 200, 200t Instability avoidance of, in initiation of gait, 551 knee, posterolateral/posteromedial, 424 Instantaneous center (axis) of rotation, Intelligent pressure ulcer prevention (iPUP) seating system, 514 Interaction pair, 22 Interbody joints, 146, 146f of lower cervical region, 158–159, 159f of lumbar spine, 166 of thoracic spine, 162 Intercalated segment, of carpal row, 312 instability of, 314, 315, 315f Intercarpal ligament(s), 320, 320f dorsal, 311, 311f Interchondral joints, 195f, 197 Intercondylar notch, 397 Intercondylar tubercles, 397, 397f Intercostal muscles, 202–203, 202f Intercuspation, maximal, 223 Interdiscal pressures in lying posture, 514–515, 515f in sitting posture, 509, 511–512, 512f Interfibrillar, component, of extracellular matrix, 68, 70, 71t, 72, 73t Interior extensor retinaculum, 449 Intermetacarpal ligament, 340 Internal rotation, International System of Units (SI Units), 9, 10 Interossei muscles, 335–337, 336f action of, summary of, 339t in finger extension, 331, 331f in interphalangeal joint extension, 337 in metacarpophalangeal joint extension, 335–336 in metacarpophalangeal joint flexion, 336–337, 336f Interosseous ligament, 195–196, 196f Interosseous membrane, 444 between radius and ulna, 290–291, 290f in radioulnar joint stability, 294, 294f Interosseous sacroiliac ligaments, 174, 174f Interosseous talocalcaneal ligament, 449, 449f Interphalangeal joint(s), 467 distal, flexion of, with proximal interphalangeal joint extension, 334, 334f extension of in absence of intrinsic muscles, 332–333, 333f interossei muscles in, 337 of fingers, 93, 93f, 324–325, 324f, 325f force on, in various wrist positions, 315 function of, extensor mechanism influencing, 332–335, 333f, 334f proximal, extension of, distal interphalangeal joint flexion with, 334, 334f of thumb, 341 Intersesamoid ligament, 341 Interspinous ligaments, 148, 149t Intertransversarii muscle, 183 Intertransverse ligaments, 147, 147f, 149, 150t Intervertebral disc(s), 143–146 anulus fibrosus of, 144, 145, 145f cervical, 158, 158f effects of creep loading on, 152 innervation of, 146 lumbar, 165–166, 166f movement between, 150, 150f nucleus pulposus of, 144, 145, 145f nutrition of, 146 pressures in compressive loads on spine and, 511–512, 512f in lying postures, 514–515 in standing vs sitting, 511, 512f scoliotic, pressures in, 507 thoracic, 162 vertebral end plate of, 144, 145, 145f Intima, of stratum synovium, 90 Intra-articular ligament, 195–196, 196f Intrinsic minus position, of hand, 332, 338, 339f Intrinsic muscles of fingers, 331, 338, 339f interphalangeal joint extension in absence of, 332–333, 333f Inverse dynamic approach, to gait analysis, 525 Inversion of ankle/foot complex, 442, 442f definition of, 451 Ischiofemoral ligament, 365, 365f Isokinetic exercise and testing, 124–125 Isometric contraction, of muscle, 48, 111, 122, 122f Isometric length-tension relationships in muscle fiber, 119–121, 119f, 120f Isotropic (I) band, 110, 110f Isotropic materials, 80 J Joint(s) acromioclavicular, 236–240 See also Acromioclavicular joint degenerative changes in, 257 ankle, 443–448, 443f See also Ankle joint atlantoaxial, 155, 155f median, 93, 93f motions of, 159, 160f atlanto-occipital, 155 nodding motions of, 159, 160f axis of, identification of, 37–38, 38f ball-and-socket, 93, 94, 94f biaxial, 92, 93, 94f calcaneocuboid, 455f, 456–457 carpal, 94 carpometacarpal, 310 of fingers, 319–321, 319f, 320f, 321f, 322f of thumb, 93 cartilaginous, 88–89, 89f chondrosternal, 195f, 197 close-packed position of, 98 close-packing of, 29 condyloid, 93, 94f connective tissue of, 67–87 See also Connective tissue costochondral, 195f, 197 costotransverse, 196–197, 196f costovertebral, 195–196, 196f coxofemoral, 355–394, 356f See also Hip joint design of, 65–67 basic principles of, 67 complexity of, 87–94 form following function in, 65–66, 65f, 66f, 67f diarthrodial (synovial), 89–94, 90f, 92f, 93f in vertebral column, 146 distraction of, 25–29, 26f effects of disease on, 98–99 effects of exercise on, 101–102, 102f effects of immobilization on, 99–100 effects of injury on, 99 fibrous, 88, 88f, 89f function of, 94–98 glenohumeral, 245–257, 245f See also Glenohumeral joint gomphosis, 88 hinge, 92, 93, 93f hip, 94, 94f, 355–394, 356f See also Hip joint instantaneous axis of rotation of, 98 interbody, 146, 146f See also Interbody joints interchondral, 195f, 197 interphalangeal, 324–325, 324f, 325f, 467 See also Interphalangeal joint(s) of fingers, 93, 93f knee, 395–439 See also Knee joint loose-packed position of, 97 lumbosacral, 165 of Luschka, 158 manubriosternal, 195 materials found in, 67–80 metacarpophalangeal, 93, 94f See Metacarpophalangeal joint(s) metatarsophalangeal, 463–467 See also Metatarsophalangeal joints midcarpal, 306, 306f, 310–311 See also Midcarpal joint motion of, 95–98 force components and, 58 multiaxial, 93–94, 94f number of, muscle function and, 129, 129f overuse of, 102–103, 103f patellofemoral, 396, 424–432 See also Patellofemoral joint pivot, 92, 93, 93f plane, 93, 94 radiocarpal, 306, 306f, 307–310 See also Radiocarpal joint of rib cage, 195–197, 195f, 196f sacroiliac, 171–172, 172f saddle, 93 scapulothoracic, 232, 240–244 See also Scapulothoracic joint sternoclavicular, 232–236 See also Sternoclavicular joint subtalar, 444, 448–455 See also Subtalar joint symphysis pubis, 174, 174f synarthrodial (nonsynovial), 88–89, 88f, 89f synovial, 77 talocalcaneal, 444 talocalcaneonavicular, 456 talocrural, 443 See also Ankle joint talonavicular, 448, 455–456, 455f, 456f tarsometatarsal, 460–463 See also Tarsometatarsal joints temporomandibular, 212–229 See also Temporomandibular joint (TMJ) tibiofemoral, 396–424 See also Tibiofemoral joint tibiofibular distal, 443–444, 443f proximal, 443, 443f transverse tarsal, 455–460 See also Transverse tarsal joint trapeziometacarpal, of thumb, 339 trapezioscaphoid, 340 triaxial, 92, 93–94 types of, muscle function and, 128 uncovertebral, 158, 158f uniaxial, 92–93, 93f vertebral column, 146–147, 146f 2362_Index-569-602.qxd 2/3/11 4:23 PM Page 577 Index xiphisternal, 195, 195f zygapophyseal, 146–147 of cervical region, 159 Joint angle(s) of elbow, synergies of, 288 frontal plane, in gait, 534, 534f in gait, 529 patterns of, effects of, 534 sagittal plane, in gait, 532, 533f, 534 Joint capsule, 90–91, 90f acromioclavicular, 236, 236f ankle, 444–445 composition of, 75t elbow, 276–277, 276f glenohumeral, 247–248, 247f, 248f in glenohumeral joint stability, 252–253 hip, 363–364 increased/decreased load on, effects of, 100t knee, 401–404, 402f, 403f fibrous layer of, 403–404, 403f posterior, ligaments of, 408, 410, 410f, 410t synovial layer of, 402–403, 402f, 403f radiocarpal, 310 rotator interval, in glenohumeral stabilization, 248, 248f sternoclavicular, 234 temporomandibular joint, 216–217, 216f tensile forces in, 23–25, 24f, 25f, 26f zygapophyseal, 149, 150t Joint compression forces, joint reaction forces and, 28–29, 28f Joint distraction force, 27 Joint effusion, 412 Joint motion, in running gait, 556, 557f, 558t Joint play, 97 Joint reaction forces, joint compression and, 28–29, 28f Joint receptors, 90, 91t Junctura tendinae, of extensor digitorum communis, 330, 330f Juvenile scoliosis, 506 K Keratan sulfate, 70, 71t, 72f in articular cartilage, 77 Kienbock’s disease, 309, 309f Kilogram, as unit of weight, 11 Kinematic chains, open and closed, 94–95, 95f Kinematics, 5, 6–32 arthrokinematics and, 96–98, 96f–97f of foot and ankle, 537 forces and, 11–17 See also Force(s) of gait, terminology of, 528–529 as motion, 6–10 See also Motion of posture, 489–491 of rib cage, 197–198, 197f, 198f of temporomandibular joint, 217–220 of tibiofemoral joint, 412–417 of vertebral column, 150–151 in cervical region, 159–161, 160f, 161f in lumbar region, 169–170, 170f in sacral region, 174–176, 175f in thoracic region, 164, 164f Kinetic friction, 30–32 Kinetics, 33–61 of acceleration, 34–35 with changing torque, 43–44 of equilibrium, 34–35 meeting conditions for, 38–39, 38f of foot and ankle, 537 of force components, 50–58, 51f–57f of gait, 529–531 methods of study of, 530, 530f of moment arm of force, 42–43, 42f–43f angle of application and, 44–46, 44f–46f of moment of force, 33–39, 34f of muscle forces, 39–41, 39f–41f of parallel force systems, 35–38, 35f–38f of posture, 489–491 of vertebral column, 152–153 in cervical region, 161–162 in lumbar region, 170–171 in sacral region, 176 in thoracic region, 164 Knee, housemaid’s, 433 Knee joint, 395–439 See also Patella in anterior/posterior view postural deviations, 505–506, 506f automatic/locking mechanism of, 416–417 bursae of, 411–412, 412f capsule of, 401–404, 402f, 403f extensors of, in gait, 545, 548 flexed posture of, 499–500, 499f flexors of, in gait, 548 hyperextended posture of, 500, 500f iliotibial band of, 403, 411, 411f injury/disease effects on, 432–434 in lateral view postural deviations, 499–500, 499f, 500f ligaments of, 404–410 medial and lateral compartments of, 396 meniscus of, 399–401, 399f, 400f, 401f See also Meniscus(i), of knee patellofemoral joint in, 396, 424–432 See also Patellofemoral joint range of motion of, needed for walking, 534 stabilizers of, 422–424, 423–424t in standing posture analysis, 491f, 492, 492f tibiofemoral joint in, 396–424 See also Tibiofemoral joint Knock knees (genu valgum), 398, 399f, 505, 506f knee osteoarthritis and, 399 Kyphosis, 501–502, 501f in child, 516, 516f effects of, on body structures, 502t in elderly, 517 Kyphotic curves, 140 L Labra, function of, 87 Labrum acetabular, 357, 357f, 358 pathology involving, 387 Lamellae, in lumbar intervertebral discs, 165, 166f Lamellar bone, 79 Laminae of cervical vertebrae, 157 function of, 153t of lumbar vertebrae, 164 of neural arch, 141, 142f, 143t of thoracic vertebrae, 162, 163f Laminin, 72, 73t Lateral compartment, of knee, 396 Lateral flexion, vertebral, 151, 151f Lateral pterygoid muscle, 215, 216f Lateral rotation, Latissimus dorsi muscle, 180, 180f function of, 265 in gait, 553 577 Leg(s) bow (genu varum), 398, 399f, 505–506, 506f knee osteoarthritis and, 399 effect of weight-bearing subtalar joint motion on, 452–453, 453f length of, discrepancy in, hip joint and, 374 Legg-Calvé-Perthes disease, 365 Lengthening contraction, of muscle, 111, 112f, 122, 123f Levator ani muscle, 186–187, 186f Levator scapula muscle, 177, 177f Levatores costarum muscle, 204–205 Lever(s) analysis of, limitations of, 50 classes of, 46–50 mechanical advantage and, 50 first-class, 46, 47f mechanical advantage of, 48–50 second-class, 46, 47f muscles as, 47–48, 47f third-class, 46, 47f muscles as, 46–47, 47f Lever arm (LA), 41 Lever systems, 46–50 Lifting, squat vs stoop, in injury prevention, 185, 186f Ligament(s), 73–74 acromioclavicular, 236, 236f alar, 157, 157f of ankle joint, 443f, 444–445, 445f annular, 277f, 278, 279, 288, 289f, 290 anterior oblique, 340 apical, 157 arcuate, 200, 201f, 404, 410, 410f, 410t atlantal cruciform, 156, 157f attachment of, to bone, 74 bifurcate, 455, 456 calcaneofibular, 444–445, 445f carpal dorsal, 311, 311f volar, 310–311, 311f cervical, 449, 449f collateral See Collateral ligament(s) composition of, 75t conoid, 237 coracoacromial, 250 coracoclavicular, 236–237, 236f coracohumeral, 247, 247f, 248, 248f coronary, 400 costoclavicular, 234, 234f costosternal, 197 costotransverse, 196–197, 196f costo-xiphoid, 197 craniovertebral, 155–157, 156f, 157f cruciate See Cruciate ligament(s) deltoid, 444, 445f dorsal carpal, 311, 311f dorsal retinacular, in finger extension, 331 dorsoradial, 340 effects of immobilization on, 99, 100t of elbow complex, anterior, 277–279, 277f entheses of, 74 glenohumeral, 247–248, 247f, 248–249f of hip joint, 364–366, 364f, 365f of Humphry, 410 iliofemoral, 365–366, 365f iliolumbar, 150t, 167–168, 168f, 172, 173f inferior pubic, 174, 174f intercarpal, 320, 320f dorsal, 311, 311f intermetacarpal, 340 interosseous, 195–196, 196f 2362_Index-569-602.qxd 578 2/3/11 4:23 PM Page 578 Index Ligament(s) (Continued) interosseous sacroiliac, 174, 174f intersesamoid, 341 interspinous, 148, 149t intertransverse, 147, 147f, 149, 150t intra-articular, 195–196, 196f ischiofemoral, 365, 365f ligamentum teres, 364, 364f longitudinal anterior, 147, 147f, 148f, 149t anterior and posterior, 147–148, 147f, 148f, 149t posterior, 147–148, 147f, 148f, 149t lunotriquetral interosseous, 308 meniscofemoral, 400, 400f, 410 metacarpal, deep transverse, 320, 322, 323f metatarsal, deep transverse, 460 naming of, 74 oblique popliteal, 408, 410, 410f, 410t oblique retinacular, in finger extension, 331, 331f patellar, in knee extension, 419 patellofemoral lateral, 403, 403f medial, 403, 403f patellomeniscal, 400 lateral, 403 medial, 403 patellotibial lateral, 403, 403f medial, 403, 403f plantar calcaneonavicular, 455, 456 posterior, 174, 174f posterior oblique, 404, 410, 410t posterior sacroiliac, 173, 173f properties of, 86 pubic, 174, 174f superior, 174, 174f pubofemoral, 365, 365f quadrate, 290, 290f radiate, 196, 196f radiocapitate, 310, 311f radiocarpal, dorsal, 311, 311f, 3311 of radiocarpal joint, 310 radiolunate, 310, 311f radiolunotriquetral, 310, 311f radioscaphocapitate, 310, 311f radioscapholunate, 310, 311f radioulnar, 289f, 290–291, 290f in radioulnar joint stability, 294 in triangular fibrocartilage complex of wrist, 307, 308f in radioulnar joint stability, 295t response of, to exercise, 101–102 retinacular See Retinacular ligaments dorsal, in finger extension, 331 oblique, in finger extension, 331, 331f transverse, in finger extension, 334 sacroiliac, 172–174, 173f sacrospinous, 173–174, 173f sacrotuberous, 173–174, 173f scapholunate, injury to, 315, 316f scapholunate interosseous, 308 sphenomandibular, 216, 216f, 217 spring, 455, 456 sternoclavicular, 234, 234f sternocostal, 197 stylomandibular, 216, 216f, 217 of subtalar joint, 449, 449f supraspinous, 149, 149t talocalcaneal, interosseous, 449, 449f talofibular, 444, 445f talonavicular, dorsal, 456 temporomandibular, 216–217, 216f tibiofibular, 443, 443f, 444 crural interosseous, 443f, 444 transverse, of menisci of knee, 400 transverse acetabular, 356–357 transverse atlantal, 155, 156–157, 157f transverse carpal, 316, 317f transverse humeral, 255, 256f transverse retinacular, in finger extension, 334 trapezoid, 237 triangular, in finger extension, 330f, 331 ulnar collateral, 307 ulnolunate, 311, 311f of vertebral column, 147–149, 149–150t in cervical region, 155–157, 156f, 157f in lumbar region, 167–168, 168f in sacral region, 172–174, 173f in thoracic region, 163 volar carpal, 310–311, 311f of Wrisberg, 410 of wrist complex, 310–311, 311f Y, of Bigelow, 365, 365f Ligamentum flavum, 148, 149t Ligamentum nuchae, 149, 149t, 156 Ligamentum teres, 358 Ligamentum teres ligament, 364, 364f Line of gravity (LoG), stability and, 17, 17f, 488f analysis of sitting postures and muscle activity, 509, 510f, 511 analysis of standing posture and, 492 ankle, 492 anterior and posterior views, 502–503, 503f, 504t head, 496, 497f, 502 hip and pelvis, 493, 494f, 500, 501f knee, 492, 492f, 499–500, 499f lateral view, 497, 498t vertebral column, 495f, 506 anterior location in relation to ankle joint, 491f in relation to knee joint, 491f and coincident action lines, 490, 490f and the elderly, 517 and external/internal moments, 490 in fixed support synergies, 486–487, 487f and ground reaction forces, 490 location of, above fifth lumbar vertebra, 495, 495f, 496 Linear displacement, 6, 33, 33f Linear force systems additional considerations in, 23–32 horizontal, 30 resultant forces in, determining, 19–20, 19f, 20f translatory motion in, 19–20, 19f, 20f vertical, 30 Linear velocity, 10 Link-segment model, of gait analysis, 529 Lister’s tubercle, 341–342 Listhesis, aging and, 187 Load compressive, 81, 82f definition of, 80 increased/decreased, effects of, 100t shear, 81, 82f tensile, 81, 82f Load deformation, stress-strain curves and, 83 Load-deformation curve, 80, 81f Locking mechanism, of knee, 417 Longissimus capitis muscle, 177f, 178 Longissimus cervicis muscle, 177f, 178 Longissimus thoracis muscle, 180, 181f Longitudinal ligaments, anterior and posterior, 147–148, 147f, 148f, 149t Longitudinal (long) axis, Longus capitis muscle, 179, 180f Longus colli muscle, 179, 180f Lordosis, 502 cervical, in elderly, 516–517, 517f effects of, on body structures, 502t lumbar, in standing and sitting postures, 511 Lordotic curves, 140 Low back, pain in, exercises for, 184–185 Lubrication, joint, 91–92, 92f Lubricin, in synovial fluid, 91 Lumbar lordosis, in standing and sitting postures, 511 Lumbar-pelvic rhythm, 170, 170f Lumbar spine, 164–171 See also Vertebral column, lumbar region of articulations, 166–167, 167f compression, 170–171 curvature of, in sagittal plane in standing posture, variations in, 497t fascia in, 168, 169f function of, 169–171 interbody joints in, 166 intervertebral discs, 165–166, 166f kinematics of, 169–170, 170f kinetics of, 170–171 ligaments in, 167–168, 168f shear in, 171 structure of, 164–169 typical vertebrae of, 164–165, 165f See also Vertebra(e) variations in, 143t–144t zygapophyseal joints in, 166–167, 167f Lumbodorsal fascia, 168, 169f Lumbosacral angle, 165, 165f Lumbosacral articulation, 165 Lumbrical muscle(s), 337–338, 339f, 383f, 474 in finger extension, 331, 331f Lunate, 306f, 307, 308f avascular necrosis of, 309, 309f Lunate surface, of acetabulum, 356 Lung capacities, 200, 200t in scoliosis, 205f Lung volumes, 200, 200t in scoliosis, 205f Lunotriquetral interosseous ligament, 308 Lying posture, analysis of, 514–515, 515f M M band, 110, 110f MA See Moment arm (MA) Macrofailure region, of stress-strain curve, 83, 83f Malalignment, effects of, on body structures, 502t Mamillary processes, 164, 165f Mandible, 213f, 214f, 215 condyle of, 214, 214f, 215, 215f depression and elevation of, 217–219, 217f, 218f control of disc during, 218–219, 218f lateral excursion of, 219–220, 219f, 220f protrusion and retrusion of, 219, 219f Mandibular fossa, 214, 214f Manubriosternal joint, 195 Manubriosternum, kinematics of, 197–198 Manubrium, 193–194, 193f, 194f 2362_Index-569-602.qxd 2/3/11 4:23 PM Page 579 Index Mass alterations in, 17, 17f center of, 7, 14, 15f See also Center of gravity (CoG) units of, 11 Masseter muscle, 220f, 221, 222 Maxilla, 214f Maximal intercuspation, 223 Mechanical advantage (M Ad), 48–50 trade-offs of, 49 Mechanical axis, of femur and tibia, 398, 398f Mechanical disadvantage, in lever systems, 49 Mechanical energy, of walking, 542, 545, 545f Mechanical perturbation, in postural control, 486 Medial rotation, Megapascals, 81 Meniscofemoral ligaments, 400, 400f, 410 Meniscus(i) composition of, 75t function of, 87 increased/decreased load on, effects of, 100t of knee, 399–401, 399f, 400f, 401f attachments of, 400, 400f entrapment of, 414 innervation of, 401 nutrition of, 401 role of, 400–401, 401f Meniscus homolog, 307, 308f Metabolic equivalents, 531 Metacarpal ligaments, deep transverse, 320, 322, 323f Metacarpophalangeal joint(s), 93, 94f extension of, interossei muscles in, 335–336 of fingers, 322–324, 323f, 324f collateral ligaments of, 322, 323f, 324 volar plates at, 322, 323f flexion of, interossei muscles in, 336–337, 336f flexor gliding mechanism at, 329 function of, extensor mechanism influencing, 331–332, 332f range of motion of, 324, 324f of thumb, 341 Metatarsal break, metatarsophalangeal extension and, 464–465, 465f Metatarsal ligament, deep transverse, 460 Metatarsalgia, 473 Metatarsals, 441f, 448f, 449f length of, 463 Metatarsophalangeal joints, 463–467 abduction/adduction of, 465–466 extension of, metatarsal break and, 464–465, 465f flexion of, 465 function of, 464–467 structure of, 463–464, 464f Metatarsus varus, 466, 467f Microfailure region, of stress-strain curve, 83, 83f Midcarpal joint movements of, 312–313 structure of, 306f, 310–311 Midfoot, 441, 441f See also Foot Midstance, in stance phase of gait cycle, 526, 526f, 527 Midswing, in gait cycle, 527, 527f Midtarsal joint, 455 Moment(s) bending, in parallel force systems, 36–37, 36f counterbalancing internal, in posture, 490 dorsiflexion, in ankle joint, 491, 491f extension, in knee joint, 491, 491f in standing posture analysis, 491f, 492, 492f flexion, 33 in knee joint, 491, 491f in standing posture analysis, 492 of force, 33–39 See also Torque (τ) frontal plane, in gait, 537, 540f, 541f gravitational anterior and posterior, effects of, on body segments, 492 in posture, 490, 491, 491f in standing posture, opposing, without muscle activity, 493 of inertia, 18 internal plantarflexion, in ankle joint, 491, 491f internal vs external, 535 in running gait, 558 sagittal plane, in gait, 535–536, 537f, 538f, 539f support, in gait, 536 adequate, difficulty in developing, 537 torsional, in parallel force systems, 37, 37f Moment arm (MA), 33 anatomic pulleys and, 40, 40f angle of application of force and, 44–46, 44f, 45f, 46f of biceps in elbow flexion, 286, 287f of brachialis in elbow flexion, 286, 286f changes to, 42–43, 42f, 43f for effort force, 46 gravitation, changing center of mass and, 45–46, 46f length of, muscle classification based on, 127–128 lever arm and, 41 for resistance arm, 46 torque and, 43 Mortise, ankle, 443, 443f in ankle joint function, 444 Morton’s foot, 463 Motion(s) See also Displacement of ankle/foot complex, definitions of, 441–442 curvilinear, general, helical axis of, joint, force components and, 58 in joint function, 95–98 plane or planar, range of, 10, 10f, 95–98 See also Range of motion (ROM) rotary, magnitude of, 9–10, 10f screw axis of, three-dimensional, translatory, 6, 6f, 33, 33f in concurrent force system, 21–22, 22f in linear force systems, 19–20, 19f, 20f Motor neuron, alpha, 112, 113f Motor unit, of muscle, 112–114 organization of, 112–113, 113f recruitment of, 113–114 Mucopolysaccharides, 70 Multiaxial joints, 93–94, 94f Multifidus muscles, 183 Multipennate muscles, 115, 116f, 117 Muscle(s) abdominal, in ventilation, 205 abdominal oblique, 180 abductor digiti minimi, 335, 471 abductor hallucis, 471 abductor longus, in hip flexion, 376 abductor pollicis brevis, of thumb, 342 abductor pollicis longus in thumb, 341 in wrist, 318, 318f, 319 579 action of versus muscle contraction, 111 reverse, 123, 123f types of, 122–123, 122f, 123f active insufficiency of, 121 adductor brevis in gait, 549 in hip adduction, 376 adductor longus in gait, 549 in hip adduction, 376 adductor magnus in hip adduction, 376 in hip flexion, 376 in running gait, 556 adductor pollicis brevis, of thumb, 342 agonist, 126, 126f anconeus, 280 of ankle-foot complex, 471–475 antagonist, 126, 126f architecture of, 115–117, 116f attachment of, location of, function and, 128, 128f biceps brachii, 253, 255–256, 279–280 See also Biceps brachii muscle biceps femoris in hip extension, 377 in knee flexion, 417 of tibiofemoral joint, 405, 405f bipennate, 115, 116f, 117 brachialis, 279 as elbow flexor, 286, 286f brachioradialis, 279–280, 291 as elbow flexor, 287 changes in, in tennis elbow, 281t classification of, 126–128 based on architecture, 127, 127f, 128f based on length of moment arm, 127–128 based on role of muscle in movement, 126–127, 126f, 127f coccygeus, 186–187, 186f co-contraction of, 126, 126f connective tissue in, 117–118, 117f, 118f contractile unit of, 110–112 See also Muscle contraction contraction of See Muscle contraction deltoid See Deltoid muscles digastric, 221, 221f dorsal interossei, 471 elastic components of, parallel and series, 118, 118f of elbow complex action of, 285–288, 286f, 287f, 288f aging effects on, 297–298, 297t anterior, 279–284 erector spinae in gait, 553 location and function of, 182 overstretching of, 182 extensibility (flexibility) of, 119 extensor carpi radialis brevis, 280, 280f, 318, 318f, 319 in radioulnar joint stability, 294 role of, 291 extensor carpi radialis longus, 280, 280f, 316, 317f, 318–319, 318f extensor carpi ulnaris, 280, 280f, 291, 318, 318f, 319 in radioulnar joint stability, 293 extensor digiti minimi, 280, 280f, 318, 318f, 319 in finger extension, 329–330 2362_Index-569-602.qxd 580 2/3/11 4:23 PM Page 580 Index Muscle(s) (Continued) extensor digitorum communis, 280, 280f, 318, 318f, 319 in finger extension, 329–330 extensor digitorum longus, 474 in ankle dorsiflexion, in gait, 548 in ankle plantarflexion, 448 extensor hallucis longus, 474 in ankle dorsiflexion, in gait, 548 in ankle plantarflexion, 448 extensor indicis proprius, 318, 318f, 319 in finger extension, 329–330 extensor pollicis brevis in thumb, 341 in wrist, 318, 318f, 319 extensor pollicis longus in thumb, 341–342 in wrist, 318, 318f fascia lata in hip flexion, 376 at knee, 404 fibers of See Muscle fibers as first-class levers, 48, 48f flexor carpi radialis, 291, 316, 317f flexor carpi ulnaris, 277, 291, 316, 317, 317f flexor digiti minimi, in cylindrical grip, 344 flexor digitorum brevis, 471 flexor digitorum longus, 448, 472f, 473, 473f flexor digitorum profundus, 316, 317–318, 317f in finger flexion, 326 flexor digitorum superficialis, 316, 317–318, 317f in finger flexion, 326 flexor hallucis brevis, 464, 471 flexor hallucis longus, 448, 472f, 473, 473f flexor pollicis brevis, 335 flexor pollicis longus in thumb, 341 in wrist, 316, 317, 317f, 318 flexor retinaculum, 316, 317f function of, 119–132 EMG and, 264 factors affecting, 128–132 feed-forward control of, 132 immobilization and, 132 muscle tension and, 119–126 See also Muscle tension fusiform (strap), 115, 117 gastrocnemius, 402, 471 See also Gastrocnemius muscle gemellus inferior, in hip rotation, lateral, 378 gemellus superior, in hip rotation, lateral, 378 geniohyoid, 221, 221f gluteus maximus, 180, 180f, 418–419, 419f See also Gluteus maximus muscle gluteus medius See Gluteus medius muscle gluteus minimus, in hip abduction, 377–378 in gait, 549 gracilis in hip adduction, 376 hip joint ROM and, 369 in knee flexion, 418, 418f hamstring See Hamstring muscles of hip joint, 374–379 iliacus, 184 in hip flexion, 375 iliococcygeus, 186–187, 186f iliopsoas in gait, 546, 548, 549 in hip flexion, 375 in running gait, 556 infrahyoid, 221, 221f infraspinatus function of, 263 in glenohumeral stabilization, 254 interaction of, with tendons, 124, 125f intercostal, 202–203, 202f interossei, 335–337, 336f See also Interossei muscles intertransversarii, 183 intrinsic of fingers, 331 interphalangeal joint extension in absence of, 332–333, 333f lateral pterygoid, 215, 216f latissimus dorsi, 180, 180f function of, 265 in gait, 553 levator ani, 186–187, 186f levator scapula, 177, 177f levatores costarum, 204–205 longissimus capitis, 177f, 178 longissimus cervicis, 177f, 178 longus capitis, 179, 180f longus colli, 179, 180f lumbrical, 337–338, 338f, 339f, 474 in finger extension, 331, 331f masseter, 220f, 221, 222 motor unit of, 112–114 organization of, 112–113, 113f recruitment of, 113–114 multifidus, 183 multipennate, 115, 116f, 117 mylohyoid, 221, 221f oblique abdominis, 184, 205 obturator externus, in hip rotation, lateral, 378–379 obturator internus, in hip rotation, lateral, 378, 379 omohyoid, 221, 221f opponens digiti minimi, 321, 322f opponens pollicis, 342 palmaris longus, 316, 317f parasternal, 202, 202f, 203 passive insufficiency of, muscle function and, 129–130, 129f, 130f pectineus in hip adduction, 376 in hip flexion, 376 pectoral, function of, 265–266, 266f pectoralis major, 204, 204f, 265 radiation and, 266 pectoralis minor, 204, 204f, 265 radiation and, 266, 266f of pelvic floor, 186–187, 186f pennate, 117 peroneus brevis, 448, 472, 472f, 473–474 peroneus longus, 448, 472, 472f, 473–474 peroneus tertius, 471, 474 physiological cross-sectional area of, 115 fiber length and, 127, 127f piriformis, 375 of plantar arches, 471 plantaris, 472–473 in knee flexion, 417 popliteus, in knee flexion, 418 pronator quadratus, in radioulnar joint stability, 293 psoas major, 184 in hip flexion, 375 pterygoid, 220f, 221, 222 pubococcygeus, 186–187, 186f quadratus femoris, in hip rotation, lateral, 378–379, 379f quadratus lumborum, 183–184, 183f quadratus plantae, 473 quadriceps, 403 quadriceps femoris, in knee extension, 419 in radioulnar joint stability, 295t, 296–297 of radioulnar joints, 291 rectus abdominis, 184, 205 rectus capitis, 178, 179 rectus femoris See Rectus femoris muscle rhomboid, function of, 265, 265f of rib cage, 199–206 rotator cuff, 247–248 rotatores, 183 sartorius in hip flexion, 375–376 at knee, 403f, 404 in knee flexion, 418, 418f scalene, 178–179, 179f, 203–204, 203f as second-class levers, 47–48, 47f semimembranosus in hip extension, 377 at knee, 400 in knee flexion, 417 semispinalis capitis, 177f, 178, 178f semispinalis cervicis, 178 semitendinosus in hip extension, 377 in knee flexion, 417, 418f sensory receptors in, muscle function and, 130–132, 131f serratus anterior, in scapular motion, 260–261, 260f, 261f serratus posterior, 205 of shoulder complex of depression, 265–266, 266f of elevation, 262–265, 263f SITS, 254–255 soleus, 471 See also Soleus muscle splenius capitis, 177–178, 177f splenius cervicis, 177–178, 177f sternocleidomastoid, 179, 204, 204f sternohyoid, 221, 221f sternothyroid, 221, 221f stiffness of, passive, 119 strain of See Stress-strain striated, 110 structure of, 114–115 elements of, 109–118 immobilization and, 132 stylohyoid, 221, 221f subclavius, 204, 204f subcostal, 202, 202f, 203 subscapularis function of, 263 in gait, 553 in glenohumeral stabilization, 254 supinator, 291 suprahyoid, 221, 221f supraspinatus function of, 263 in gait, 553 in glenohumeral stabilization, 254f, 255, 256 synergistic activity of, 126–127, 127f temporalis, 220–221, 220f, 222 tensor fasciae latae See Tensor fasciae latae muscle 2362_Index-569-602.qxd 2/3/11 4:23 PM Page 581 Index teres major function of, 265, 265f in gait, 553 teres minor function of, 263 in glenohumeral stabilization, 254 thenar, 342–343 as third-class levers, 46–47, 47f of thumb, 341–343, 342f thyrohyoid, 221, 221f tibialis anterior, 474 See also Tibialis anterior muscle tibialis posterior, 448, 472–473, 472f of tibiofemoral joint, 417–422 transversus abdominis, 180, 184, 205 transversus thoracis, 205 trapezius, 176, 177f, 204, 204f See also Trapezius muscles triangularis sterni, 205 triceps brachii, 280 as elbow extensor, 287, 288f triceps surae, 471, 473f of trunk, strengthening of, for sitting and transfers, 510 unipennate, 115, 116f, 117 vastus intermedius, in knee extension, 419, 419f vastus lateralis in gait, 546 in knee extension, 419, 419f, 420 vastus medialis, 403, 403f in gait, 546 in knee extension, 419, 419f, 420 vastus medialis longus, in knee extension, 419 vastus medialis oblique, in knee extension, 419 ventilatory, 199–206 accessory, 204–205, 204f coordination and integration of, 206 primary, 199–204, 201f, 202f, 203f of vertebral column, in craniocervical/upper thoracic regions, 176–180, 176f, 177f, 178f, 179f, 180f of wrist complex, 315–319, 317f, 318f distal, 318–319, 318f volar, 316–318, 317f Muscle activity in gait, 545–549, 546f, 547f, 551f ground force reaction and, in gait analysis, 548 in running gait, 556, 558 in sitting posture analysis, 509–511, 510f in sitting posture versus standing, 510–511 Muscle contraction concentric (shortening), 47, 111, 112f, 122–123, 122f eccentric (lengthening), 47, 111, 112f, 122–123, 123f facts about, 112 isometric, 48, 111, 122, 122f muscle action vs., 111 Muscle fibers aging and, 133 classification scheme for, 114 composition of, 109–110, 109f, 110f contractile proteins in, 109–110, 109f, 110f extrafusal, 130 intrafusal, 130 isometric length-tension relationship in, 119–121, 119f, 120f length of, muscle function and, 115 skeletal, characteristics of, 114t structural proteins in, 110 types of, 114–115 Muscle forces, 39–41, 39f, 40f, 41f measuring, 39–40 Muscle spindle reflex, 130 Muscle spindles, muscle function and, 130, 131f Muscle synergies, in postural control, 486–489 change-in-support, 487–488, 488f fixed-support, 486–487, 487f head-stabilizing, 488–489 Muscle tension, 119–126 active, 119 factors affecting, 114, 125–126 force-velocity relationship and, 121–122, 121f isometric length-tension relationship and, 119–121, 119f, 120f passive, 119 torque production and, 123–124 total, 119 Musculotendinous cuff, 254 Mylohyoid muscle, 221, 221f Myofibrils, 109, 109f Myofilaments, 109, 109f, 110f Myosin in cross-bridge interaction, 111, 111f in myofilaments, 109, 110f Myotendinous junction, 76, 76f, 117 N Navicular, 441f, 448f, 449f Negative work, in eccentric contraction, 122 Neonate, chest wall in, structure and function of, 207, 207f Nerves, of temporomandibular joint, 222 Neural arch, 140–141, 142f Newton (N), 11 Newton-meter (Nm), 33 Newton’s law of acceleration, 18–19 of inertia, 18 revisiting, 29–30 of reaction, 22–23, 22f, 23f Nociceptors, 132 Nonpostural muscle, 115 Nonsynovial joints, 88–89, 88f, 89f Non-weightbearing vs weight-bearing exercises, with patellofemoral pain, 432 Normal force, 23 Nucleus, composition of, 75t Nucleus pulposus, 144, 145, 145f function of, 153t Nursemaid’s elbow, 299, 299f Nutation, 175, 175f O Ober test, 376 Oblique abdominis muscles, 184, 205 Oblique cord, 290, 290f, 291 Oblique popliteal ligament, 408, 410, 410f, 410t Oblique retinacular ligaments, in finger extension, 331, 331f Observational gait analysis, 529 Obturator externus muscle, in hip rotation, lateral, 378–379 Obturator internus muscle, in hip rotation, lateral, 378, 379 Occlusal position, 223 Occupation, posture and, 518–519 Odontoid process (dens), 155, 155f 581 Olecranon fossa, 272, 273f Olecranon process, 273, 274f Omohyoid muscle, 221, 221f Open chain, 58–59 Opponens digiti minimi muscle, 321, 322f Opponens pollicis muscle, 342 Optimal posture, 491 Orthosis(es), 493, 493f ankle-foot, effects of, on gait, 542 gait and, 561 knee-ankle-foot, 493, 493f Os coxa bone, 356 Ossification, endochondral, 77 Osteoarthritis (OA) of carpometacarpal joint, 340, 340f of hip joint, 387–388 of knee joint, knee malalignment and, 399 of metacarpophalangeal joint, 324 of temporomandibular joint, 226 Osteoblasts, 68, 69t, 78–79 Osteoclasts, 79 Osteocytes, 68, 69t Osteokinematic movements, of temporomandibular joint, 217 Osteokinematics, 96 Osteonectin, 72, 73t Osteopenia, 79 Osteoporosis, 79 kyphosis and, in elderly, 517 risk of, in elderly, 517–518 Overuse injuries, 102–103, 103f effects of, 133 susceptibility to, 518 trapezius, 264 Ovoid joints, motion at, 97, 97f P Pad-to-pad prehension, 346–347, 347f Pad-to-side prehension, 347f, 348 Painful arc, 256 Palmar aponeurosis pulley, in finger flexion, 328, 328f Palmar arches, 321, 322f Palmar plates, at metacarpophalangeal joints, 322, 323f Palmaris longus muscle, 316, 317f Parallel elastic component, of muscle, 118 Parallel force components, 50, 51–56 rotation produced by, 58 Parallel force systems, 35–38, 35f, 36f, 37f, 38f bending moments in, 36–37, 36f forces in, composition of, 36 resultant forces in, determining, 35–36, 35f, 36f torsional moments in, 37, 37f Parasternal muscles, 202, 202f, 203 Paratenon, 74, 75f Paresis, of dorsiflexors, 562–563 Pars interarticularis, 141, 142f Pascals, 81 Patella as anatomic pulley, 41, 41f extension of, 426 flexion of, 426 motions of, 426–427, 426f, 427f quadriceps muscle function and, 420–422, 421f rotation of, medial/lateral, 426, 427f shifts of, lateral and medial, 426, 426f Patella alta, 428 Patella baja, 428 Patellar groove, 397 2362_Index-569-602.qxd 582 2/3/11 4:23 PM Page 582 Index Patellar ligament, in knee extension, 419 Patellar plicae, 402–403, 403f Patellar retinaculae, 402 Patellar surface, 397, 397f Patellar tendon, 402 Patellar tilt, lateral/medial, 426 Patellofemoral arthralgia, 434 Patellofemoral joint, 396, 424–432 articular surfaces of, 425–426, 425f congruence of, 425–426 injury/disease effects on, 434 mobility disorders of, effects of, 429 pain in, exercises with, 432, 433f stability of, frontal plane, 428–432 stabilization of, asymmetry of, 430–432, 430f, 431f, 432f stress on, 427–428, 428f Patellofemoral ligament lateral, 403, 403f medial, 403, 403f Patellofemoral pain syndrome, 434 Patellomeniscal ligament(s), 400 lateral, 403 medial, 403 Patellotibial ligament lateral, 403, 403f medial, 403, 403f Pectineus muscle in hip adduction, 376 in hip flexion, 376 Pectoral muscles, function of, 265–266, 266f Pectoralis major muscle, 204, 204f, 265 radiation and, 266 Pectoralis minor muscle, 204, 204f, 265 radiation and, 266, 266f Pedicles of cervical vertebrae, 157 function of, 153t of neural arch, 140–141, 142f, 143t of thoracic vertebrae, 162, 163f Pelvic drop, 370–371, 371f Pelvic floor, muscles of, 186–187, 186f Pelvic hike, 370–371, 371f Pelvic tilt anterior, excessive, 500, 501f effects of, on body structures, 502t anterior/posterior, 175, 175f, 369, 370f pelvic torsion versus, 369 lateral, 370–371, 370f posterior, excessive, 501 Pelvic torsion, 175–176 Pelvifemoral motion, 372–373, 373f Pelvis lateral shift of, 371, 371f in lateral view postural deviations, 500–501, 501f motion of coordinated with femoral and lumbar spinal motions, 372–374, 373f, 374t on femur, 369–371 rotation of forward and backward, 371, 371f in gait, 372, 372f hip joint rotation and, 372 in standing posture analysis, 493–494, 494f tilt of See Pelvic tilt Pennate muscles, 117 Perimysium, 117, 117f Periosteal entheses, 76 Periosteum, 74 Peritendon, 74 Peroneal retinaculum, 445, 445f Peroneus brevis muscle, 448, 472, 472f, 473–474 Peroneus longus muscle, 448, 472, 472f, 473–474 Peroneus tertius muscle, 471, 474 Perpendicular component of force, 50, 51–56 Perpendicular force components, rotation produced by, 57–58, 57f Perturbation, of upright postural stability, 486 Pes anserinus, 404 Pes anserinus tendon, in knee flexion, 417, 418f Pes cavus, 475, 505, 505f Pes planus, 452, 504–505, 505f PGs See Proteoglycans (PGs) Phalanges, 441f Pincer impingement, 385–387, 386f Piriformis muscle, 375 Pisiform, 308 Pivot joints, 92, 93, 93f Plane joints, 93, 94 Plane (planar) motion, Plantar aponeurosis, 464, 468–469, 469f Plantar arches, 467–471 function of, 468–471 muscular contribution to, 471 structure of, 467–468, 468f weight distribution and, 470–471, 470f Plantar calcaneonavicular ligament, 455, 456 Plantar fascia, 468–469 Plantar fasciitis, 470 Plantar plates, 464 Plantarflexion, of ankle/foot complex, 442, 442f, 446, 448 Plantarflexors, ankle, in gait, 545, 548 Plantaris muscles, 472–473 in knee flexion, 417 Plasticity, of material, 80, 81f Plates, function of, 87 Plica, patellar, 402–403, 403f Plica syndrome, 402, 403 Plumb line, in standing postural analysis, 492 Plyometric exercises, 124 Popliteus muscle, 400 in knee flexion, 418 Positioning, to reduce seat interface pressure, 514 Positive work, in concentric contraction, 122 Posterior atlantoaxial membrane, 155–156, 156f Posterior atlanto-occipital membrane, 155–156, 156f Posterior ligament, 174, 174f Posterior oblique ligament, 404, 410, 410t Posterior sacroiliac ligaments, 173, 173f Posterolateral bundle, 405, 406f Posteromedial bundle, 408 Postglenoid tubercle, 214, 214f Postural sway, 489 Posture, 483–523 See also Stance age and, 515–518 changes in, effects of, on seat interface pressures, 513 control in, 485 with absent or altered inputs and outputs, 485 goals and elements of, 485 muscle synergies in, 486–489 nature of, evidence on, 488 dynamic, 484–489 definition of, 484 kinetics and kinematics of, 489–491 coincident action lines in, 490, 490f external and internal moments in, 490 ground reaction forces in, 489–490, 489f inertial and gravitational forces in, 489 lying, analysis of, 514–515, 515f occupation and, 518–519 optimal, 491 anterior/posterior view deviations from, 503–509 at foot and toes, 504–505, 505f at knees, 505–506, 506f at vertebral column, 506–508, 506f, 508f, 5057f lateral view deviations from, 497–502 at foot and toes, 498–499, 499f at head, 502 at knee, 499–500, 499f, 500f at pelvis, 500–501, 501f at vertebral column, 501–502, 502f pregnancy and, 518 recreation and, 518–519 sitting, analysis of, 509–514 muscle activity in, 509–511, 510f standing, analysis of, 492–509 anterior and posterior, 502–503, 503f, 504t lateral at ankle, 492, 492f body segment alignment in, 497, 498t at head, 496, 497f at hip and pelvis, 493–494, 494f at knee, 491f, 492, 492f at lumbosacral and sacroiliac joints, 494–495, 495f sagittal plane alignment in, 498t at vertebral column, 495, 495f, 496t static, 484–489 definition of, 484 swayback, 493–494, 494f, 495f temporomandibular joint and, 223, 224f Pound (lb), 11 Power definition of, 43 in gait, understanding, 542 in running gait, 558 Power absorption, in gait cycle, 531 major phases of, 540t Power generation, in gait cycle, 531 major phases of, 540t Power grip, 344–346 cylindrical grip, 344–345, 345f hook grip, 345–346, 346f lateral prehension, 346, 346f spherical grip, 345, 346f Precision handling, 346–348, 347f Pregnancy, postures in, 518 Prehension, 343–348, 343f first carpometacarpal joint in, 340 grip in, 343f, 344–346, 345f, 346f See also Grip/grasp lateral, 346, 346f pad-to-pad, 346–347, 347f pad-to-side, 347f, 348 precision handling in, 343f, 346–348, 347f tip-to-tip, 347f, 348 Pressure sores/ulcers in lying posture, 515 in sitting posture, 513 Prestyloid recess, 307 Proactive responses, in postural control, 485 Procollagen, 79 See also Collagen Pronation of ankle/foot complex, 442 definition of, 451 hindfoot, weight-bearing, 459, 459f 2362_Index-569-602.qxd 2/3/11 4:23 PM Page 583 Index Pronation twist, of tarsometatarsal joints, 462–463, 462f Pronator quadratus muscle, 291, 293, 293f in radioulnar joint stability, 293 Pronator teres muscle, 277, 291 Proteins, contractile, in muscle fibers, 109–110, 109f, 110f Proteoglycans (PGs), 70, 71t, 72f in articular cartilage, 77 characteristics of, 72 types of, 78 Proximal carpal row, 307–308 Proximal transverse arch, 320, 320f Psoas major muscle, 184 in hip flexion, 375 Pterygoid muscle, 220f, 221, 222 Pubic ligaments, 174, 174f Pubococcygeus muscle, 186–187, 186f Pubofemoral ligament, 365, 365f Pulleys anatomic, 40–41, 40f, 41f annular, in finger flexion, 328–329, 328f cruciate, in finger flexion, 328, 328f palmar aponeurosis, in finger flexion, 328, 328f Pull-off, in gait, 542 Pump-handle motion of thorax, 198, 198f Push-off, in gait, 542 rockers and, 544–545 Push-off phase, in stance phase of gait cycle, 527 Push-ups, in reducing seat interface pressure, 513 Q Q-angle (quadriceps angle), 430–432, 430f, 431f Quadrate ligament, 290, 290f Quadratus femoris muscle, in hip rotation, lateral, 378–379, 379f Quadratus lumborum muscles, 183–184, 183f Quadratus plantae muscle, 473 Quadriceps femoris muscle, in knee extension, 419 Quadriceps lag, 420, 420f Quadriceps muscle, 403 function of, patellar influence on, 420–422, 421f in gait, 545, 546 inhibition of, 430 in running gait, 556, 558 strengthening of, 422, 423f Quadriceps tendon, 402, 402f R Radial bursa, in finger flexion, 327–328, 328f Radial collateral ligament, 310, 311f Radial deviation of the wrist, 313–314, 314f Radial fossa, 272, 273f Radians, 9, 10f Radiate ligament, 196, 196f Radiation, for breast cancer, pectoral muscles and, 266 Radiocapitate ligament, 310, 311f Radiocarpal joint capsule of, 310 ligaments of, 310 movements of, 312–313 proximal and distal segments of, 307–309, 307f, 308f, 309f structure of, 307–310 Radiocarpal ligament, dorsal, 311, 311f Radiolunate ligament, 310, 311f Radiolunotriquetral ligament, 310, 311f Radioscaphocapitate ligament, 310, 311f Radioscapholunate ligament, 310, 311f Radioulnar disc, 307 Radioulnar joint(s), 288–295 articulations of, 290 axis of motion of, 292, 292f distal (inferior), 288–290, 289f function of, 292–295 ligaments of, 290–291, 290f muscles of, 291 action of, 292–293, 293f muscular contributions to, 295t, 296–297 proximal (superior), 288, 289f range of motion of, 292, 292f stability of, 293–295 ligamentous contributions to, 295t superior, capsule of, 276–277, 276f Radioulnar ligaments, 289f, 290 in radioulnar joint stability, 294 in triangular fibrocartilage complex of wrist, 307, 308f Radius, 306f, 307 articulating surfaces on, 272–273, 273f fracture of, 308, 309f head of, 273, 274f Range of motion (ROM), 10, 10f of ankle joint, needed for walking, 534 of carpometacarpal joint, 321 of elbow joint, 284, 285f in elderly, 517 flexion/extension, of tibiofemoral joint, 414–415 of hip joint, 368–369 anteverted dysplastic, 369 needed for walking, 534 of interphalangeal joints, 325 of joints, 95–98 of knee joint, needed for walking, 534 limited, effects of, 97 of metacarpophalangeal joints, 324, 324f in running gait, 556, 557f, 558t of subtalar joint, 453–454 of tarsometatarsal joints, 461 trunk, in level ground and stair gait, 554 of wrist complex, 313–314 Rate-dependent properties, of connective tissue, 84, 85f Ray, 461 Reaction, Newton’s law of, 22–23, 22f, 23f Reaction forces, 22 joint, joint compression and, 28–29, 28f patellofemoral joint, 428, 428f tensile forces and, 24–25, 25f Reactive responses, in postural control, 485 Reciprocal click, in temporomandibular joint, 226 Recreation, posture and, 518–519 Rectus abdominis muscle, 184, 205 Rectus capitis muscles, 178, 179 Rectus femoris muscle in gait, 546, 548, 549 in hip flexion, 375 hip joint ROM and, 368 insufficiency of, 415 in knee extension, 419, 419f Reflex(es) deep tendon, 130 muscle spindle, 130 stretch, 130, 131f Repetitive motion disorder, 103 Repetitive strain injury, 103 Residual volume, 200, 200t 583 Resistance arm (RA), 46 Resistance force (RF), 46 Resultant force(s), 15 in concurrent force system, determining, 21–22, 22f in linear force system, determining, 19–20, 19f, 20f in parallel force system, determining, 35–36, 35f, 36f Retinacular ligaments distal, in finger extension, 331 oblique, in finger extension, 331, 331f transverse, in finger extension, 334 Retinaculum(ae), 117, 118f extensor, 402, 445f interior extensor, 449 interior peroneal, 474 patellar, 402 peroneal, 445, 445f Retrolisthesis, aging and, 187 Retroversion of acetabulum, 357 femoral, 361, 361f Reverse action, of muscle, 123, 123f Rheumatoid arthritis, of temporomandibular joint, 226 Rhomboid muscle, function of, 265, 265f Rib cage articulations of, 195–197, 195f, 196f changes in, with aging, 208 effects of scoliosis on, 199, 199f kinematics of, 197–198, 197f, 198f muscles associated with, 199–206 See also Ventilatory muscles structure of, 193–197 Ribs vertebral (“floating”), 195 vertebrochondral (“false”), 194 vertebrosternal (“true”), 194 Rockers, in gait, push-off and, 544–545 Rolling joint motion, 96, 96f ROM See Range of motion (ROM) Rotary component of force, 50 Rotary effects, of force components, 57–58, 57f Rotary motion, 6–7, 7f magnitude of, 9–10, 10f Rotary stability, components to, 424t Rotation, automatic (terminal), of knee joint, 416–417 axis of, instantaneous, center of, instantaneous, of interbody joints, 146, 146f medial/lateral, of tibiofemoral joint, 415–416, 416f talar, 446 vertebral, 151 Rotator cuff in glenohumeral stabilization, 254–255, 254f of hip, 379 muscles of, 247–248 tears in, 256 Rotator interval capsule, in glenohumeral stabilization, 248, 248f Rotator muscles, 126 hip lateral, 378–379, 379f medial, 379 Rotatores muscle, 183 Running gait, 555–558, 556f, 557f Rupture, 83 2362_Index-569-602.qxd 584 2/3/11 4:23 PM Page 584 Index S Sacral spine, 171–176 See also Vertebral column, sacral region of articulating surfaces of, 172, 172b function of, 174–176 kinematics of, 174–176, 175f kinetics of, 176 ligaments of, 172–174, 173f–174f structure of, 171–174 symphysis pubis articulation in, 174, 174f Sacroiliac joints, 171–172, 172f motion at, 175 Sacroiliac ligaments, 172–174, 173f Sacrospinous ligaments, 173–174, 173f Sacrotuberous ligaments, 173–174, 173f Saddle joint, 93 Sagittal bands, in metacarpophalangeal joint, 322, 323f Sagittal plane, of body, 8, 8f Sagittal plane analysis, of stair ascent, 555t Sagittal plane joint angles, in gait, 532, 533f, 534 Sagittal plane moments, in gait, 535–536, 537f, 538f, 539f Sagittal plane powers, in gait, 540, 540t, 543f, 549t, 550t SAID principle, 80 Sarcolemma, 109, 109f Sarcomere, 110, 110f length of, isometric muscle fiber tension and, 119–121, 119f, 120f Sarcopenia, 133 Sarcoplasm, 109, 109f Sartorius muscle in hip flexion, 375–376 at knee, 403f, 404 in knee flexion, 418, 418f Scalene muscles, 178–179, 179f, 203–204, 203f Scaphoid, 306f, 307 Scapholunate advanced collapse, 314 Scapholunate interosseous ligament, 308 Scapholunate ligament, injury to, 315, 316f Scaption, 251 Scapula abduction/adduction of, 242 elevation/depression of, 242, 243f motions of, 237–240, 238f, 239f, 241–244, 242f, 243f, 244f protraction/retraction of, 242–243, 243f resting position of, 241, 241f rotation of internal/external, 237–238, 238f, 244, 244f upward/downward, 239–240, 239f, 242, 242f, 243f tilting of, anterior/posterior, 238–239, 239f, 244, 244f upper rotators of, in shoulder complex function, 260–261, 260f Scapulohumeral motion, functions of, 257–258 Scapulohumeral rhythm, 258 Scapulothoracic joint, 232, 240–244 in shoulder complex function, 258–259, 258f, 259f stability of, 244 Scoliosis, 193, 506–508, 506f, 507f, 508f effects of, on rib cage, 199, 199f screening for, 508, 508f treatment for, 205–206, 509 ventilatory changes in, 205, 205f Screw axis of motion, Screw home mechanism, of knee, 417 Seat interface pressures, 512–514, 512f, 514f Segmental centers of mass, 15, 15f Sellar joints, motion at, 97, 97f Semimembranosus muscle in hip extension, 377 at knee, 400 in knee flexion, 417 Semispinalis capitis muscle, 178, 178f Semispinalis cervicis muscle, 178 Semitendinosus muscle, 412 in hip extension, 377 in knee flexion, 417, 418f Sensory perturbation, in postural control, 486 Sensory receptors, muscle function and, 130–132, 131f Series elastic component, of muscle, 118, 118f Serratus muscles anterior function of, 263–264 in scapular motion, 260–261, 260f, 261f posterior, 205 Sesamoiditis, 464 Sharpey’s fibers, 74 Shear, vertebral, 153 Shear force, 30, 30f, 32 vertebral column, in lumbar region, 166f, 171 Shear loading, 81, 82f Shortening contraction, of muscle, 111, 112f, 122, 122f Shoulder complex, 231–270 acromioclavicular joint of, 236–240 See also Acromioclavicular joint components of, 232–257 sternoclavicular joint as, 232–236 See also Sternoclavicular joint dysfunction of, structural, 261–262 flexors of, in gait, 553 function of scapulothoracic and glenohumeral contributions to, 258–259, 258f, 259f sternoclavicular and acromioclavicular contributions to, 259–260, 259f, 260f glenohumeral joint of, 245–257, 245f See also Glenohumeral joint integrated function of, 257–262 muscles in of depression, 265–266, 266f of elevation, 262–265, 263f scapulothoracic joint of, 240–244 See also Scapulothoracic joint Single-support time, in gait, 527 Sinus tarsi, 448, 449f SITS muscles, 254–255 Sitting posture analysis of, 509–514 See also Posture, sitting, analysis of interdiscal pressures in standing vs., 511, 512f muscle activity in lumbar lordosis and, 511 versus standing, 510–511 pregnancy and, 518 seat interface pressures in, 512–514, 512f, 514f strengthening of trunk muscles for, 510 Size principle of motor unit recruitment, 113 Sliding joint motion, 96, 96f, 98f Sliding movements, of interbody joints, 146, 146f Slipped capital femoral epiphysis, 360 Slug, as unit of mass, 11 Snapping hip syndrome, 376 Soleus muscle, 471 in ankle dorsiflexion, 448 in gait, 545, 546 at knee in weight-bearing, 418, 419f shortening of, 471–472 Space, displacement in, location of, 7–9 Speed, 10 Sphenoid bone, 214, 214f Sphenomandibular ligament, 216, 216f, 217 Spherical grip, 345, 346f Spine See Vertebral column Spinning joint motion, 96, 96f Spinous processes, 142, 142f, 143t of cervical vertebrae, 158 function of, 153t of lumbar vertebrae, 165, 165f of thoracic vertebrae, 162, 163f Splenius capitis muscle, 177–178, 177f Splenius cervicis muscle, 177–178, 177f Spondylolisthesis, spondylolytic, 141, 143f Spondylolytic spondylolisthesis, 141, 143f Spongy bone, 79 Spring ligament, 455, 456 Squat lifting vs stoop lifting, in injury prevention, 185, 186f Squeeze-film lubrication, of joints, 92 Stability, 18 center of gravity and, 16f, 17 of glenohumeral joint dynamic, 253–257 costs of, 256–257 deltoid muscle in, 253–254, 254f rotator cuff in, 354–355, 354f supraspinatus muscle in, 254f, 255 static, 253 of knee joint, 422–424, 423–424t line of gravity and, 17, 17f of patellofemoral joint, frontal plane, 428–432 Stair gait, 553–555, 554f, 555t Stance See also Posture bilateral, hip joint forces and muscle function in, 379–380, 380f bipedal vs quadripedal, base of support in, 484–485, 485f unilateral, hip joint forces and muscle function in, 380–385, 381f, 383f, 385f Stance phase, of gait cycle, 526, 526f events in, 526–527 Stance time, in gait, 527 Standing posture analysis of, 492–509 See also Posture, standing, analysis of interdiscal pressures in sitting vs., 511, 512f muscle activity and lumbar lordosis in, 511 pregnancy and, 518 Static equilibrium, 18 Static friction, 30–32 Static posture, 484–489 definition of, 484 Step duration, in gait, 528 Step width, in gait, 528 Stepping, in postural control, 487–488, 488f Sternoclavicular joint, 232–236 articulating surfaces of, 233, 233f capsule of, 234 disc of, 233–234, 233f elevation of, 242, 243f hypomobility of, 262 ligaments of, 234, 234f motions of, 234– 235, 234f, 235f rotation of, posterior, 242, 243f in shoulder complex function, 259–260, 259f, 260f stress tolerance of, 236 Sternocleidomastoid muscle, 179, 204, 204f Sternocostal ligament, 197 Sternohyoid muscle, 221, 221f 2362_Index-569-602.qxd 2/3/11 4:23 PM Page 585 Index Sternothyroid muscle, 221, 221f Sternum, 193, 193f, 194f Strain See Stress-strain Strain-rate sensitivity, of viscoelastic material, 84, 85f Strap muscles, 115, 117 Stratum fibrosum, 90, 90f Stratum synovium, 90, 90f Stress(es) hoop, in collagen, 87 measurement units for, 81 Stress-relaxation, of viscoelastic material, 84, 85f Stress-strain compressive, 81 definition of, 81 effects of, 133 femoral neck, 367 patellofemoral, 427–428, 428f sternoclavicular, 236 tensile, 81 ultimate, 81 Stress-strain curves, 82, 83f load deformation and, 83 Stretch reflex, 130, 131f Stride duration, in gait, 528 Stride length, in gait, 527–528, 528f Structural curves, in scoliosis, 506 Stylohyoid muscle, 221, 221f Stylomandibular ligament, 216, 216f, 217 Subacromial bursa, 250, 251 Subacromial space, 250 Subacromial (suprahumeral) joint, 232 Subclavius muscle, 204, 204f Subcostal muscles, 202, 202f, 203 Subcutaneous bursae, 76 Subdeltoid bursae, 251 Submuscular bursae, 76 Suboccipital muscles, 178 Subpopliteal bursa, 411 Subscapularis muscle function of, 263 in gait, 553 in glenohumeral stabilization, 254 Subscapularis tendon, in glenohumeral stabilization, 248, 248f Subsynovial tissue, of stratum synovium, 90–91 Subtalar joint, 444, 448–455 axis of, 450, 450f function of, 449–455 ligaments of, 449, 449f motion of non-weightbearing, 450–451, 451t, 452f weight-bearing, 451–453, 451t, 453f neutral position of, 454–455 range of motion of, 453–454 structure of, 448–449, 448f, 449f Subtendinous bursae, 76 Sulcus, in subtalar joint, 448 Superficial fasciae, of muscle, 117 Superhumeral arch, 250 Superior pubic ligament, 174, 174f Supinated foot, 475 Supination of ankle/foot complex, 442 definition of, 451 hindfoot, weight-bearing, 459–46, 461f Supination twist, of tarsometatarsal joints, 462, 462f Supinator muscle, 291, 293, 293f Support moment adequate, difficulty in developing, 537 in gait, 536 Suprahumeral space, 250 Suprahumeral (subacromial) joint, 232 Suprahyoid muscle groups, 221, 221f Suprapatellar bursa, 411 Supraspinatus muscle function of, 263 in gait, 553 in glenohumeral stabilization, 254f, 255, 256 Supraspinatus outlet, 250 Supraspinatus tendon in glenohumeral stabilization, 248, 248f tears in, 257 Supraspinous ligament, 149, 149t Surface interface pressures, in lying, 515 Sustentaculum tali, 448, 448f Suture, coronal, 88, 88f Sway envelope, 489 Swayback posture, 493–494, 494f, 495f Swing phase, of gait cycle, 526, 526f, 527f events in, 527 Symmetrical motion, of sacroiliac joints, 175 Symphysis joint, 88–89, 89f Symphysis pubis, 89, 89f Symphysis pubis articulation, 174, 174f Synarthroses (nonsynovial joints), 88–89, 88f, 89f Synchondrosis, 89 Syndesmosis, 88, 89f Synergies, muscle, in postural control, 486–489 change-in-support, 487–488, 488f fixed-support, 486–487, 487f head-stabilizing, 488–489 Synergists, 126–127, 127f Synovial fluid composition of, 91 in diarthroses, 91 hyaline cartilage nourishment from, 78, 91 of knee joint capsule, bursae and, 411–412, 412f Synovial joint(s), 77, 89–94, 90f, 92f, 93f temporomandibular joint as, 214 Synovial layer, of knee joint capsule, 402–403, 402f, 403f Synoviocytes, 90 Type A, 90 Type B, 90 Synovitis extra fluid in hip joint from, 366 temporomandibular joint, 225 Synovium, increased/decreased load on, effects of, 100t T Talar linkages, 456 Talar rotation, 446 Talar tilt, 446 Talar tilt test, of ligament stress, 445 Talocalcaneal joint, 444 Talocalcaneonavicular joint, 456 Talocrural joint, 443 See also Ankle joint Talofibular ligaments, 444, 445f Talonavicular joint, 448, 455–456, 455f, 456f Talonavicular ligament, dorsal, 456 Talus, 441f, 443f, 448f, 449f body of, 444, 444f head and neck of, 444 Tarsal canal, 448 Tarsal joint, transverse, 455–460 See also Transverse tarsal joint Tarsometatarsal joints, 460–463 axes of, 461–462, 461f function of, 462–463, 462f, 463f pronation twist of, 462–463, 462f 585 structure of, 460–462, 461f supination twist of, 462, 462f Tectorial membrane, 156, 156f Teeth, temporomandibular joint and, 223–224 Temporal bone, 214, 214f Temporalis muscle, 220–221, 220f, 222 Temporomandibular joint (TMJ), 212–229 accessory structures of, 215–216, 216f age-related changes in, 224–225 articular disc of, 215–216, 216f See also Articular disc, of temporomandibular joint cervical spine relationship with, 222–223 degenerative conditions of, 226 dentition and, 223–224 dislocation of, 226 dysfunction of, 224–227 capsular fibrosis as, 225 from inflammatory conditions, 225 osseous mobility conditions as, 225–226 signs and symptoms of, 227 trauma and, 225 function of, 217–224 hypermobility of, 225–226 internal derangement of, 224–225 kinematics of, 217–220 ligaments of, 216–217, 216f mandibular motions of elevation and depression as, 218–219, 218f lateral excursion as, 219–220, 219f, 220f palpation and asymmetry of, 222 protrusion and retrusion as, 219, 219f muscles of, 220–222 nerves of, 222 osteoarthritis of, 226 posture and, 223, 224f rheumatoid arthritis of, 226 structure of, 214–217 Temporomandibular ligament, 216–217, 216f Tenascin, 72, 73t Tendon(s), 74–76 changes in, in tennis elbow, 281t compliance of, 118 composition of, 75t effects of immobilization on, 99, 100t flexor carpi ulnaris, 308 interaction of, with muscles, 124, 125t patellar, 402 pes anserinus, in knee flexion, 417, 418f properties of, 86 quadriceps, 402, 402f response of, to exercise, 101 subscapularis, in glenohumeral stabilization, 248, 248f supraspinatus in glenohumeral stabilization, 248, 248f tears in, 257 Tendon friction, 56–57, 57f Tendon sheaths, 74 digital, in finger flexion, 326–327, 329 Tennis elbow, tendon and muscle changes in, 281t Tenoblasts, 68, 69t Tenomodulin, 72 Tenosynovium, 74 Tensile forces, 23–25, 24f, 25f, 26f measurement units for, 81 Tensile load, 81, 82f Tensile strain, 81 Tensile stress, 81 Tension capsuloligamentous, in hip joint, 366 muscle, 119–126 See also Muscle tension 2362_Index-569-602.qxd 586 2/3/11 4:23 PM Page 586 Index Tension (Continued) resistance of tissues to, 87 tensile forces and, 25 Tensor fasciae latae muscle in gait, 549 in hip flexion, 375, 376 hip joint ROM and, 369 in running gait, 556 Teres major muscle function of, 265, 265f in gait, 553 Teres minor muscle function of, 263 in glenohumeral stabilization, 254 Thenar muscles, 342–343 Thixotropic, 91 Thoracic spine, 162–164 See also Vertebral column, thoracic region of articulations in interbody joints, 162 zygapophyseal joints, 162–163 function of, 163–164 intervertebral discs in, 162 kinematics, 164, 164f kinetics, 164 ligaments in, 163 structure of, 162–164 variations in, 143t–144t vertebra of arches of, 162, 163f body of, 162, 163f typical, 162 Thoracolumbar fascia, 168, 169f, 180–181, 180f Thorax, 192–211 See also Chest wall; Rib cage Three-dimensional motion, Thumb carpometacarpal joint of, 339–340 in cylindrical grip, 344 first carpometacarpal joint of, 339–340, 339f interphalangeal joint of, 341 metacarpophalangeal joint of, 341, 341f musculature of, 341–343, 342f extrinsic, 341–342 intrinsic, 342–343, 342f structure of, 339–341, 339f Thyrohyoid muscle, 221, 221f Tibia in tibiofemoral joint, 397–398, 397f torsion of, 445–446 Tibial shear, anterior cruciate ligament injury and, 407–408, 409f Tibialis anterior muscle, 474 in ankle dorsiflexion, in gait, 548 in ankle plantarflexion, 448 in running gait, 558 Tibialis posterior muscle, 448, 472–473, 472f Tibiofemoral joint, 396–424 alignment of, 398–399, 398f, 401 capsule of, 401–404, 402f, 403f contact points of, 413 coupled motions of, 416–417 femur in, 396–397, 396f, 397f flexion/extension of, 412–415, 413f, 414f, 415f cruciate ligaments in, 413–414, 414f range of motion of, 414–415 function of, 412–424 injury/disease effects on, 433–434 kinematics of, 412–417 ligaments of, 404–410 medial/lateral rotation of, 415–416, 416f meniscus of, 399–401, 399f, 400f, 401f See also Meniscus(i), of knee muscles of, 417–422 structure of, 396–412 tibia in, 397–398, 397f valgus/varus of, 416 weight-bearing forces on, 398–399, 398f Tibiofibular joints ankle joint linkage with, 447–448 distal, 443–444, 443f proximal, 443, 443f Tibiofibular ligaments, 443, 443f, 444 crural interosseous, 443f, 444 Tidal breathing, diaphragm in, 200, 201f Tidal volume, 200, 200t Tidemark area, of cartilage, 77 Time-dependent properties, of connective tissue, 84, 85f Time/distance variables, in gait characteristics of, 532 normative values for, 532t Time variables, in gait, 531 Tip-to-tip prehension, 347f, 348 Tissue, material properties of, 82 Titin, 110, 110f muscle stiffness and, 119 TMJ See Temporomandibular joint (TMJ) Toddler, gait in, 559 Toe(s) in anterior/posterior view postural deviations, 504–505, 505f claw, 498, 499f hammer, 498–499, 499f in lateral view postural deviations, 498–499, 499f Toe-off, in stance phase of gait cycle, 526, 526f, 527 Toe-out, degree of, in gait, 528 Toe region, of stress-strain curve, 83, 83f Torque (τ), 33–39 changing, angular acceleration with, 43–44 definition of, 529 elbow, in children and adults, 297 isokinetic, 124–125 maximizing, manipulating external forces for, 55, 55f moment arms and, 42–43, 42f, 43, 43f production of, by muscle changes, 123–124, 124f torsional moments versus, 37 Torsion angle of of femur, 358, 360–362, 361f, 362f of glenohumeral joint, 245, 246f pelvic, 175–176 anterior/posterior pelvic tilt versus, 369 tibial, 445–446 vertebral, 153 Torsional loading, 81 Torsional moments in parallel force systems, 37, 37f torque versus, 37 Trabeculae, 79 of bones, of foot, 470, 470f Trabecular bone, 79 Trabecular systems, of femur, weight-bearing and, 366–367, 367f Trajectories, in gait, 529 Transfers, strengthening of trunk muscles for, 510 Translatory component of force, 50 Translatory effects, of force components, 56, 56f Translatory motion, 6, 6f, 33, 33f in concurrent force system, 21–22, 22f in linear force systems, 19–20, 19f, 20f Transverse acetabular ligament, 356–357 Transverse atlantal ligament, 155, 156–157, 157f Transverse carpal ligament, 316, 317f Transverse humeral ligament, 255, 256f Transverse ligament, of menisci of knee, 400 Transverse plane, of body, 8, 8f Transverse processes, 142, 142f, 143t of cervical vertebrae, 158 function of, 153t of lumbar vertebrae, 164, 165f of thoracic vertebrae, 162, 163f Transverse retinacular ligament, in finger extension, 334 Transverse tarsal joint axes of, 457–458, 457f function of, 458–460, 459f, 461f motion of weight-bearing hindfoot pronation and, 459, 459f weight-bearing hindfoot supination and, 459–460, 461f structure of, 455–458, 456f Transversus abdominis muscles, 180, 184, 205 Transversus thoracis muscles, 205 Trapeziometacarpal joint, of thumb, 339 Trapezioscaphoid joint, 340 Trapezius muscles, 176, 177f, 204, 204f in acromioclavicular joint, 236 function of, 263–264 in gait, 553 overuse of, 264 in scapular motion, 260–261, 260f, 261f Trapezoid ligament, 237 Treadmill gait, 553 Trendelenburg gait, 383 Triangular fibrocartilage, 289, 289f Triangular fibrocartilage complex, 307 Triangular ligament, in finger extension, 330f, 331 Triangularis sterni muscles, 205 Triaxial joint, 92, 93–94 Triceps brachii muscle, 280 as elbow extensor, 287, 288f in glenohumeral stabilization, 253 Triceps surae muscle, 471, 473f Trigger finger, 329 Triquetrum, 306f, 307, 308f Trochanteric bursae, 378, 378f inflammation of, 376 Trochlea, 272, 273f Trochlear facet, of talus, 444 Trochlear groove, 272, 273f Trochlear notch, 272–273, 274f Trochlear ridge, 272–273, 274f Trochoid joints, 92, 93, 93f Tropocollagen molecule, 69 Tropomyosin, 109, 110f Troponin, 109, 110f in cross-bridge interaction, 111, 111f Trunk gait and, 552–553, 552f range of motion of, in level ground and stair gait, 554 Tubercles, intercondylar, 397 U Ulcers, pressure in lying posture, 515 in sitting posture, 513 Ulna articulating surfaces on, 272–273, 273f head of, 289–290, 289f 2362_Index-569-602.qxd 2/3/11 4:23 PM Page 587 Index Ulnar bursa, in finger flexion, 327–328, 328f Ulnar collateral ligament, 307 Ulnar coronoid process, 273, 274f Ulnar radial notch, 288–289, 289f Ulnar tuberosity, 279 Ulnar variance, positive/negative, 308, 309f Ulnocarpal ligament complex, 310–311 Ulnolunate ligament, 311, 311f Ultimate strain, 81 Ultimate stress, 81 Uncinate processes, 157, 157f Uncovertebral joints, 158, 158f Uniaxial joint, 92–93, 93f Unilateral stance, hip joint forces and muscle function in, 380–385, 381f, 383f, 385f Unipennate muscles, 115, 116f, 117 United States (US) units, 9, 10 Upper extremity See also Elbow complex; Hand complex; Shoulder complex; Wrist complex in gait, 553 V Valgus, definition of, 466–467 Valgus deformity, of ankle/foot complex, 442, 442f Variables, in gait, 527 Varus definition of, 466–467 forefoot, 463, 463f Varus deformity, of ankle/foot complex, 442, 442f Varus/valgus injuries, to elbow complex, 299–300, 300f Vastus intermedius muscle, in knee extension, 419, 419f in gait, 548 Vastus lateralis muscle in gait, 546, 548 in knee extension, 419, 419f, 420 Vastus medialis longus muscle, in knee extension, 419 Vastus medialis muscle, 403, 403f in gait, 546, 548 in knee extension, 419, 419f, 420 Vastus medialis oblique muscle in knee extension, 419 strengthening of, 430 Vector(s) force, 12–14, 12f, 13f, 14f ground reaction force, 489 muscle force, 39–41, 39f, 40f, 41f Velocity, 10 Ventilatory muscles, 199–206 accessory, 204–205, 204f coordination and integration of, 206 primary, 199–204, 201f, 202f, 203f Vertebra(e) cervical arches of, 144t, 157–158 body of, 143t, 157, 157f typical, 157, 157f lumbar arches of, 144t, 164 body of, 143t, 164, 165f fifth, line of gravity location above, 496 typical, 164–165, 165f, 166f thoracic arches of, 144t, 162 body of, 143t, 162 of rib cage, 194, 194f typical, 162, 163f transitional, 154, 162 typical, 140–143, 142f, 143f, 144f components of, 143t Vertebral column, 139–191 age-related changes in, 187 in anterior/posterior view postural deviations, 506–508, 506f, 507f, 508f articulations of, 146–147, 146f axial compression of, 152 bending of, 152–153 cervical region of articulations in, 155, 155f configuration of, in standing, 496–497 craniovertebral, 154–155, 154f, 155f function of, 159–162 kinematics of, 159–161, 160f, 161f kinetics of, 161–162 ligaments in, 155–157, 156f, 157f lower, 157–158, 157f muscles of anterior, 179, 180f lateral, 178–179, 179f posterior, 176–178, 177f, 178f structure of, 154–159, 154f temporomandibular joint related with, 222–223 typical vertebrae of, 157, 157f compressive loads on, interdiscal pressures and, 511–512, 512f curves in, 140, 142f age variations in, in standing posture, 516t extension of, 151, 151f flexion of, 151, 151f lateral, 151, 151f function of, 150–153, 150f, 151f, 153t intervertebral disc in, 143–146 See also Intervertebral disc(s) kinematics of, 150–151 kinetics of, 152–153 in lateral view postural deviations, 501–502, 502f ligaments of, 147–149, 149–150t lower, interbody joints of, 158–159, 159f lumbar region of articulations of, 166–167, 167f fascia in, 168, 169f function of, 169–171 intervertebral discs in, 165–166, 166f kinematics of, 169–170, 170f kinetics of, 170–171 ligaments in, 167–168, 168f motions of, coordinated with femoral and pelvic motions, 372–374, 373f, 374t muscles of anterior, 184–185 lateral, 183–184, 183f posterior, 180–183, 180f, 181f, 182f, 183f structure of, 164–168, 165f, 166f, 167f, 168f, 169f mobile segment of, 140 muscles of, 176–187 in craniocervical/upper thoracic regions, 176–180, 176f, 177f, 178f, 179f, 180f in lower thoracic/lumbopelvic regions, 180–185, 180f, 181f, 182f, 183f, 185f regions of, 140, 141f rotation of, 151 sacral region of, 171–176 articulations in, 171–174, 172f, 174f function of, 174–176 kinematics of, 174–176, 175f kinetics of, 176 587 ligaments in, 172–174, 173f structure of, 171–174, 172f, 173f, 174f shear of, 153 in standing posture analysis, 495, 495f, 496t structure of, 140–149 thoracic region of articulations of, 162–163 function of, 163–164, 164f intervertebral discs in, 162 kinematics of, 164, 164f kinetics of, 164 ligaments in, 163 lower anterior muscles of, 184–185 lateral muscles of, 183–184, 183f posterior muscles of, 180–183, 180f, 181f, 182f, 183f structure of, 162–163, 163f typical vertebrae of, 162, 163f upper anterior muscles of, 179, 180f lateral muscles of, 178–179, 179f posterior muscles of, 176–178, 177f, 178f torsion of, 153 Vertebral end plates, 144, 145, 145f Vertebral foramen, 143t of cervical vertebrae, 158 of lumbar vertebrae, 165 of thoracic vertebrae, 162, 163f Vertical axis, of body, 7, 7f Vertical linear equilibrium, 32 Vertical linear force systems, 30 Vincula tendinum, 329 Viscoelasticity, of connective tissues, 84 Viscosity, 84 Vital capacity, 200, 200t Volar carpal ligaments, 310–311, 311f Volar interossei muscle, in finger extension, 331, 331f Volar plates at interphalangeal joints, 324–325 at metacarpophalangeal joints, 322, 323f W Walking See also Gait mechanical energy of, 542, 545, 545f Walking speed, in gait, 528 Walking velocity, in gait, 528 Wartenberg’s sign, 336 Weeping lubrication, of joints, 92 Weight, 11 Weight-bearing ankle-knee interaction in, 415, 415f coordinated motions of femur, pelvis, and lumbar spine during, 374t hip joint musculature and, 374–375 in quadriceps muscle strengthening, 422, 423f structural adaptations of hip joint to, 366–368, 366f, 367f Weight-bearing vs non-weightbearing exercises, with patellofemoral pain, 432 Weight-bearing hindfoot pronation, transverse tarsal joint motion and, 459, 459f Weight-bearing hindfoot supination, transverse tarsal joint motion and, 459–460, 461f Weight-bearing line, in tibiofemoral joint alignment, 398–399, 398f Weight-bearing motion, of subtalar joint, 451–453, 451t, 453f Weight distribution, of foot, 470–471, 470f Wiberg, center edge angle of, 357, 357f 2362_Index-569-602.qxd 588 Index 2/3/11 4:23 PM Page 588 Proudly sourced and uploaded by [StormRG] Kickass Torrents | The Pirate Bay | ExtraTorrent Wolff’s law, 79 Work definition of, 43 in gait, understanding, 542 in muscle contraction, positive versus negative, 122 Woven bone, 79 Wrist complex, 306–319 extension/flexion of, 306 flexion/extension of, 312–313 function of, 312–319 functional position of, 348–349 instability of, 314–315, 315f ligaments of, 310–311, 311f midcarpal joint of, 306, 306f, 310–311 See also Midcarpal joint muscles of, 315–319, 317f, 318f distal, 318–319, 318f volar, 316–318, 317f nomenclature relevant to, 307 pronation/supination of, 306 radial/ulnar deviation of, 313, 314f radiocarpal joint of, 306, 306f, 307–310 See also Radiocarpal joint range of motion of, 313–314 relationship of elbow complex to, 295–296 ulnar deviation/radial deviation of, 306 X Xiphisternal joint, 195, 195f Xiphoid process, 193–194, 193f, 194f Y Y ligament of Bigelow, 365, 365f Yield point, 80 Young’s modulus, 82 Z Zone(s) of apposition, of diaphragm, 200, 201f of sarcomere, 110, 110f of weakness, in femoral neck, 367, 367f Zygapophyseal articular processes of cervical region, 157–158 of lumbar region, 164, 165f of thoracic region, 162, 163f Zygapophyseal articulations, 146–147 Zygapophyseal facets, function of, 153t Zygapophyseal joint capsules, 149, 150t Zygapophyseal joints in cervical region, 159 in lumbar region, 166–167, 167f, 171 in thoracic region, 162–163 Zygomatic bone, 214, 214f ... Joint structure and function : a comprehensive analysis / [edited by ] Pamela K Levangie, Cynthia C Norkin. ? ?5th ed p ; cm Rev ed of : Joint structure and function / Pamela K Levangie, Cynthia C Norkin. .. Structure and Function: Foundational Concepts Chapter Biomechanical Applications to Joint Structure and Function SECTION Hip Joint 354 Chapter 10 The Hip Complex RobRoy L Martin, PT, PhD, CSCS, and. .. Because capsules and ligaments can only pull, the forces that are created by the contact of Acapsule and Pcapsule in Figure 1–2 6A through C are directed upward toward the capsuloligamentous structures