T h e Ox f o r d H a n d b o o k o f M U SIC P SYC HOL O G Y the Oxford Handbook of MUSIC PSYCHOLOGY Second Edition Edited by SU S A N HA L L A M , IA N C R O S S , and M IC HA E L T HAU T Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP, United Kingdom Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries © Oxford University Press 2016 The moral rights of the authorshave been asserted First Edition published in 2009 Second Edition published in 2016 Impression: 1 All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, by licence or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics rights organization Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above You must not circulate this work in any other form and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press 198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Data available Library of Congress Control Number: 2015957148 ISBN 978–0–19–872294–6 Printed and bound by CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon, CR0 4YY Oxford University Press makes no representation, express or implied, that the drug dosages in this book are correct Readers must therefore always check the product information and clinical procedures with the most up-to-date published product information and data sheets provided by the manufacturers and the most recent codes of conduct and safety regulations The authors and the publishers not accept responsibility or legal liability for any errors in the text or for the misuse or misapplication of material in this work Except where otherwise stated, drug dosages and recommendations are for the non-pregnant adult who is not breast-feeding Links to third party websites are provided by Oxford in good faith and for information only Oxford disclaims any responsibility for the materials contained in any third party website referenced in this work Contents List of Contributors xi PA RT 1 T H E OR IG I N S A N D F U N C T ION S OF M U SIC Edited by Ian Cross The nature of music and its evolution Ian Cross Universals in music processing: Entrainment, acquiring expectations, and learning Catherine J Stevens and Tim Byron Music and meaning Ian Cross and Elizabeth Tolbert The social and personal functions of music in cross-cultural perspective Martin Clayton 19 33 47 PA RT 2 M U SIC P E RC E P T ION Edited by Ian Cross The perception of pitch Thomas Stainsby and Ian Cross 63 Absolute pitch Psyche Loui 81 Tonal cognition Emmanuel Bigand and Bénédicte Poulin-Charronnat 95 The perception of musical timbre Stephen McAdams and Bruno L. Giordano 113 vi Contents Musical time Mari Riess Jones 125 10 Tonality and contour in melodic processing Mark A. Schmuckler 143 11 Memory for music Bob Snyder 167 PA RT 3 R E SP ON SE S TO M U SIC Edited by Donald A. Hodges 12 Bodily responses to music Donald A. Hodges 183 13 Emotional reactions to music Patrik N. Juslin 197 14 The relationship between musical structure and perceived expression Alf Gabrielsson 215 15 Aesthetics David Huron 233 16 The neuroaesthetics of music Donald A. Hodges 247 17 Musical preferences Alinka Greasley and Alexandra Lamont 263 PA RT 4 M U SIC A N D T H E B R A I N Edited by Jessica A. Grahn 18 The neurobiology of musical expectations from perception to emotion Laurel J. Trainor and Robert J. Zatorre 285 19 Disorders of music cognition Psyche Loui 307 20 Music and brain plasticity Simone Dalla Bella 325 Contents vii 21 The relationship between music and language Sebastian Jentschke 343 22 The neuroscience of rhythm Daniel J. Cameron and Jessica A. Grahn 357 PA RT 5 M U SIC A L DE V E L OP M E N T Edited by Alexandra Lamont 23 Prenatal development and the phylogeny and ontogeny of musical behavior Richard Parncutt 371 24 Infant musicality Sandra E. Trehub 387 25 Musical development from the early years onwards Alexandra Lamont 399 26 Music training and nonmusical abilities E Glenn Schellenberg 415 PA RT 6 L E A R N I N G M U SIC A L SK I L L S Edited by Susan Hallam 27 Musical potential Gary E McPherson and Susan Hallam 433 28 Practicing Harald Jørgensen and Susan Hallam 449 29 Individuality in the learning of musical skills Helena Gaunt and Susan Hallam 463 30 Motivation to learn Susan Hallam 479 31 The role of the family in supporting learning Andrea Creech 493 32 The role of the institution and teachers in supporting learning Graham Welch and Adam Ockelford 509 viii Contents PA RT 7 M U SIC A L P E R F OR M A N C E Edited by Richard Parncutt 33 Planning and performance Eckart Altenmüller and Shinichi Furuya 529 34 Sight-reading Andreas C Lehmann and Reinhardt Kopiez 547 35 Performing from memory Roger Chaffin, Alexander P. Demos, and Topher Logan 559 36 Bodily mediated coordination, collaboration, and communication in music performance Jane W. Davidson and Mary C. Broughton 37 Emotion in music performance Patrik N Juslin and Erik Lindström 573 597 38 Expression and communication of structure in music performance: Measurements and models Erica Bisesi and W Luke Windsor 615 39 Optimizing physical and psychological health in performing musicians Dianna T Kenny and Bronwen J Ackermann 633 PA RT 8 C OM P O SI T ION A N D I M P ROV I S AT ION Edited by Peter R. Webster 40 Making a mark: The psychology of composition Jonathan Impett 651 41 Musical improvisation Richard Ashley 667 42 Pathways to the study of music composition by preschool to precollege students Peter R. Webster 681 Contents ix PA RT 9 T H E ROL E OF M U SIC I N OU R E V E RY DAY L I V E S Edited by Raymond MacDonald 43 Choosing to hear music: Motivation, process, and effect Alexandra Lamont, Alinka Greasley, and John Sloboda 711 44 Music in performance arts: Film, theater, and dance Annabel J. Cohen 725 45 Peak experiences in music Alf Gabrielsson, John Whaley, and John Sloboda 745 46 Musical identities David J. Hargreaves, Raymond MacDonald, and Dorothy Miell 759 47 The effects of music in community and educational settings Susan Hallam and Raymond MacDonald 775 48 Music and consumer behavior Adrian C. North, David J. Hargreaves, and Amanda E. Krause 789 PA RT 10 M U SIC T H E R A P Y Edited by Michael Thaut 49 Processes of music therapy: Clinical and scientific rationales and models Shannon K de l’etoile 805 50 Clinical practice in music therapy Corene Hurt-Thaut 819 51 Research in music therapy Barbara L. Wheeler 837 52 Music therapy in medical and neurological rehabilitation settings Stefan Mainka, Ralph Spintge, and Michael Thaut 857 936 Index motor primitives 535 motor programming 576–7, 618–19 motor rehabilitation, music therapy 825, 828–9, 858–9 motor skills, fine 530 acquisition 535–7 brain plasticity 329, 538–9 motor systems auditory interactions see auditory-motor interactions body movements in performance 576–7 planning and performance 530–3 plasticity 327, 329, 538–9 rhythm perception 358–9, 360 movement, music and, therapeutic 822 moving images, role of music 726–32 moving in time to music function of music 51, 53, 55 infants 392 role of expectations 294 universals 22–3 Mozart, W.A. 493, 547, 560, 658 Symphony no. 40, K. 550: 882, 883 Mozart effect 332 MP3 format 711–12 MRI see magnetic resonance imaging multimedia experience, music in 726–37 multiple sclerosis 811, 828, 844 Münsterberg, H. 726 MUSACT model 102–4 MUSCI (Musical Self-Concept Inquiry) 768, 769 muscle injuries, musicians 634–5 music, definition 50–1, 763 Musicae Scientiae (journal) 878 musical attention control learning (MACT) 830 Musical Creativities in Practice (Burnard) 685–6 musical disorders, cognitive see disorders of musical cognition musical executive function training (MEFT) 831 musical mnemonics training (MMT) 831 musical neglect training (MNT) 831 musical sensory orientation training (MSOT) 830 musical speech stimulation (MUSTIM) 829 music analysis 880–90 Music-COMP project 691–2 Music Genres-Clips-Test (MG-CT) 266 musicians amateur 472, 482 brain plasticity 325, 326–9, 538–9 defining 763–4 family influences 493–504 gender differences 473 health optimization 633–42 individual differences 463–73 language and music processing 346–8 mid-life crisis of young 495, 498 motivation 479–88 musical expectations 289, 290, 291 musical identities 470, 482, 483 peak experiences 751 perception of emotional expression 223 personality 472 productive vs receptive 763–4 professional 471–2 psychophysiological responses 191 rhythm perception 360–2 roles of institutions and teachers 509–23 speech perception 416 views on expression 600 see also performance, musical; training, music music information retrieval (MIR) systems 149–50 music in identities (MII) 760 MUSIC model 264, 267, 770 musicogenic meaning 42 Music Perception (journal) 878 music performance anxiety (MPA) 639–42 music theory 880–90 music therapy bodily responses and 183–4 children 824–6, 862, 866 clinical practice 819–32 community music vs. 776 components 819–20 definitions 819, 839–40 geriatric population 826–7 history 820–1 medical settings 846–7, 857, 862–6 neurological disorders see neurologic music therapy Index 937 overlap with music psychology 879–80 pain therapy 715–16, 862–6 psychiatric disorders 821–4 rationales and models 805–14 treatment process 820 music therapy research 837–49 discipline 839–40, 841–7 foundational 840, 848–9 meta-analyses 790, 841 profession 840, 847–8 publications 838–9 quantitative and qualitative 839 reviews 840–1 Musikpsychologie (Kurth) 894–5 Näätänen, R. 289 Nadal, M. 254–5, 255 Nagel, J.J. 481 naloxone 240 National Association for Music Therapy (NAMT) 837 National Curriculum (NC), UK 520, 696 nativist fallacy 202 Nattiez, J.-J. 52 natural musical abilities (gifts) 439–40 see also gifted children, musically natural selection 4, 8, 240 natural signs, Peirce’s 34–5 nature–nurture debate 909–10 absolute pitch 81–2, 90, 440–1 infant musicality 378, 387 musical potential 433–4 see also innateness neo-hedonism 237–8 neonatal intensive care unit (NICU), music therapy 846 nerve compression disorders, musicians 635 Nettl, Bruno 6, 48, 49, 55, 659 neural excitation pattern 65 neuroaesthetics 247–56 defined 249 frameworks for research 249–52 historical development 247–8 philosophers vs. 248–9 review of research 252–6 neurobiology see neuroscience neurochemistry music 190, 254 pleasure 238 neurocinematics 725 neuroeconomics 298 neuroimaging absolute pitch 85–6 aesthetic appraisal 253, 254, 255–6 amusia 310–11 history 898–900 musicians vs nonmusicians 326–8 planning and performance 534–5 see also functional neuroimaging neurological disorders musicians 635 music therapy see neurologic music therapy neurologic music therapy (NMT) 806, 857–62, 899–900, 906 clinical applications 827–31, 858 cognitive rehabilitation 830–1, 860 outcome studies 844, 858–60 scientific models 806–14, 860–1 sensorimotor rehabilitation 828–9, 858–9 speech rehabilitation 829–30, 859–60 neurophysiological studies absolute pitch 84–5 children 400, 401 language and music overlap 350–1 meter perception 132–3 musical expectations 132–3, 286–93 planning and performance 533–4 neuroplasticity see brain plasticity neuropsychological studies, absolute pitch 89–90 neuroscience absolute pitch 84–9 approaches to music therapy 806–14 disorders of musical cognition 310–13 future directions 908 history of research 898–901 improvisation 672–3 meaning in music 42 musical expectations 285–99 planning and performance 530–42 rhythm 358–64 see also cognitive neuroscience newborn infants language and music perception 344–5 musicality 378, 401 938 Index Nichols, J. 700 Nietzsche, Friedrich 226, 894 noise, vs music 51 nondiatonic tones 97, 101 non-diegetic music 727 North, A.C. 791–2, 793–5, 797–8 Northern Ewe culture, Ghana 509 nostalgia 200, 201, 204, 205, 208, 717 notation, music, perception 550 note density, emotional expression 218 nucleus accumbens 297 nursery rhymes 151 occupational settings, listening to music 714 Ockelford, A. 776, 881–3, 885–6 octave scrambling 171 odd-ball paradigm 84 Odena, O. 698–9 Office for Standards in Education (Ofsted) 519 Ohgushi, K. 348 older adults see elderly Olds, James 238 olivocochlear system 65 omega sign 329 Omigie, D. 317 O’Neill, S. 41, 499, 711 ontogeny, musical behavior 371, 373–7 open-earedness, age-related changes 268, 404, 766 openness-to-experience 267, 424 open skills 547 opera 732–3 OPERA hypothesis (Patel) 346 operant conditioning, prenatal 380 opiates, endogenous 238, 240 oral motor and respiratory exercises (OMREX) 830 oral traditions 561 orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), aesthetic appraisal 255–6 orchestration 119–21 Origin of Species (Darwin) ornamentation 96, 604–5 oscillations, neural meter/rhythm perception 128–31, 134, 358, 362–3 musical expectations 287, 294–5, 296 Oura, Y. 402 outer hair cells (OHCs) 64, 65 overuse injuries 634–5 prevention 636–8 treatment 635–6 Overy, K. 348 Owen, K. 790–1 oxytocin 238, 379 Paananen, P. 403, 675 Paavilainen, P. 289 pain management, music for 715–16, 862–6 acute pain and stress 862–5 chronic pain 865–6 Palmer, C. 316 Pantev, C. 289 Panzarella, R. 746, 750–1, 753 Papageorgi, I. 516–18 paralimbic system 256 parallel 5ths and 8ves, avoiding 73 Paraskeva, S. 120–1 Paravicini, Derek 511–14, 515 parentese see infant-directed speech parent–infant interactions see mother–infant interactions parent–pupil–teacher interaction 499–503 categories 500, 501 control and responsiveness 499–500 differences among clusters of types 500–3 parents 493–504 behavioral support 495–6 cognitive/intellectual support 496–7 personal support 497–8 potential for conflict 498–9 prevention of performance anxiety 642 role in child’s motivation 485–6 supportive involvement 494–8, 503 parietal lobe 86, 327, 328, 531–2 Parker, Charlie 670 Parker, Evan 659 Parkinson’s disease (PD) 359, 828, 858, 859–60 Parncutt, R. 622 Partch, Harry 74 partials 64 Partti, H. 697 Index 939 part–whole transfer of training 454 Pasiali, V. 806–7, 811–12 Patel, A.D. 346, 348, 349, 350, 362, 364 patterned sensory enhancement (PSE) 812, 828–9 pattern-matching model, pitch perception 68–9 pauses, emotional expression 221 peacefulness 208 peak/strong experiences 745–55, 906 everyday listening vs. 754–5 factors influencing 750–3 in literature 745–7 nature 747–50 neurobiology 238, 295–7 study methodology 753–4 Pearce, M. 250, 254–5 peer group influences 485 Peirce, C.S. 34–5 pelog scale 74, 391 perception, music grouping and segmentation 21–2 history of research 894–5, 897–8, 899, 901–2 influences of tonal hierarchies 104–7 melody 143–7 neuroaesthetics research 253 pitch 63–76 research needs 907–8 timbre 113–21 time 125–38 perceptual models, musical expression 623 perceptual span, sight-readers 550 Peretz, I. 13, 317 perfect pitch see absolute pitch performance, musical bodily behaviors 573–88 communication through see communication in performance computational model 542 development in childhood 404–5 emotional expression 597–610 measuring 616–21 from memory see memorized performance modeling 598, 621–5 musicological studies 625–6 music therapy 822 planning and 529–42 preparation strategies 455 performance anxiety, music (MPA) 639–42 performance arts, music in 725–38 performance cues 562, 566–8 performance plan 453 Performance Worm 624 periodicity pitch 70 Perry, M. 670 Persian music 74 personality expression in music 224 impact of background music and 780–1 musical identity and 769–70 musical preferences and 266–7 musicians 472 music training and 423–4 peak experiences and 751–2 personal support, parental 497–8 personhood 761 Peruvian highland music 47, 49 PET see positron emission tomography Pfordresher, P.Q. 309, 316 phase locking 67 Phillips-Silver, J. 310 phonological awareness, music training and 416, 417 phrasing 622 phylogeny, musical behavior 371–2, 377–80 physical activity see exercise physical force schemas 42 physical responses to music 183, 748–9 physiological measurements, performance 616–17 physiological responses to music 183, 896 dissonance 235 film scores 729 musical preferences and 269 music-evoked emotions 199 research findings 185, 186–7 physiological state, regulation 54 pianists acquisition of motor skills 535–6, 537 bodily behaviors 577, 579–80 brain plasticity 329, 538 focal dystonia 534, 539, 540 measurement of performance 616, 617–18 parental support 495 practicing 450, 451 sight-reading 551, 552, 553 synchronized duets 580–1 940 Index Piano Camera 616 Pinker, Steven 9, 657 pioneering axon theory 88 pitch absolute see absolute pitch awareness, in amusia 314–15, 318–19 children’s understanding 399–401 defined 63–4 emotional expression 219–20 expectations 288–92 features encoded in memory 171 frequency and 63–8 in improvisation 670–1 instrument identification and 117 intra-key hierarchies 97–9 patterns 71–2 proximity 25, 72–3, 150–1 relative 82 residue (periodicity, virtual, low) 70 scale-step context 171 in speech 75 structuring into scales 73–5 timbre relations and 115–16 pitch chroma 95 pitch classes 95, 101 pitch-class set analysis 880, 884–5, 888 pitch contour emotional expression 220 expectations 289, 290 maternal–infant communications 345 melody perception 150–1 speech 75 see also melodic contour pitch height 95 emotional expression and 219–20, 222 understanding in childhood 400 pitch intervals chords 98 expectations 289, 290 in musical memory 171, 172 musical scales 97 pitch perception 63–76 amusia 314 auditory system physiology 64–6 childhood development 399–400 cochlear implant (CI) users 70–1 complex tones 68–71 higher-order processing and organization 71–5 pure tones 67–8 pitch reversal 25 Pitts, S. 482, 485, 486 place coding, frequency 65–6, 67–8 placental hormones 379–80 planning and performance 529–42 acquiring fine motor skills 535–7 brain plasticity 538–9 disrupted see focal dystonia neuroanatomy and neurophysiology 530–5 Plantinga, J. 402 planum temporale (PT) 85–6, 326 plasticity, brain see brain plasticity play 380, 653, 762 pleasure 238 aesthetic 233 from making music 486 musically evoked 239–40 pluralism 238–40 see also peak/strong experiences Plomp, Reinier 71, 235 Poehlmann, K. 188 polyphonic music, expectations 289, 290 polytonality, perception of 151 poor pitch singing 309 pop music, consumer behavior and 795–6 Porter, S.Y. 468 positive psychology 767 positron emission tomography (PET) 295–7, 898 absolute pitch 86 improvisation 672 planning and performance 534 posture, musicians 637 potential, musical 433–43 actualization 441–3 children with exceptional 434–5 differentiated model 438–9 measuring 438 natural musical abilities 439–41 nature–nurture debate 433–4 role of learning 436–7 Potter, J. 516–18 Pournaseh, M. 421 Povel, D.J. 126–8, 357–8 Index 941 power 208 powerful impact of music 905–6 practice, musical 449–58, 529–30 acquisition of fine motor skills 535–6 age of starting 450, 529–30 deliberate 436, 451, 452, 529 effective, defined 449 individual differences 470 learning environment effects 457 metastrategies 456 monitoring effectiveness 455–6 motivation to 452 organization 452–3 parental support 495 planning strategies 452–3 quality 452–6 quantity see time spent practicing rehearsals in small groups 456–7 role in expertise 436–7 sight-reading 553 strategies for conduct of 454–5 variable 454 see also training, music prägnanz, gestalt law of 151 praxis 761 precentral gyrus 531 predictive timing 294–5, 296 preference for prototypes theory 272 preferences, musical 198, 263–77 childhood/adolescence 267–8, 388–9, 404 degree 266 interrelations of factors shaping 271–6 listener-related factors influencing 266–70 musical identity and 268, 769 musical styles influencing 263–6 situations and contexts influencing 270–1 premotor area (PMA) 531, 532, 535 prenatal development 371–81 auditory and vestibular function 373 emotional responses 376–7 influences on postnatal behavior 380 research needs 910–11 see also fetus; newborn infants Prespa Albanian song 49 Pressing, J. 26, 674 Price, H.E. 583 pride 200, 204 priming background music-induced 792 memory 171 music perception 106–7 timbre perception in children 402 Prince, V. 441–3 private study, listening to music during 714 probe tone method 97, 99, 145–8 procedural knowledge 669 procedural memory 169–70 processing fluency theory of aesthetic pleasure 235 prodigies, musical 251, 434–5, 439, 440 production, music development 401, 404–5 disorders of 308, 315 see also performance, musical program music, emotional expression 223–4 prolactin 717 proof-reader’s errors 552 proprioception, prenatal development 374 prosody 36–7, 348 emotional 349 protomusical behavior 11, 372 prototypes musical memory 175 theory of preferences for 272 proxemics 587–8 Pruett, K. 493, 498–9 pseudo-polyphony 72 psychiatric disorders diathesis stress model 90 music therapy 821–4, 843–4 psychoacoustics 63, 654 psychobiological theory, Berlyne’s 40, 235, 272 psychocinematics 725 psychological health, performing musicians 638–42 psychology of music history and research 893–902 interfaces with other disciplines 877–90, 912–13 meaning in music 40–2, 43 Psychology of Music (journal) 877–8, 879 Psychomusicology (journal) 878 942 Index psychophysiological responses to music 183–93, 896 during chills 191 to emotions 186–8 inconsistency of findings 185–6 multivariate approaches 188–9 musical excerpt length and complexity 192 in musical performers 191 naturalistic settings 192 pain management 863–5 role of musical structures 189–90 see also physiological responses psychotherapy music 822 for performance anxiety 641–2 public transport, listening to music 713 pulse rate see heart rate purchasing behavior, effects of music 795–6 pure data Director Musices (pDM) 624 pure tones 64, 67–8 qualitative music therapy research 839 quantitative music therapy research 839 Quinn, I. 149 ragas, North Indian 74 Raglio, A. 845 Ramachandran, V. 249 Randles, C. 702 random fluctuations, GERMS model 598 Rathunde, K. 496 rational-scientific mediating model (R-SMM) 806–11, 828 neurological foundations of music 808–9 physiological foundations of music 809–10 psychological foundations of music 810–11 Rauscher, F.H. 419 reality orientation therapy 827 recall melody 172 rhythm 172–3 reciprocal feedback model of musical response (RFM) 263, 273, 275 recognition heuristic 797 recognition memory 170 reference, and meaning 33, 34 referentialism, vs absolutism 215–16 refractory period, auditory neurones 67 rehabilitation amusia 319 neurological disorders 829–31, 857–62 soft tissue injuries 636 rehearsal evolution of bodily gestures 582 small group strategies 456–7 Reid, A. 471 relative pitch (RP) 82 relative timing 363 relaxation listening to music during 715 musical, role of timbre 120–1 music therapy programs 823 religious faith 226 reminiscence 717, 827 Renkewitz, F. 790 Rentfrow, P.J. 264–7, 269, 271, 769–70 repetition, musical 235, 883 Repp, B.H. 362, 615, 617, 620 representative design 605–6 research collaboration 912–13 historical development 893–902 methodological limitations 912 music therapy 837–49 residue pitch 70 resonance, neural 129, 131, 358 respiration during chill responses 191 entrainment to tempo 186, 187 respiratory disorders, music therapy 809–10 rest, for overuse injuries 636 restaurants, background music in 795–6, 798 retail settings, background music in 789–99 Réti, R. 885, 888–9 retraining, for physical injuries 636 reward system 295–8 rhetoric, science of 36 rhythm accelerating 23 children’s understanding 401–2 defined 363 emotional expression 221 expectations 294–5 in expert performance 620 Index 943 ‘free’ 23 in improvisation 671 memory for 172–3 music therapy and 808–9, 860 rhythmic auditory stimulation (RAS) 825, 828, 844, 859 rhythmic entrainment see entrainment rhythmic groupings 125, 126 rhythmic speech cuing (RSC) 829, 859 rhythm perception 133–5, 357–64 infants 391 meter perception vs. 131, 133–4 models 357–8 neuroscientific studies 358–64 RICH (retrograde inversional chain) 882, 889 Rickard, N.S. 763–4 Riley, P. 692 ritardando 623 ritual 6, 49, 380 rondo form 235 Roseman, M. 50, 54 Rosenberg, J.C. 348, 350 Ross, B. 289, 291 Ross, D.A. 83 Ross, S.L. 455 Rothschild, I. 225 roughness, auditory 120, 121 Rousseau, J.-J. 51, 344 Royal College of Music, London 890 Rubinstein, Anton 568 rule-based models expressive performance 623–4, 625 rhythm perception 357–8 Rumelhard, D.E. 102 Rytkönen, M. 289 Saarinen, J. 289 sad music bodily responses 185, 186, 187–8, 189 pleasure from listening to 206–7, 717 sadness 208 expression in music 601, 603, 604 induced by music 200, 201, 204 Saffran, J.R. 343, 345 Sagan, O. 421 Sahasrabuddhe, Veena 54 Saldanha, E.L. 116 Savage, J. 696 savants, musical 251, 434, 435 case example 511–14, 515 Sawyer, R. Keith 675, 683–4 scale illusion 151 scales, musical 74–5, 95 infant sensitivity 391 memory for music and 172 scary music see fearful music Schäfer, T. 264, 265, 266, 271 Schellenberg, E.G. 332, 402, 403, 420–1, 765, 769 schemas, memory 169, 170, 171, 560–1 Schenck, D.L. 735 Schenker, H. 884–5 Scherer, K. 733 schizophrenia 843 Schlaug, G. 85, 317 Schmuckler, M.A. 145–8, 149, 152, 153–5, 156, 157 Schoenberg, A. 74, 117, 652, 653, 884 Schön, Daniele 349 schools background music 779–82 benefits of music-making 778–9 composition by students 682–3, 689–99, 700–2 learning music skills 468–70 motivating students to learn 485 supporting music learning 519–22 Schopenhauer, Arthur 226, 893–4 Schouten, J.F. 70 Schröger, E. 289 Schubert, E. 207, 273–5, 603 Schwarzer, G. 417 Scruton, Roger 38 Seashore, Carl 256, 438, 616, 894 sedative music 184, 185 Seddon, F. 456–7, 675 Sedlmeier, P. 264, 265, 266, 790 segmentation, perceptual 21–2, 174 self, incremental theory of 494 self-concept (self-image) 50, 761 development 765 dimensionality of musical 768–9 role in motivation 482, 483 self-determination model 794 self-determination theory 494, 766–7 944 Index self-efficacy beliefs 482 self-esteem 761 self-identity 761 self-system 761 semantic memory 169 semantics, language and music 350–1, 901 semantic theories, meaning 34, 35, 38 semiotics 35, 52 sense, and meaning 33, 34 sensitive (critical) periods absolute pitch development 82 music training 330, 530 sensorimotor rehabilitation, music therapy 828–9, 858–9 sensory homunculus 532 sensory motor systems, plasticity 538–9 sequential auditory streaming 72 serial changes 135 serial time spans 125, 126 serotonin 190, 254 sexually differentiated roles 9–10 sexual selection 4, 8, 240 Shaffer, L.H. 577, 616, 618–19 shared syntactic integration resource hypothesis (SSIRH) 349 Shavinina, L.V. 435 Shibazaki, K. 698 shivers 189, 190, 239 short-term memory (STM) 168 Short Test of Musical Preferences (STOMP) 264, 267 revised (STOMP-R) 264–6, 268 Siebel, W.A. 345 sight-reading 547–55 eye movements 548–50 inner hearing 551 learning 552–4 memory processes 550–1 problem-solving processes 551–2 signature tunes, maternal 387 significance, of music 33 Silverman, M. 761 Simmel, M. 726 Simonton, D.K. 727, 732 simultaneous auditory streaming 72 sine tone 64 singers bodily behaviors 575–6, 577–8, 586 communication with audience 583–4 see also choral singers/choristers singing benefits of community-based 777 communication via 54 development in childhood 392–3, 404–5, 466–8 distinction from speech 51–2 gender differences 518–19 gender stereotyping 469 infant-directed see infant-directed singing poor pitch 309 therapeutic (TS) 830 therapeutic value 809–10 Sistema-type programs 523 sketches, composer’s 660 skills, musical development 404–5, 437 individuality in learning 463–73 innate, in infancy 378, 407 role of memory 169–70 skin conductance 187, 188, 191, 199, 583, 896 Skov, M. 249 slendro scale 74 Slevc, L.R. 345, 350 Slobin, M. 39 Sloboda, J.A chills/strong experiences 189, 751, 752, 753 composition 653, 654, 658, 660, 883 experience sampling method 41, 711 features of a research program 249, 256 memory for music 172 music education vs music psychology 879 parental support 495 practicing 451, 453 sight-reading 548, 550, 552 small-world networks, absolute pitch subjects 88–9 Smith, B.K. 115 Smith, J. 681, 689, 701–2 Snowball (the cockatoo) 364, 737 Snyder, J.S. 358, 362 Soares, J. 694 social behavior, evolution of human 12–13 social bonding/cohesion functions of music 52–3, 55, 56 human evolution 10 musical preferences 268 Index 945 music-making in schools 779 music training and 423 social context emotional responses to music 200–1 musical form reflecting 225–6 musical meaning 39–40 musical preferences 270 strong experiences with music 752–3 social dance 736–7 social development, music therapy interventions 826 social ecology theory 510 social-emotional skills, music training and 423–4 social functions of music 906 cross-cultural perspective 47–56 evolutionary aspects 6, 10–11 social learning 606 social psychology of music 791 social science model, music therapy 805 sociocentric self 50 socio-cultural approaches composition by children 687, 688 creativity 683, 684–6 solfège instruction 82 solo performers, bodily behaviors 575, 577–8, 580, 581–2, 585 somatization/somatoform disorders 636 somatosensory area, primary (S1) 531–2 somatosensory feedback 531 somatotopic representation 532 song see singing Sosniak, L.A. 495 sound music as 6 nonmusical vs musical 51 perception see hearing source identification 116–17 source identity, recognition 116–17 Spackman, M.P. 727 spatial abilities amusia 315 music training effects 418–19 special musicians 251 see also savants, musical specific language impairment (SLI) 348, 349–50 spectral centroid 115 spectral flux 115 spectral irregularity 115 spectrum, emotional expression 219 speech distinction from song 51–2 function of pitch 75 infant-directed see infant-directed speech production, in amusia 318–19 rehabilitation 829–30, 859–60 see also language speech perception in amusia 317–18 music training and 416–17 speed of customer activity, effects of music 798 Spencer, Herbert 4, 606 Spencer’s law 606 spiral-array model of tonality 148–9 sportspeople, listening to music 715 spreading activation 273–5 Spychiger, M.B. 768–9 stability, musical, tonal hierarchy and 106 staccato 221 Stalinski, S.M. 403 standard paradigm, emotional expression 600–1 statistical-ideographic approach 209 statistical learning amusia 316–17 language and music 345, 349 musical structures 25–6 prenatal 375 steady-state evoked potentials (SSEPs), rhythm perception 362–3 Steedman, M. 674 Steinbeis, N. 350 stereotyping gender-appropriateness of instruments 468–9 music fans 268–9 Stewart, L. 317 stimulative music 183–4, 185 psychophysiological responses 189–90 Stoeckig, K. 106 STOMP see Short Test of Musical Preferences Stravinsky, Igor 216, 657, 660, 662, 669 Petroushka 151 streaming, auditory 72–3, 119 946 Index stream segregation, auditory melody perception 150–1 pitch perception 72, 73 role of timbre 119 strength training 637–8 stress maternal–fetal communication 379 music for alleviating 862–5 performing musicians 191, 638–9 stretching 638 striatum 295–8 Stringham, D. 701, 702 string players 329, 472, 538–9, 577 see also violinists stroke 808–9, 812–13, 859 strong experiences see peak/strong experiences Strong Experiences with Music Descriptive System (SEM-DS) 747, 748–50, 754 Strong Experiences with Music (SEM) project 747, 751, 752, 753–4 structural-functional models, key-finding 144–5 structure, musical aesthetic value 235 children’s understanding 402–3 defined 215 emotional expression and 218–23 expression and communication in performance 615–26 hierarchical, in Western music 95–7 memory for 562–3 music theory/music psychology interface 885–90 other referential meanings 223–6 performance modeling and 622 psychophysiological responses and 189–90 statistical learning 25–6 Stumpf, Carl 235, 894 styles, musical children’s understanding 404 consumer behavior and 795–7 liberalization of attitudes 762–3 preferences for 264–6 stylistic unexpectedness, GERMS model 598 subcortical processing, language and music 346–7 Sugarman, J.C. 49 Sundberg, J. 623–4 superior longitudinal fasciculus 87–8 superior temporal gyrus (STG) absolute pitch 85–7, 88 amusia 311 pitch perception 66 superior temporal sulcus (STS), absolute pitch 86–7 supplementary motor area (SMA) 531, 532, 535 surface, musical, in memory formation 173, 174, 175 surprise 204–5, 208 Suzuki method 332, 494 Swain, D. 419 Swami, V. 267 Swiss army knife metaphor 237–8 symbolic communication training through music (SYCOM) 830 symbolic domain 35 symbolic representation 55 synchronization childhood development 401 emotional responses to music 199 ensemble performances 580–1 see also entrainment; moving in time to music syncopations 751 synesthesia 89–90, 657 syntax, language and music 349–50, 908 systematic design 606 systematic reviews 840–1 systems theory 499, 510 tachistoscopic presentation 550 taksim, Turkish 23 tal 22 Tan, S.-L. 727 tapping 22, 128, 363 taste, musical 263 Taylor, Cecil 659 teachers, music attitudes to composition 698–9 career pathways 471–2 influence on practice 457 motivating students 485, 486 parent and pupil interactions 499–503 Index 947 supporting learning 509–23 teaching, composition in schools 689–91, 701–2 technique, maladaptive 637 technology impact on availability of music 711–12, 762, 907 use in composition by children 693–5 teleosemantic theory 43 television, music in 725, 730 Temiar, Malaysia 47, 50 Temperley, D. 881 tempo bodily responses and 186–7 children’s understanding 401–2 defined 363 emotional expression 218, 222, 604 practicing to increase 454–5 sight-reading studies 549 speed of consumer activity and 798 temporal accents 136–7 temporal coding, frequency 67–8 temporal coherence boundary 73 temporal lobe 673 temporal model, pitch perception 68–9 temporal structures children’s understanding 401–2 nonperiodic 23 universals 22–3 see also meter; rhythm tenderness 200, 208, 601, 603 tendon injuries, musicians 634–5 tension evoked by music 200, 208 musical 120–1, 221–2 Tenzer, M. 26 Tervaniemi, M. 247, 250, 255, 289 Tesch-Römer, C. 436, 529 Thaut, M.H clinical use of music therapy 823, 831, 859 models of music therapy 806–7, 811–13, 828, 860–1 theater 725–6, 732–4 therapeutic instrumental music performance (TIMP) 829 therapeutic singing (TS) 830 therapy, music see music therapy theremin 625 ‘they’re playing our song’ phenomenon 204, 376 Thibeault, M.D. 697 Thomas, D.A. 36 Thorpe, V. 696–7 thrills see chills Tibetan monastic music 23 timbre 113–21 acoustic correlates 114–15 blending 120 children’s understanding 402 emotional expression 219 intervals 117–18 multidimensional attributes 113–16 musical grouping and 118–19 pitch changes and 115–16 role in musical tension 120–1 source identification using 116–17 space models 114, 115 structuring music perception 119–21 time, musical 125–38 children’s understanding 401–2 in improvisation 671 marking, accent salience and 135–7 moving in see moving in time to music music therapy and 860–1 see also meter; rhythm; temporal structures time perception, effects of music 798–9 time-shrinking phenomenon 134–5 time spent practicing 449–52 accumulated 436, 450 assessment and 451–2 different instruments 450–1 musical expertise and 436, 451 a single composition 451 timing absolute 363 in expert performance 620 expressive 173, 620, 623 predictive 294–5, 296 relative 363 Titon, J.T. 39 Tobias, E.S. 692 Tobudic, A. 624 Todd, N.P.M 624 Toiviainen, P. 670–1 Tolbert, E. 7, 880 Tomasello, M. 401 948 Index Tomovski, R. 145–8 tonal cognition 95–108 tonal consonance 71 tonal hierarchies 95–108 defined 96–7 event hierarchies and 107–8 inter-key distances 99–100 intra-key hierarchies 97–9 two models 100–4 Western music perception and 104–7 tonality children’s understanding 399–401 emotional expression 220 in improvisation 670–1 in melody perception 143–4, 150–6 models 144–9 in musical memory 105–6, 156, 172 in perceptual organization 150–2, 153, 154, 155 tonal languages 75, 82 processing, in amusia 318 tonal music 95 tonal pitch space theory (TPST) 100–2 tone-deafness (congenital amusia) 307, 308–9 childhood 309 neuroscientific studies 310–13 rehabilitation 319 speech and language effects 317–19 theories of 313–17 tones anchoring 96, 97, 99, 108 complex, perception of pitch 68–71 diatonic 97, 101 mistuned, perception 104 nondiatonic 97, 101 pure 64, 67–8 tonic-finding task 145–8 tonic note 97 tonic tone 97, 101 tonotopic coding, frequency 65–6 training, music absolute pitch and 82, 83 brain plasticity 325, 326–8 early childhood, brain changes 331–3 enculturation vs. 405 general cognitive abilities and 420–3 linguistic processing effects 346, 347 musical development in childhood and 400 nonmusical abilities and 415–25 short-term brain changes in adults 329–31 sight-reading 553–4 social-emotional skills, personality and 423–4 specific cognitive abilities and 416–20 transfer see transfer of training/learning see also learning; musicians; practice, musical Trainor, L.J. 289, 291, 292, 293, 400–1, 402 trajectory, musical preferences 267–8 trance 750, 754 transcendence 208, 226, 749 transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) 330 transfer of training/learning 454, 778–9 linguistic processing 346, 349, 416–18 nonmusical abilities 331–2, 415–25, 778–9 part–whole 454 transformational design model (TDM) 811–13 transmission models 52 transnatal memory 375–6 transposition 117–18, 156 traumatic brain injury 825, 828, 858 travel, listening to music 712–13 Trevarthen, C. 379, 437, 761–2, 765 triads 98–9 trill 604–5 trill threshold 73 Truitt, F.E. 550 trumpet players 329 truth values 34 Tumbuka, Malawi 52–3 Turino, T. 47, 49, 53 Turner, M. 655–6 ugliness 233 universals, music processing 5–6, 19–27 aesthetic appreciation 251 emotional responding 23–4, 208 grouping and segmentation 21–2 infants 26, 391–2 Index 949 logical problem 20–1 long-term memory processes 24–6 moving together in time 22–3 research issues 19–20 uses of music 48 valence 184, 198, 253 Valentine, E. 451 validation therapy 827 valproate 82 VanHandel, L. 42, 225 van Noorden, L.P.A.S. 73 variation form 235 Västfjäll, D. 24, 205 Velso, A. 693 Venda, southern Africa 6, 39, 40 ventriloquism effect 574 Vermont MIDI project 691–2 vestibular system, prenatal development 373 vibrato, instrument identification 116 vicarious functioning 608 Viladot, L. 692–3 violinists 329, 450–1, 495, 538–9 Virtual Philarmony 625 virtual pitch 70 visiting behavior, consumer, effects of music 794–5 visual imagery 204 visual memory 563 visuospatial abilities see spatial abilities vocal intonation therapy (VIT) 829–30 vocal utterance 51, 53–4 Vom Musikalisch-Schönen (Hanslick) 234 voxel-based morphometry (VBM) congenital amusia 310, 311 musicians 534–5 Vuvan, D.T. 152, 153, 153, 154, 155, 156 Vygotsky, L. 509–10 Wagner, M.J. 450, 451 Wagner, Richard 192, 203–4 Wakefield, E.M. 727 Wallas, G. 684 Wallerstedt, C. 693 warming up 638 Webster, P. 689, 691 WEIRD research participants 20 Welch, G. 516–18, 519, 520, 698–9 Wessel, D.L. 117–18 Westerlund, H. 697 Western intellectual tradition, meaning in music 36–7 Western music hierarchical organization 95–7 perception, tonal hierarchies 104–7 perceptual grouping and segmentation 21 scales 74, 95 wes Visualizer 618 Whalen, S. 496 Wheeler, B. 880 Whyton, T. 516–18 Widmer, G. 624 Wiggins, J. 682 Wiik, M. 602–3, 604 Williamon, A. 438–9, 451, 890 Williams, Robbie 47, 52, 55, 586 Williamson, V.J. 316 Williams syndrome 89, 251, 434, 435 Wilson, G. 675 wind bands 583 Windsor, W.L. 624 wine purchasing, effects of music 796–7 Winner, E. 419, 440 Winsberg, S. 115 Wise, S. 694 Wittgenstein, L. 248 Wöllner, C. 584 Wolpert, R. 881, 886–8 womb music 372 wonder 200, 208 woodwind players 495 work, listening to music during 714, 715 working memory 170–1 absolute pitch 84–5, 87 amusia 316 melody 171 music training and 421–2 sight-reading 551 working narrative 727–8, 730, 731 writing, music and 823 Wundt, Wilhelm 234, 235, 893 950 Index Yannon, K.A. 701 Yeh, Y. 694 Yerkes–Dodson law 780 yoga, listening to music 715 yoik, North Sami 25 Zajonc, R.B. 204, 234, 271–2 Zbikowski, L.M. 42, 656 Zdzinski, S. 495 Zeki, S. 247, 255–6 Ziegler, E. 361 Zuckerkandl, V. 51–2 zygomatic activity (smiling) 187, 188, 199 ... edited by ian cross Chapter 1 T he Natu re of Mu si c and Its Evolu t i on Ian Cross The Theory of Evolution in Musicological Context The idea that the theory of evolution has anything to offer to... summarized in the theory of evolution? With these teleological trappings the theory of evolution came to serve as one of the key features of much writing about music at the beginning of the twentieth... decades of the nineteenth century and the first few of the twentieth, the theory of evolution was of huge significance for music theorists, historians, and anthropologists as a means of exploring