ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF RENEWABLE ENERGY ENERGY AND THE ENVIRONMENT SERIES EDITOR Abbas Ghassemi New Mexico State University PUBLISHED TITLES Environmental Impacts of Renewable Energy Frank R Spellman Geothermal Energy: Renewable Energy and the Environment, Second Edition William E Glassley Energy Resources: Availability, Management, and Environmental Impacts Kenneth J Skipka and Louis Theodore Finance Policy for Renewable Energy and a Sustainable Environment Michael Curley Wind Energy: Renewable Energy and the Environment, Second Edition Vaughn Nelson Solar Radiation: Practical Modeling for Renewable Energy Applications Daryl R Myers Solar and Infrared Radiation Measurements Frank Vignola, Joseph Michalsky, and Thomas Stoffel Forest-Based Biomass Energy: Concepts and Applications Frank Spellman Introduction to Renewable Energy Vaughn Nelson Solar Energy: Renewable Energy and the Environment Robert Foster, Majid Ghassemi, Alma Cota, Jeanette Moore, and Vaughn Nelson ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF RENEWABLE ENERGY Frank R Spellman Boca Raton London New York CRC Press is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2015 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S Government works Version Date: 20140616 International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4822-4947-7 (eBook - PDF) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint Except as permitted under U.S Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.copyright com (http://www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400 CCC is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com As humans we tend to forget that Mother Nature does not need us to flourish and survive; instead, we need Earth to survive, period To a person with a saw, everything looks like lumber Contents Preface xv To the Reader xvii Author xix Chapter Setting the Stage: The 411 on Energy Basics Energy Types of Energy Nonrenewable Energy Benefits Non-Benefits Renewable Energy .4 Benefits Non-Benefits Energy Use in the United States Measuring Energy Heat Engines .6 Rankine Cycle Heat Engine Stirling Cycle Heat Engine .8 Thought-Provoking Questions References and Recommended Reading .8 Chapter Wind Power: Where Eagles Don’t Dare 11 Introduction 11 Wind Power Basics 13 Air in Motion 13 Wind Energy 14 Wind Power 16 Wind Turbine Types 16 Horizontal-Axis Wind Turbines 16 Wind Turbine Components 18 Wind Energy Site Evaluation Impacts 19 Air Quality 19 Cultural Resources .20 Ecological Resources 20 Water Resources 20 Land Use .20 Soils and Geologic Resources 20 Paleontological Resources 21 vii viii Contents Transportation 21 Visual Resources 21 Socioeconomics 21 Environmental Justice 21 Hazardous Materials and Waste Management 21 Acoustics (Noise) 21 Wind Energy Construction Impacts 34 Air Quality 34 Cultural Resources 35 Ecological Resources 35 Water Resources 36 Land Use 36 Soils and Geologic Resources 37 Paleontological Resources 37 Transportation 38 Visual Resources 38 Socioeconomics 42 Environmental Justice 43 Hazardous Materials and Waste Management 43 Wind Energy Operations Impacts 43 Air Quality 43 Cultural Resources 43 Ecological Resources 44 Water Resources 44 Land Use .44 Soils and Geologic Resources 45 Paleontological Resources 45 Transportation 45 Visual Resources 45 Socioeconomics 46 Environmental Justice 46 Hazardous Materials and Waste Management .46 Wind Energy Impacts on Wildlife 46 Motion Smear 50 Law of the Visual Angle 51 Wind Energy Impacts on Human Health 53 Power Transmission Lines 55 Energy Transmission Site Evaluation Impacts 55 Air Quality 55 Cultural Resources 55 Ecological Resources 56 Water Resources 56 Land Use 56 Soils and Geologic Resources 56 Paleontological Resources 56 Contents ix Transportation 57 Visual Resources 57 Socioeconomics 57 Environmental Justice 57 Energy Transmission Construction Impacts 57 Air Quality 57 Cultural Resources 58 Ecological Resources 58 Water Resources 58 Land Use 59 Soils and Geologic Resources 59 Paleontological Resources 60 Transportation 60 Visual Resources 60 Socioeconomics 61 Environmental Justice 61 Energy Transmission Operations Impacts 61 Air Quality 61 Cultural Resources 61 Ecological Resources 62 Water Resources 62 Land Use 62 Soils and Geologic Resources 63 Paleontological Resources 63 Transportation 63 Visual Resources 63 Socioeconomics 64 Environmental Justice 64 Wind Turbine Operations and Maintenance Personnel Safety Concerns 64 Wind Energy Fatalities/Incidents 64 Case Study 2.1 Wind Turbine Fatality 65 Wind Turbine Hazards and Applicable OHSA Standards and Controls .66 Wind Power: The Bottom Line 72 Thought-Provoking Questions 73 References and Recommended Reading 74 Chapter Solar Energy 77 Icarus Revisited at Ivanpah 77 Energy from the Sun 77 Photovoltaics 78 Concentrating Solar Power 80 Environmental Impacts of Solar Energy 81 x Contents Land Use and Siting 81 Water Resources 82 Hazardous Waste 87 Ecological Impacts 89 Solar Energy Job Hazards 91 Fatalities and Incidents 91 Hazards and Controls 92 Thought-Provoking Questions 97 References and Recommended Reading 97 Chapter Hydropower 103 The Rachel River 103 Historical Perspective 108 Impoundment 111 Diversion 111 Pumped Storage 111 Key Definitions 111 Hydropower Basic Concepts 112 Stevin’s Law 113 Properties of Water 114 Reservoir Stored Energy 126 Hydroturbines 128 Advanced Hydropower Technology 131 Hydropower Generation: Dissolved Oxygen Concerns 132 Ecological Impacts of Hydropower 133 Physical Barrier to Fish Migration 133 Flow Alterations, Flow Fluctuations, and Regulated and Unregulated Rivers and Salmonids 134 Biological Impacts of Flow Fluctuations 137 Increases in Flow 137 Stranding 138 Juvenile Emigration (Salmonid Drift) 143 Increased Predation 143 Aquatic Invertebrates 143 Redd Dewatering 145 Spawning Interference 145 Hydraulic Response to Flow Fluctuations 146 Types of Hydropower Activity That Cause Flows to Fluctuate .146 Low Water Levels and Evaporation of Reservoirs 147 Estimating Evaporation from Lake Mead 149 Impacts on Human Health and Safety 155 Hydropower: The Bottom Line 155 Thought-Provoking Questions 156 References and Recommended Reading 157 456 Appendix Definitions of Terrorism-Related Terms Ultrafiltration: A filtration process for water that uses membranes to preferentially separate very small particles that are larger than the membrane’s molecular weight cutoff, typically greater than 10,000 Daltons A Dalton is a unit of mass, defined as 1/12 the mass of a carbon-12 nucleus It is also called an atomic mass unit, abbreviated as either amu or u Vector: An organism that carries germs from one host to another Vesicle: A blister filled with fluid Weapons of mass destruction (WMD): According to the National Defense Authorization Act, WMDs are any weapons or devices that are intended, or have the capability, to cause death or serious bodily injury to a significant number of people through the release, dissemination, or impact of toxic or poisonous chemicals or their precursors, a disease organism, or radiation or radioactivity Xenophobia: Irrational fear of strangers or those who are different from oneself Zyklon B: A form of hydrogen cyanide Symptoms of inhalation include increased respiratory rate, restlessness, headache, and giddiness followed later by convulsions, vomiting, respiratory failure, and unconsciousness It was used in the Nazi gas chambers in World War Index A abandoned mine lands (AMLs), 81–82 abyssal plain, 289 acetogenesis, 214 acid esterification, 201, 202 acidogenesis, 214 acidogenic bacteria, 214 acoustic harassment devices (AHDs), 317 acoustic trauma, 22 acoustic wave, 311–313 acoustics impacts on carbon capture and sequestration, 377, 383, 387 hydrokinetic energy, 339, 344, 348 wind energy, 21–34 underwater, 312 action level, sound, 22 administrative controls, 23 advective winds, 13 aerodynamic noise, 22 agricultural residues, 181–184, 196, 240 air currents, 12, 13 air gun, startle response to, 317 air pressure, 13, 112 air quality impacts anaerobic digestion, 220 biomass energy, 223, 230, 233 geologic carbon sequestration, 375, 378, 383 geothermal energy, 265, 268–269, 272 hydrokinetic energy, 337, 339–340, 345 wind energy, 19, 34, 43, 55, 57, 61 albedo, 90 algae, 145, 68, 221, 229, 230, 235, 309, 328, 330 biodiesel and, 202–212 farms, open-pond, 210–212 American sycamore, 188 anaerobic digestion, 213–220 of animal wastes, 220 stages, 214–215 anemometer, 18 angiosperms, 174, 175 angle of repose, 279 animal waste, anaerobic digestion of, 220 antifouling coatings, 328 aquatic environment noise, 311–313 aquatic invertebrates, 143–145 area of a circle, 121 area, velocity and, 121–122 artificial reefs, 329 asthenosphere, 255 attenuation, 22 attenuation, sound, 22, 30, 312, 313 attenuator, 298 attrition, 291 audible range, 23 audiogram, 23, 315–316 automated external defibrillators (AEDs), 70 autotrophic algae, 206 auxins, 177, 178 A-weighting, 27 B background noise, 23, 47, 49, 52, 315, 318 BANANA, 39–42 barrage, 300, 337, 339, 340, 341–342, 343, 344, 345, 346–347, 349 barrier islands, 292 bat, greater mouse-eared, 52 Bay of Fundy, 307 beaches, defined, 292 beaching, 138–139, 142 benthic habitats, hydrokinetic energy and, 308–310 Bernoulli’s theorem, 122 binary cycle power plant, 256–259 biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), 217 biocides, 328, 335, 350 biodiesel, 164, 168, 180, 181, 195, 200–213, 236, 237, 238, 239 algae, and, 202–212 fatalities and incidents, 240 pros and cons, 212–213 refining, 201 bioenergy, 163–241 bioethanol, 164, 191–192 biofouling, 309, 327, 328, 335 biofuels, 164, 165, 167, 168, 181, 184, 185, 186, 187, 188, 202, 203, 204, 210, 213, 222, 229, 232, 235, 236, 371 fatalities and incidents, 240–241 hazards, 237–239 slagging potential, 196–197 biogas, 166, 197, 213–221, 222, 236 contents of, 215 landfill, 221 457 458 biological sequestration, 369–373 biomass, 5, 163–241 algal, 210–212 burning, composition of, 169–171 construction impacts, 222–229 air quality, 223 cultural resources, 223–224 ecological resources, 224, 230–231 environmental justice, 229 land use, 225, 231 paleontological resources, 228 socioeconomics, 229 soils and geologic resources, 225–227 transportation, 228 visual resources, 228–229 water resources, 224–225 feedstock production impacts, 229–232 air quality, 230 cultural resources, 230 ecological resources, 230–231 environmental justice, 232 land use, 231 paleontological resources, 231–232 socioeconomics, 232 soils and geologic resources, 231 transportation, 232 visual resources, 232 water resources, 231 feedstocks, 167–168, 180–195, 200–202 for biopower, 195–197 for bioproducts, 198–200 forest, 184 fuel, 164 hydrogen in, 361 impacts on human health and safety, 237–239 operations impacts, 232–237 air quality, 233 cultural resources, 233–234 ecological resources, 234 environmental justice, 237 land use, 236 paleontological resources, 236 socioeconomics, 236 soils and geologic resources, 236 transportation, 236 visual resources, 236 water resources, 235 biomass integrated gasification/combined cycle (BIG/CC), 196 bioproducts, 198–200 biorefinery, 165 biosolids, 215–220 birds ambient noise, and, 51 collisions with, 62, 133 hearing threshold, 49, 332 Index renewable energy, and, hydrokinetic energy, and, 311, 330, 331, 340, 341, 342, 346, 347 macularity, 49 magnetic fields, and, 324 sound level sensitivity, 47 power lines, and 41–42, 62, 133 solar energy, and, 77, 89 visual acuity, 50 wading, 309 wind turbines, and, 44, 46–53, 73 blade strikes, 332–334 blades, wind turbine, 18, 19 bleed-off, 83 blowdown, 83, 87 boreal forests, 370 Bowen ratio, 151 brake, wind turbine, 18 Brazilian ethanol production, 195 British thermal unit (Btu), brown algae, 209 Brush dynamo, 110 bypass lag time, 146 bypass reach, 112 C C factor, 124–125 cables buried, 307, 322, 342 electrical transmission, 301, 304, 307, 308, 309, 310, 311, 319, 320, 321, 322, 324, 327, 335, 342 insulation, and, 321 mooring, 304, 308, 310, 311, 314, 319, 328, 329, 330, 331 telecommunications, 319 unanchored, 307 wave energy converter, 306 wind turbine, 19 cadmium, 88 cambia, 177 carbon capture and sequestration (CCS), 367–389 geologic, 373–388 impacts on human health and safety, 388 terrestrial, 369–375 carbon cycle, 223, 368 carbon dioxide, 213, 214, 215, 216, 223, 230, 233, 240, 367–389; see also carbon capture and sequestration algae, and, 206, 210 as noncondensable gas, 263 density, 115 emissions, 4, 181, 191, 196, 230, 233, 240, 265, 272, 335, 367–369, 371–372 biodiesel, 181 photovoltaic systems, 91 459 Index landfill gas, 221 plants, and, 175, 176 produced by fermentation, 189 storage, 373–374 waste, 212 carbon sinks, 368, 370 carrying capacity, 309 cave-ins, 276, 277, 278, 279 cavitation, 334 cellulose, 170, 179, 200 cellulosic ethanol, 181, 185, 186–187 cellulosic feedstocks, 168 cell wall, plant, 179–180 cetaceans, 312, 316–317, 323 chemical hydride, 363 chemical hydrogen storage, 363 chemical oxygen demand (COD), 217 chemical reactivity hazards, biofuels, 238–239 chemicals, toxic effects of, 327–336 Chinook salmon, 133, 139–143 spawning interference, 145 chlorophyll, 175–176 chloroplasts, and, 173 chlorophyll a, 206, 208 Chlorophyta, 208 chloroplasts, 176 chronic noise exposure, 51–52 Chrysophyta, 208–209 Clean Water Act (CWA), 385 climate change, 3, 8, 19, 35, 43, 55, 61, 87, 88, 91, 223, 230, 265, 269, 367, 371–373, 375; see also global warming closed-cycle heat engine, closed-loop heat pumps, 262 coal, 2, 3, 9, 82, 155, 167, 184, 196, 197, 233, 240, 256, 361, 362, 383 algae farms, and, 212 beds, unmineable, 374 co-firing with biomass, 195, 196 cobble substrate, 140 Cockerell rafts, 296 collisions aquatic animals with hydrokinetic facilities, 328, 332–334, 337, 346 birds with hydrokinetic facilities, 330, 340 birds with hydropower facilities, 133 birds with power lines, 42 birds with wind turbines, 49, 50 livestock/vehicle, 225, 380 with transmission lines, 62, 234 Columbia–Snake River basin, commercial energy use, competent person, 279 concentrating photovoltaics (CPV), 86 concentrating solar power (CSP), 77, 80–81, 86 cooling systems, 86–87 cones, plant, 174–175 confined space entry, 67–68 Conservation Reserve Program (CRP), 186 continental rise, 289 continental shelf, 289 continental slope, 289 continuous noise, 23 controller, wind turbine, 17, 18, 19 convergent boundaries, plate, 255 cooling towers, 82–87 coral reefs, 306, 335 core, of Earth, 253–254 Coriolis force, 14 cork cambium, 177 corn, 168, 169, 170, 180–181, 187, 198 ethanol vs food, 192–195 milling, dry, 189 corrasion, 291 corrosion, river, 139 coves, 291 cracks, excavation, 278 crane safety, 67, 70–71, 92, 96, 155 critical flow, 141 crust, Earth, 253–254 cryptobiotic soil crusts, 226–227 crystalline silica, 280 cultural resources impacts biomass energy, 223–224, 230, 233–234 geologic carbon sequestration, 375–376, 378, 384 geothermal energy, 265, 269, 272–273 hydrokinetic energy, 337, 340, 345 terrestrial sequestration, 374 wind energy, 20, 35, 44, 55–56, 58, 61–62 currents, ocean, 290 alteration of, 304–307 C-weighting, 27 cyanobacteria, 226–227 cycles of concentration, 86 cycling, hydropower plant, 147 D Darcy–Weisbach equation, 124 dark reaction, 176 day-neutral plants, 179 dB (decibel), 23 deep water waves, 294 densification, 184–185 density, 114–116 gradients, 13 deposition, marine, 292 derrick safety, 67, 70–71, 155 desuperheaters, 261 detritus feeders, 144 dewatering, 36, 59, 138, 216, 225, 380 redd, 145 dicots, 172, 175 460 dilute acid esterification, 202 dinoflagellates, 209–210 discharge rate, 120–121, 141 dish/engine solar power systems, 80 displacer, wave energy, 296–297 dissolved oxygen (DO), 132–133, 308, 335 divergent boundaries, plate, 255 diversion hydropower plant, 110–111 dosimeter, noise, 24, 25, 28 double hearing protection, 24 downhole heat exchanger (DHE), 250 downstream reach, 112 dried distillers’ grain (DDG), 189 drift, aquatic invertebrate, 144 drift loss, solar energy, 83 drought, 127, 132, 147, 148, 156 dry cooling, 86–87 dry corn milling, 189 dry steam power plant, 256–257 E eagle conservation, 47, 53 Earth layers, 253–254 ecological resources impacts biomass energy, 224, 230–231, 234 geologic carbon sequestration, 376, 379, 384 geothermal energy, 266, 269–270, 273 hydrokinetic energy, 337, 340–342, 346–347 hydropower, 133 terrestrial sequestration, 374 wind energy, 20, 35, 44, 56, 58, 62 eel, 331 electrosensitivity, 322 magnetosensitivity, 323, 324 electrical safety geothermal energy, 280–281 hydropower, 155 solar energy, 96 wind power, 67, 71 electric fields, 319, 321 effect of on aquatic organisms, 322–323, 324, 329 electromagnetic fields, 155, 303, 346 underwater, 319–336 effects of on aquatic organisms, 322–325, 327 electroreception, 322 emigration, fish, 143 energy biomass, 163–241 budget, 150–151 conversion, 256, 287–288, 295–298, 301–303, 334–336 crops, 186–189 desirable attributes, 185 defined, 1–2 geothermal, 247–285 Index head, 122–123 hydrokinetic, 287–350 hydropower, 103–156 infrastructure, 8–9 measuring, 5–6 renewable, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 39–42, 77, 80, 108, 166, 196, 202, 226, 249, 301, 310, 332, 362, 367 solar, 77–97 sources, 2–3 types of, 2–3 use, in United States, 4, 15, 110, 165–166, 252 wind, 11–73 Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 (EISA), 164, 181 energy transmission, see power transmission lines engineered geothermal systems, see enhanced geothermal systems engineering controls, 23, 65, 97, 238, 280 enhanced geothermal systems (EGSs), 259–260, 264 enthalpy, 253 environmental justice impacts biomass energy, 229, 232, 237 geologic carbon sequestration, 377, 382, 387 geothermal energy, 268, 272, 275 hydrokinetic energy, 339, 344, 348 wind energy, 21, 43, 46, 57, 61, 64 equal-energy rule, 24 erosion, wave, 291–292 ethanol, 2, 168, 169, 171, 180–181, 184, 185, 187, 189, 191–195, 198, 236, 237, 238, 239, 240 Brazilian production of, 177 celllulosic, 181, 185, 186–187 fatalities and incidents, 221 ethylene, 177 Euglenophyta, 208 eutrophication, 204 evaporation, 82 from Lake Mead, 149–155 solar cooling towers, and, 82 excavation hazards, 276–279 exchange rate, 24 F fall protection geothermal energy, 276, 281–284 solar energy, 91, 92–95 wind energy, 67 feedstocks, biomass, 167–168, 180–195, 200–202, 229–232 fence, tidal, 300 fermentation, 189, 200, 213, 214, 237, 238 fetch, 293, 295 Index fibrous root system, 176 fire hazards biofuels, and, 220 wind turbines, and, 50 first-generation feedstocks, 168, 180–181 fish aggregation/attraction devices (FADs), 329–330 fish migration electric/magnetic fields, and, 323–324 hydrokinetic devices, and, 328–329, 331 physical barriers to, 133 fish stranding, 138–143 flash steam power plant, 256–258 flickering shadows, 54 floating wave energy converters, 296, 297, 298, 304–305 flow continuation, 147 flow fluctuations/alterations, 134–137, 144 biological impacts of, 137–147 causes of, 146–147 hydraulic response to, 146 salmon spawning, and, 145 flow rate, 120–121 force, water, 116–117 forebay surges, 147 forest biomass, 184 forests, urban, 371–373 fossil fuels, 15, 73, 82, 86, 88, 155, 164, 166, 181, 212, 213, 233, 240, 260, 272, 295, 350, 368–369, 372, 373, 374 vs biopower, 184 vs photovoltaics, 70, 72 frequency, wave, 294 friction, 14 head, 119 in pipes, 123–124, 126 fuel cells, 361–365 environmental impacts, 364 how they work, 364 G gasohol, 191–192 gasoline gallon equivalent (GGE), 190, 362 gas production, digester, 219 gear box, wind turbine, 18 generator, wind turbine, 18 geologic carbon sequestration, 373–374 drilling/construction impacts, 378–383 acoustics, 383 air quality, 378 cultural resources, 378 ecological resources, 379 environmental justice, 382 hazardous materials and waste management, 383 land use, 380 461 paleontological resources, 381 socioeconomics, 382 soils and geologic resources, 381 transportation, 381 visual resources, 382 water resources, 379–380 exploration impacts, 375–377 acoustics, 377 air quality, 375 cultural resources, 375–376 ecological resources, 376 environmental justice, 377 hazardous materials and waste management, 377 land use, 376 paleontological resources, 377 socioeconomics, 377 soils and geologic resources, 376 transportation, 377 visual resources, 377 water resources, 376 operations impacts, 383–388 acoustics, 387 air quality, 383 cultural resources, 384 ecological resources, 384 environmental justice, 387 hazardous materials and waste management, 387–388 land use, 385 paleontological resources, 386 socioeconomics, 386 soils and geologic resources, 385 transportation, 386 visual resources, 386 water resources, 384–385 geothermal energy, 3, 247–285 construction impacts, 268–272 air quality, 268–269 cultural resources, 269 ecological resources, 269–270 environmental justice, 272 land use, 270 paleontological resources, 271 socioeconomics, 271–272 soils and geologic resources, 270–271 transportation, 271 visual resources, 271 water resources, 270 conversion, 256 environmental impacts, 263–275 exploration and drilling impacts, 265–268 air quality, 265 cultural resources, 265 ecological resources, 266 environmental justice, 268 land use, 267 462 paleontological resources, 267–268 socioeconomics, 268 soils and geologic resources, 267 transportation, 268 visual resources, 268 water resources, 266–267 history, 249–252 impacts on human health and safety, 275–284 fatalities and incidents, 275–276 hazards and controls, 276–284 hazardous materials and waste management, 284 operations and maintenance impacts, 272–275 air quality, 272 cultural resources, 272–273 ecological resources, 273 environmental justice, 275 land use, 273 paleontological resources, 274 socioeconomics, 274 soils and geologic resources, 274 transportation, 274 visual resources, 274 water resources, 273 power plants, 256–259 geothermal heat pumps (GHPs), 248, 260–263 gibberellins, 177 global warming, 88, 90–91, 372–373; see also climate change glycerin, 181, 201 golden-brown algae, 208–209 Grasshopper Generation, 163 gravitational potential energy, 126–128 gravitropism, 178 gravity, 13 gray whales, 316, 331 green algae, 208 greenhouse gas emissions, 181, 362 greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, 90, 108, 164, 181, 187–188, 223, 230, 228, 274, 362, 363, 367, 371 green sea turtles, 317, 325–326 green turtles, 317 gross domestic product (GDP), ground-loop geothermal heat pumps, 262–263 group velocity, 295 guard cells, 172, 175 guardrail systems, 92–93, 281–282 guyots, 290 gymnosperms, 174–175 H habitat alterations, 308–310 hawksbill sea turtles, 325–326 Index hazardous materials and waste management impacts geologic carbon sequestration, 377, 383, 387–388 geothermal energy, 284 hydrokinetic energy, 339, 345, 349 terrestrial sequestration, 375 wind turbine, 21, 43, 46 hazardous noise, defined, 24 hazardous waste, solar energy, and, 87–89 Hazen–Williams equation, 124, 126 head, 113, 117, 118–120, 127, 128 energy, 122–123 forebay surges, and, 147 loss, 123–126 per foot, 126 headlands, 291 hearing handicap, 24 hearing loss, 24 hearing threshold level (HTL), 24, 25 heat engines, 6–8 heat exchanger, 258 heat pumps, geothermal, 260–263 heat sink, heat-transfer fluid (HTF), 86 hemicellulose, 170 herbivorous invertebrates, 145 heterotrophic algae, 206 high-voltage, direct-current (HVDC) cables, 319, 321, 324 hoist safety hydropower, 155 solar energy, 92, 95, 96 wind energy, 67, 70–71 horizontal-axis turbine, 16–18, 315, 332 hormones, plant, 177 hot springs, 249, 250 hybrid poplar, 188–189 hydraulic drilling noise, 314 hydroelectric dams, hydrogen, 14, 198, 214, 215 bonding, cellulisic, 170, 179, 180 burning, delivery infrastructure, 362–363 fuel cells, 221, 361–365 environmental impacts, 364 how they work, 364 properties of, 365 storage, 363 hydrogen sulfide, 215, 216, 263, 265, 268, 272, 275 hydrokinetic energy, 287–350 construction impacts, 339–345 acoustics, 344–345 air quality, 339–340 ecological resources, 340–342 463 Index environmental justice, 344 hazardous materials and waste management, 345 land use, 342 paleontological resources, 343 socioeconomics, 344 soils and geologic resources, 342–343 transportation, 343 visual resources, 343 water resources, 342 environmental impacts, 336–350 impacts on human health and safety, 349–350 operations and maintenance impacts, 345–350 acoustics, 348–349 air quality, 345 cultural resources, 345 ecological resources, 346–347 environmental justice, 348 hazardous materials and waste management, 349 land use, 347 paleontological resources, 348 socioeconomics, 348 soils and geologic resources, 347 transportation, 348 visual resources, 348 water resources, 347 site evaluation impacts, 337–339 acoustics, 339 air quality, 337 cultural resources, 337 ecological resources, 337 environmental justice, 339 hazardous materials and waste management, 339 land use, 338 paleontological resources, 338 socioeconomics, 338 soils and geologic resources, 338 transportation, 338 visual resources, 338 water resources, 338 technology impacts, 303–336 alteration of benthic organism habitats, 308–310 alteration of currents or waves, 304–307 collisions and strikes, 332–334 electromagnetic fields, 319–327 interference with animal movement, 328–330 interference with migratory animals, 331–332 noise, 310–319 ocean thermal energy conversion impacts, 334–336 sediment transport/deposition alteration, 307–308 substrate alteration, 307–308 toxic effects of chemicals, 327–328 hydrolysis, 214 hydropower, 3, 5, 103–157 advanced technology, 131–133 advantages and disadvantages, 108, 132, 155–156 biological impact of flow fluctuations, 137–147 ecological impacts, 133–137 impacts on human health and safety, 155 plants, types of, 110–111 vs tidal energy, 288 hydrostatic pressure, 118 hydroturbines, 128–130 I Icarus, 77 impoundment hydropower plant, 110–111 impulse turbine, 128 impulsive noise, 25 induced electric field (iE), 319, 321, 323, 324 induced seismicity, 264 industrial energy use, infrastructure energy, 302 geologic carbon sequestration, 374 hydrogen delivery, 362–363 photovoltaic recycling, 88 solar energy transmission, 90 wind energy transmission, 42, 44 inhibitors, plant hormone, 177 inks, soybean, 164, 198 instantaneous sound pressures, 312 Instream Flow Incremental Methodology (IFIM), 136 intake failures, 147 intermediate depth waves, 295 invertebrates, aquatic, 143–145 isobars, 13 J Jatropha, 168, 210, 212 joule (J), K Kemp’s ridley sea turtles, 325–326 kilowatt-hour (kWh), kinetic energy, 12, 16, 122–123, 306, 308 defined, translational, 126–128 kinins, 177 464 L lag time, 146 Lake Mead, evaporation from, 149–155 landfill gas, 221, 222–223 landslides, 37, 60, 264, 267, 381, 385 land use impacts biomass energy, 225–227, 231, 236 geologic carbon sequestration, 376, 380, 385 geothermal energy, 264, 267, 270, 273 hydrokinetic energy, 338, 342, 347 solar energy, 81–82 terrestrial sequestration, 374 wind energy, 20, 36, 44, 56, 59, 62 latent heat of vaporization, 150 law of conservation of energy, 2–3, 122 law of conservation of matter and energy, 2–3, 122 law of continuity, 121–122 law of the visual angle, 51–53 leaks, solar cooling tower, 83 leatherback sea turtles, 325–326 leaves, 175–176 light reaction, 176 lignin, 170 lignocellulosic biomass, 170 linear concentrators, 80 lithosphere, 254 load following, 146 loblolly pine, 188 lockout/tagout biomass, 239 hydropower, 155 solar energy, 92, 95 wind energy, 67, 69 loggerhead turtles, 317, 324–326 logging residues, 184, 188, 229 long-day plants, 179 loudness, 25 low-flow shutdowns/start-ups, 146 low water levels, hydropower and, 147–155 M machine guarding, wind turbines, and, 72 macromareal tidal range, 299 magnetic field, 254, 319, 320, 321 effect of on aquatic organisms, 319, 322, 323–327, 329 strength, 319, 321 magnetic flux density, 319, 321 magnetite, 324 magnetosensitivity, 324 major head loss, 123–126 Manning equation, 124 mantle, Earth, 253–255 Index marine deposition, 292 marine energy, 287–350 marine protected areas, 330 marine transportation, 292 material hearing impairment, 25 measurements, energy, 5–6 mechanical energy, 6, 12, 122, 126, 287–288 mechanical noise, 25 medical services and first aid hydropower, 155 wind power, 67, 70 mesomareal tidal range, 299 methane, 213–221 methanogenesis, 214 methanogenic bacteria, 214 methanol, 201 microalgae, 202–212 micromareal tidal range, 299 mid-oceanic ridges, 290 migration, animal, 328–332 minor head loss, 123, 126 monocots, 172, 175 mooring cables, 304, 308, 310, 311, 314, 319, 328, 329, 330, 331 motion smear, 50 movement patterns, aquatic organism, 329–330 municipal solid waste (MSW), 185 N nacelle, 16, 17, 19, 38, 45, 48, 65, 68, 332 natal homing, 325 National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES), 235, 385 natural gas, 3, 7, 81, 155, 164, 173, 190, 198, 213, 221, 233, 240, 361, 365, 388 neap tides, 298, 300 NIMBY, 39–42, 73 noise, 21–34 aerodynamic, 22 ambient, birds and, 51 aquatic environment, 311–313 background, 23, 47, 49, 52, 315, 318 continuous, 23 dose, 25 dosimeter, 24, 25, 28 effects of on aquatic animals, 315–319 exposure, 27–28 chronic, 51–52 generated by turbine blades, 47, 54 geologic carbon sequestration, and, 377, 383, 387 hazardous, 24, 25 hydraulic drilling, 314 hydrokinetic energy, and, 310–319, 339, 344, 348–349 465 Index impulsive, 25 -induced hearing loss, 26 levels, 26, 33, 47 marine mammal exposure to, 312 mechanical, 25 pollution, 263 road, 48, 53 wildlife, and, 46–52 wind turbine, 21–34, 47–49 noise reduction rating (NRR), 26 noncondensable gases (NCGs), 263 nonpoint-source pollution, 106, 107 nonrenewable energy, 2–3 benefits/non-benefits, O ocean, 288–292 acidification, 370 currents, 290 alteration of, 304–307 energy technologies, noise produced by, 313–315 floor, 289–290 margins, 288–289 thermal energy, 3, 4; see also ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) tides, 290 water heated by sun, waves, see waves, ocean wind, and, 12 Ocean Energy System Implementation Agreement, 296 ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC), 3, 288, 301–303, 350 impacts, 334–336 systems, types of, 303 octave-band analyzers, 28, 29–30 off-highway vehicle (OHV), 384, 386, 388 oil-based feedstocks, 181 oilseeds, 170 open-cycle heat engine, open-loop heat pumps, 263 OSHA standards biofuels, 237–239 confined space entry, 215, 217 geothermal energy, 276–284 hydrokinetic energy, 349–350 solar energy, 91–97 wind energy, 28, 34, 66–72 ototoxic, 26 ototraumatic, 26 overflows, solar cooling tower, 83 overhang, trench, 278 ozone, 61, 375 layer, 364 P paleontological resources impacts biomass energy, 228, 231–232, 236 geologic carbon sequestration, 377, 381, 386 geothermal energy, 267–268, 271, 274 hydrokinetic energy, 338, 343, 348 terrestrial sequestration, 374 wind energy, 21, 37, 56–57, 60 pathology, 25 peaking, hydropower plant, 146 peatlands, 370 penstock, 111, 126, 146, 147 percent volatile matter reduction, 219–220 perfect energy crop attributes, 185 permanent threshold shift (PTS), 27 permit-required confined spaces (PRCSs), 67–68 personal fall arrest systems, 94–95, 283–284 personal protective equipment (PPE) biofuels, and, 239 geothermal energy, and, 276, 280 solar energy, and, 92, 97 Phaeophyta, 209 phloem, 172, 174 photoautotrophic algae, 206 photoelectric effect, 78 photoperiodism, 178–179 photosynthesis, 132, 171, 173, 174, 175, 176, 227, 240, 371, 372 algal, 202, 204, 205, 206 phototropism, 178 photovoltaic cell, 8, 78–79 photovoltaic module, 79–80 photovoltaic (PV) electrical energy, photovoltaics, 5, 77–80, 86–89, 91 vs fossil fuels, 88, 90 piezometric surface, 122 pile-driving sound, 313–314 fish kills, and, 311, 316 harbor porpoises/harbor seals, and, 317 pipe area of, 121 diameter, 123 flow rate, and, 120–122 friction in, 119, 123 head, and, 119–120 length, 123 pressure in, 122 roughness, 123, 124 water velocity in, 123 pitch, wind turbine blade, 19 plant, 171–180 benefits, 171 cell walls, 179–180 cells, 173 hormones, 177 466 reproduction, 179 terminology, 172–173 vascular, 172, 173, 174–175 growth in, 177 plate tectonics, 254–255 point absorber, 297 point-source pollution, 106, 107 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), 383, 387 poplars, 188–189 potential energy, 2, 111, 122–123, 297 gravitational, 126–128 potholes, river, 139, 142 PowerBuoy®, 305 power tower solar energy systems, 80–81 power transmission lines, 89, 222, 224, 234 birds, and, 41–42, 62, 133 geothermal energy, 264, 268, 269, 270, 272, 274 hydrokinetic energy, 328, 337, 339, 341, 342, 344, 345, 346 wind energy, 39, 41–42, 44 wind energy construction impacts, 57–61 air quality, 57 cultural resources, 58 ecological resources, 58 environmental justice, 61 land use, 59 paleontological resources, 60 socioeconomics, 61 soils and geologic resources, 59–60 transportation, 60 visual resources, 60 water resources, 58–59 operations impacts, 61–64 air quality, 61 cultural resources, 61–62 ecological resources, 62 environmental justice, 64 land use, 62–63 paleontological resources, 63 socioeconomics, 64 soils and geologic resources, 63 transportation, 63 visual resources, 63 water resources, 62 site evaluation impacts, 55–57 air quality, 55 cultural resources, 55–56 ecological resources, 56 environmental justice, 57 land use, 56 paleontological resources, 56–57 socioeconomics, 57 soils and geologic resources, 56 transportation, 57 visual resources, 57 water resources, 56 Index powerhouse failures, 146 predation, fish, 143 presbycusis, 26 pressure air, 112, 128 condenser, drop, in pipe, 123, 136 enthalpy, and, 253 gas, 13 gradients, 13 oscillations, 24, 311 relief, 215, 217 sound, 22, 25, 28, 31, 32, 318; see also sound pressure level temperature variation, and, 13 vapor, 151 water, 113, 114, 116–120, 122, 123, 334, 335 primary growth, plant, 177 proteins, biomass, 170–171 pumped storage hydropower plant, 110–111 Pyrrophyta, 209–210 Q qualified person, 279 R Rachel River, 103–108 ramping range, 141 ramping rate, 141–142, 146 Rankine cycle heat engine, 6, 7, 87, 251 reaction turbine, 128 reactor, wave energy, 296–297 real ear attenuation at threshold (REAT), 22 recycling, photovoltaics, 88–89 redd dewatering, 145 reed canarygrass, 187 regulated rivers, 137 renewable energy, 2–4, 5, 7, 39–42, 77, 80, 108, 166, 196, 202, 226, 249, 252, 301, 310, 332, 350, 362 benefits, 4, 367 reproduction, plant, 179 reservoir evaporation, 147–155 reservoir stored energy, 126–128 reservoir stranding, 147 reservoir stratification, 132 residential energy use, respiratory protection, wind turbines, and, 72 Reynold’s number, 124, 125 rigging equipment safety, 70–71 right of way (ROW), 57, 59, 61, 62–63, 133, 341, 342, 346, 386 river in-stream energy devices, 341, 346, 347 river stage, 136–137 road noise, 48, 53 467 Index root-mean-square (rms), 31, 32, 312 roots, 176 rotating blades, 332–334 rotor, wind turbine, 19 roughness, pipe, 123, 124 run-of-river hydropower plant, 111, 146 S saccharification, 189 safety net systems, 93–94, 282–283 salinity, 288–289, 290 gradients, 335 salmon, 103–108, 133–136, 138–145 magnetic fields, and, 324 Salter’s duck, 296 San Andreas Fault, 255 scouring, 137, 139, 144, 308 scree, 291 sea caves, 292 sea cliffs, 291 sea turtles, see turtles seamounts, 290 seaweed, 203 secondary energy sources, 3, secondary growth, plant, 177 secondary mill residues, 185 second-generation feedstocks, 168, 181–189 long-term availability, 186–189 sediment transport, hydrokinetic energy and, 307–308 seed volume, required, 218 seismicity, induced, 264 sensorineural hearing loss, 26 sequestration, carbon, 367–389 shadow flicker, 54 shaft, wind turbine, 19 shallow water waves, 295 shoring, 277–279 short-day plants, 178 short-rotation woody crops (SRWCs), 188–189 silica, exposure to, 280 sinusoidal wave, 293 site evaluation impacts hydrokinetic energy, 337–339, 349 wind energy, 19–34, 43, 45, 53, 55–57 slagging, 196–197 slope, pipe, 126 sludge, 215–220 sludge retention time (SRT), 219 sociacusis, 26 socioeconomics impacts biomass energy, 229, 232, 236 geologic carbon sequestration, 377, 382, 386 geothermal energy, 268, 271–272, 274 hydrokinetic energy, 338, 344, 348 wind energy, 21, 42, 46, 57, 61, 64 soils and geologic resources impacts biomass energy, 225–226, 231, 236 geologic carbon sequestration, 376, 381, 385 geothermal energy, 267, 270–271, 274 hydrokinetic energy, 338, 342–343, 347 terrestrial sequestration, 374 wind energy, 20–21, 56 solar cell, 78–79 solar cooling towers, 82–87 solar energy, 3, 4, 5, 15, 77–97, 288, 293, 301 ecological impacts, 89–91 environmental impacts, 81–89 hazardous waste, 87–89 land use/siting, 81–82 water resources, 82–87 job hazards, 91–97 controls, 92–97 fatalities/incidents, 91–92 sound exposure level (SEL), 24, 313, 315 sound intensity, 26 sound level meter (SLM), 26, 28–29 sound power, 26, 30 sound pressure, 22, 25, 28, 31, 32, 318; see also sound pressure level sound pressure level (SPL), 22, 25, 26, 28, 31–33, 49, 53, 311–312, 313, 314, 315, 316, 318, 319 sound transmission in water, 313 soybean ink, 164, 198 specific gravity, 114–116 biodiesel fuel, 201 spits and hooks, 292 stage, river, 136–137 standard temperature and pressure (STP), 112 standard threshold shift (STS), 26 starch, 169 static head, 119 Stevin’s law, 113–114 Stirling cycle heat engine, 6, 8, 87 stomata, 172, 175 storm-surge barrier, 306 storm waves, 293 stranding, 138–143, 144, 147, 316 stratification, reservoir, 132 submarine electric cables, 319 substrate alteration by hydrokinetic energy, 307–308 sweetgum, 188 swell waves, 293 switchgrass, 168, 170, 184, 186–187 sycamores, 188 T taiga, 370 tailwater, 147 taproot systems, 176 468 temperature ambient stream, 107 anaerobic digestion, and, 214, 216, 217 crane hydraulics, and, 71 density, and, 114–116, 290 differential, 6, 13, 301, 304, 334 effluent, 235 dry cooling, and, 86–87 gas, 13 geothermal energy, and, 253, 254, 256, 259, 263 global warming, and, 372–373 gradients, 6, 13 pressure and volume, and, 13 seawater, 289, 336, 350 shock, 142, 144 specific gravity, and, 114–116 speed of sound wave, and, 313 vapor, water, 106, 112, 132, 256, 259, 372 temporary threshold shift (TTS), 27 terminator, 297 terrestrial carbon sequestration, 369–373 impacts of, 374–375 thermal circulation, 13 thermal energy, 287–288 thermal energy storage (TES), 86 thermal pollution, 107, 264 thermal stress, solar energy, and, 96 thigmotropism, 178 threshold shift, 27 tidal energy, 3, 288, 298–300, 350 converters, 306–307, 315 ecological resources impacts, 346 hazardous materials, and, 349 transporation impacts, 343 technologies, 300 vs hydropower, 288 tidal turbines, 300, 307, 334, 337, 339, 340–341, 342, 345, 346, 348 tides, ocean, 287, 288, 290, 298, 300, 304, 306, 307; see also tidal energy spring, 300 tombolos, 292 total dynamic head, 119 tower, wind turbine, 19 tracheophytes, 174 transesterification, 181, 201, 202 transform boundaries, plate, 255 translational kinetic energy, 126–128 transportation energy use, transportation impacts biomass energy, 228, 232, 236 geologic carbon sequestration, 377, 381, 386 geothermal energy, 268, 271, 274 hydrokinetic energy, 338, 343, 348 wind energy, 21, 38, 45, 57, 60, 63 Index trapping, fish, 138–139 trenches, ocean, 290 trenching hazards, 276–279 triacylglycerols (TAGs), 170, 210 tribuyltin (TBT), 328 triglycerides, 170, 202 tropism, 177, 178 turbine generation unit (TGU), 315 turtles, 311, 325–326, 329, 330, 337, 339, 340, 319, 346 magnetosensitivity of, 323–325 marine seismic surveys and, 317 migration of, 331 underwater explosives, and, 318 wave energy converters, and, 331 U unregulated rivers, 136–137 upstream reach, 112 urban forests, 371–373 urban wood waste, 185 V vascular cambium, 177 vascular plants, 172, 173, 174–175 growth in, 177 vegetable oils, 167, 168, 170, 180, 181, 198, 200, 202, 237 velocity, 120 aquatic species, and, 144, 329, 332 area and, 121–122 blade, turbine, 50, 332–333 group, 295 head, 119, 123 kinetic energy, and, 122 major head loss, and, 123 marine deposition, and, 292 pressure and, 122 wave, 294–295, 304, 306, 307 vertical-axis turbine, 16, 300, 332 vibration cultural resources impacts, 269, 378 trenches and, 278 turbine, 54, 314, 340–341 vibroacoustic disease (VAD), 54 visual angle, 51–53 visual resources impacts biomass energy, 224, 228–229, 232, 236 geologic carbon sequestration, 377, 382, 386 geothermal energy, 268, 271, 274 hydrokinetic energy, 338, 343, 348 terrestrial carbon sequestration, 374 wind energy, 21, 35, 38–42, 43–44, 45, 53, 57, 58, 60, 61, 63 volatile acids-to-alkalinity ratio, 217, 218 Index volatile matter, 216 percent reduction, 219–220 volatile organic compound (VOC), 34, 43, 57, 223, 233, 340 W water area, velocity and, 121–122 consumption vs withdrawal, 82 density, 114–116 flow and discharge rates, 120–121 footprint, 82 force, 116–117 head, 118–120 pressure, 113, 114, 123, 334, 335 force, and, 116–118 head, and, 119–120 velocity, and, 122 properties of, 114–126 sound transmission in, 331 specific gravity, 114–116 specific weight, 112, 114 temperature, 106, 112, 132, 256, 259, 372 turbines, 110, 111, 126, 128–130, 147, 340–341 velocity, see velocity water resources impacts biomass energy, 224–225, 231, 235 geologic carbon sequestration, 376, 379–380, 384–385 geothermal energy, 264, 266–267, 270, 273 hydrokinetic energy, 338, 342, 347 solar energy, 82–87 terrestrial sequestration, 374 wind energy, 20, 36, 44, 56, 58, 62 wave-built terraces, 292 wave-cut benches/platforms, 291 Wave Dragon, 296, 314 wave energy, 288, 292–298, 350 conversion technology, 295–298, 304–305, 308, 331 marine mammals, and, 330 waves, ocean, 291–298 alteration of, 303, 304–307 weighted measurements, 27 welding, 281 wet cooling, 86–87 wildlife biomass energy impacts on, 224, 230–231, 234 carbon capture and sequestration impacts on, 371, 376, 378, 379, 384, 387, 388 geothermal energy impacts on, 264, 266, 269, 273, 284 habitat, 171, 188, 264, 371 hydrokinetic energy impacts on, 337, 341–342, 345, 346–347 469 hydropower impacts on, 4, 108, 133 solar power impacts on, 89 wind energy impacts on, 20, 35, 42, 44, 46–53, 56, 58, 62 willows, 188–189 wind direction, 19 wind energy, 3, 4, 11–73 advantages/disadvantages, 72–73 construction impacts, 34–43 air quality, 34–35 cultural resources, 35 ecological resources, 35 environmental justice, 43 hazardous materials and waste management, 43 land use, 36–37 paleontological resources, 37 socioeconomics, 42 soils and geologic resources, 37 transportation, 38 visual resources, 38–42 water resources, 36 fatalities/incidents, 64–66 impacts on human health, 53–54 impacts on wildlife, 20, 35, 42, 44, 46–53, 56, 58, 62 law of the visual angle, 51–53 motion smear, 50 operations impacts, 43–46 air quality, 43 cultural resources, 43–44 ecological resources, 44 environmental justice, 46 hazardous materials and waste management, 46 land use, 44 paleontological resources, 45 socioeconomics, 46 soils and geologic resources, 45 transportation, 45 visual resources, 45 water resources, 44 site evaluation impacts, 19–34 acoustics, 21–34 air quality, 19 cultural resources, 20 ecological resources, 20 environmental justice, 21 hazardous materials and waste management, 21 land use, 20 paleontological resources, 21 socioeconomics, 21 soils and geologic resources, 20–21 transportation, 21 visual resources, 21 water resources, 20 470 wind farms, 16, 22, 27, 29, 36–40, 42, 44, 46, 48, 49, 52 wind power, see wind energy wind turbine, 4, 5, 12, 14, 15, 16, 300, 318, 330, 332 blades, 18, 19 downtime, 49 hazards and OSHA standards, 66–72 noise, 21–34, 47–49 personnel safety concerns, 64–72 syndrome, 54 types of, 16 wind vane, 19 Index windmills, 14–15, 16, 27 withdrawal, water, 82 work, 1, 2, 5, 6, X xylem, 173, 174 Y yaw drive, 19 yaw motor, 19 ... change forms Moreover, when energy changes from one form to another, the amount of energy stays the same Let’s consider an example of the law of conservation of energy: The initial energy of something... work or the capacity of a system to work Environmental Impacts of Renewable Energy There are two basic forms of energy: kinetic energy and potential energy Kinetic energy is energy at work or in... limit renewable- energy- generated pollution of the atmosphere, of surface water and groundwater, and of soil (the three environmental media) Because the environmental impacts of renewable energy