Developmental Psychology Developmental Psychology The Growth of Mind and Behavior Frank Keil YALE B W UNIVERSITY W N O R T O N & C O M P A N Y NEW YORK • LONDON To Kristi, Derek, Dylan, and Martin W W NORTON & COMPANY has been independent since its founding in 1923, when William Warder Norton and Mary D Herter Norton first published lectures delivered at the People’s Institute, the adult education division of New York City’s Cooper Union The firm soon expanded its program beyond the Institute, publishing books by celebrated academics from America and abroad By midcentury, the two major pillars of Norton’s publishing program—trade books and college texts—were firmly established In the 1950s, the Norton family transferred control of the company to its employees, and today—with a staff of four hundred and a comparable number of trade, college, and professional titles published each year—W W Norton & Company stands as the largest and oldest publishing house owned wholly by its employees Editor: Aaron Javsicas Developmental Editor: Sandy Lifland Manuscript Editor: Janet Greenblatt Project Editor: Rachel Mayer Electronic Media Editor: Callinda Taylor Editorial Assistant: Shira Averbuch Marketing Manager, Psychology: Lauren Winkler Production Manager: Eric Pier-Hocking Photo Editor: Michael Fodera Photo Researchers: Donna Ranieri and Julie Tesser Permissions Manager: Megan Jackson Permissions Clearing: Bethany Salminen Text Design: Lissi Sigillo Art Director: Rubina Yeh Composition: Jouve Manufacturing: Courier—Kendallville Copyright © 2014 by W W Norton & Company, Inc All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Keil, Frank C., 1952– Developmental psychology : the growth of mind and behavior / Frank Keil — First edition pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 978-0-393-97885-8 (hardcover) Developmental psychology I Title BF713.K443 2014 155—dc23 2013034957 W W Norton & Company, Inc., 500 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10110-0017 wwnorton.com W W Norton & Company Ltd., Castle House, 75/76 Wells Street, London W1T 3QT 1234567890 About the Author Frank C Keil is the Charles C and Dorathea S Dilley Professor of Psychology and Linguistics and chair of the Psychology Department at Yale University Keil received his B.S in Biology from M.I.T in 1973, an M.A in Psychology from Stanford University in 1975, and a Ph.D in Psychology from the University of Pennsylvania in 1977 He was a faculty member at Cornell University from 1977 to 1998 and has been at Yale since 1998 For over 35 years, he has taught an undergraduate lecture course in developmental psychology, as well as advanced seminars at the undergraduate and graduate level on topics in cognitive development and cognition Keil has published extensively on topics concerned with many areas of the development of cognition and language He wrote two books on aspects of conceptual development and, with the philosopher Robert Wilson, he edited the MIT Encyclopedia of the Cognitive Sciences, which was selected as the Outstanding Book in Psychology by the Association of American Publishers in 1999 Keil served as president of the Society for Philosophy and Psychology and has received numerous awards for his scholarship, including the Boyd R McCandless Award (Developmental Psychology), the Distinguished Scientific Award for an Early Career Contribution to Psychology, a Guggenheim Fellowship, a fellowship at the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences, a MERIT Award from the National Institutes of Health, and the Ann L Brown Award for Excellence in Developmental Research Keil served as Master of Morse College at Yale University from 2001 until 2012 Keil and his wife Kristi Lockhart, a clinical and developmental psychologist, are parents of three sons who are now in their twenties and thirties Contents in Brief PART I Framing Psychological Development Chapter Approaching Psychological Development Chapter The Biology of Development 33 PART II Origins Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter PART III Language Development 260 The Growth of Knowledge 303 10 The Growth of Cognitive Skills 343 11 Intelligence and Schooling 385 The Self and Others Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter PART V Coming to Perceive the World 76 The Emergence of Action 115 Coming to Understand the Physical World 145 Connecting with the Social World 187 The Origins of Emotion, Temperament, and Personality 227 Developing Competencies Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter PART IV 12 13 14 15 Morality in Thought and Action 426 Knowing Ourselves, Knowing Others 467 Becoming Part of the Family 503 Becoming Part of the Community 543 Broader Developmental Context Chapter 16 Psychopathology in Childhood 586 Chapter 17 Development after Childhood and Adolescence 629 vi Contents ABOUT THE AUTHOR v PREFACE xvii PART I Framing Psychological Development CHAPTER Approaching Psychological Development Why Study Development? Development as a Key to Understanding Children’s Capabilities Development as a Means for Insight into the Mature Form Development and Social Policy The Nature of Development Categorizing Developmental Phenomena Periods of Development Areas of Development Basic Questions about Psychological Development Is Development Stage-like or Continuous? Is Development Global or Local? How Do Nature and Nurture Shape Development? Perspectives on Development 14 Empiricist and Nativist Perspectives 14 Empiricism Nativism Comparative and Evolutionary Perspectives 17 Cross-Cultural Perspectives 18 Neuroscience Perspectives 19 Behaviorist Perspectives 19 Psychoanalytic Perspectives 20 Cognitive Science Perspectives 20 Studying Psychological Development 22 Observational Studies 22 Experimental Studies 23 Longitudinal Approaches 26 Cross-Sectional Approaches 27 Converging Methods 28 Designing a Sound Study 28 Reliability and Validity Within-Subjects and Between-Subjects Designs Conclusions 30 Summary 31 CHAPTER The Biology of Development 33 The Basis of Development 35 Inputs to the Biological System 36 The Genes The Environment Interactions between Genes and Environment Constraints on Development 38 Viability Differentiation of Cells and Structures Timing and Sequencing vii The Beginnings of Development 41 Brain Development 56 Meiosis and Fertilization 41 Major Changes to Brain Structures 57 Neurons and Neurotransmitters 58 Development of Neurons 60 Meiosis and Mitosis Fertilization The First Patterns of Differentiation 43 Anatomical Development 44 Structures and Systems in the Embryo and Fetus 44 The Embryonic Period The Fetal Period Preterm Births 47 Why Does Anatomical Development Progress As It Does? 49 Diversity out of Uniformity 49 Sexual Differentiation 52 Adverse Influences on the Developing Embryo and Fetus 53 Proliferation Migration and Synaptogenesis Consolidation Myelination Experience and Brain Development 63 Puberty and Brain Development 64 Behavioral Genetics 67 Heritability 67 Behavioral Genomics 68 Conclusions 70 Summary 72 PART II Origins CHAPTER Coming to Perceive the World 76 Vision 78 Perceiving Differences in Brightness and Acuity 79 Visual Acuity Visual Experience and Brain Development Color 84 Perceiving Hue and the Clustering of Hues Categorical Perception of Color Depth Perception 86 Cues to Depth Which Depth Cues Predominate? Gibson’s Visual Cliff Studies Functional Significance of the Depth Perception System Perceiving Patterns and Recognizing Objects 91 Pattern Perception in Other Species Plasticity in Perceptual Development Perceptually Grouping the World Face Perception 95 Development of Face Perception: A Two-System Model Facial Attractiveness viii CONTENTS Hearing 100 Noticing and Remembering Sounds 100 Locating Sounds 101 Perceiving Complex Sound Patterns 104 The Chemical Senses: Taste and Smell 107 Taste 107 Smell 109 Intermodal Perception 109 Conclusions 112 Summary 112 CHAPTER The Emergence of Action 115 Foundations of Motor Development 116 Reflexes in Infancy 117 Theories of Motor Development 118 The Maturational Account Dynamic Systems Theory Perception and Action 122 CHAPTER Coordination in Changing Bodies 122 Reaching 123 Connecting with the Social World 187 Empiricist View of Eye-Limb Coordination Constraints on Links between Eye and Limb Navigating Space 125 Active versus Passive Visual Experience and Action Walking and Seeing Learning to Engage in Specific Actions 131 Early Imitation 131 The Process of Imitation The Development of Birdsong: Variations on the Imitation Theme Imprinting, Action, and Critical Periods 135 Conditioning 136 Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning Constraints on Learning Conclusions 142 Summary 143 CHAPTER Coming to Understand the Physical World 145 Piaget’s Approach 146 Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development 147 The Sensorimotor Period in Infancy 149 Stage 1: Use of Reflexes Stage 2: Emergence of Primary Circular Reactions Stage 3: Appearance of Secondary Circular Reactions Stage 4: Coordination of Secondary Circular Reactions Stage 5: Appearance of Tertiary Circular Reactions Stage 6: Invention of New Means through Mental Combinations Key Aspects of Piaget’s Theory 154 Examining the A-Not-B Error 155 Infant Knowledge and Understanding 157 Thinking about the Unseen 158 Studies of Object Permanence and Solidity Principles That Guide How Infants Understand Comparative Considerations Developing Bonds between Infants and Caregivers 189 Early Perspectives on Infants’ Bonds with Others 190 Psychoanalytic Approaches to Infant-Parent Bonds 190 Learning Theory Approaches 191 Bowlby’s Ethological Approach 192 The Underpinnings of Attachment 194 Components of Attachment 194 Smiling Clinging and Touching Cuteness Bases of Social Interactions 199 Contingent Responding Social Referencing Joint Attention and Gaze Following Individual Differences in Attachment Style 201 Studying Attachment Styles in the Strange Situation 202 Causes of Different Attachment Styles 203 Parent Effects on Insecure Attachment Child Effects on Insecure Attachment Interactions of Parent Effects and Child Effects Consequences of Different Attachment Styles 208 Correlations between Infant Attachment Styles and Children’s Social Interactions Long-Term Links between Infant Attachment Styles and Adult Relationship Styles Cross-Cultural Differences in Attachment Styles 210 Effects of Early Social Deprivation 214 Social Deprivation in Humans 214 Deficits in Socially Deprived Infants Untangling Causation Deprivation Studies in Nonhuman Primates 218 Tactile Stimulation and Physiological Needs Peer-Raised Infants Critical-Period Effects? 222 Conclusions 223 Summary 224 CHAPTER Understanding Causation 164 The Use of Number 166 Spatial Knowledge in Infants 169 Categorization in Infants 171 The Origins of Emotion, Temperament, and Personality 227 Distinguishing the Physical World from the Social World 175 Approaches to Emotional Development 229 Differentiation of Emotions in Infancy 230 Action at a Distance and Social Contingency 176 Goal and Belief Attribution 177 Conclusions 183 Summary 184 Emotional Development 228 Basic Emotions Complex Emotions Moral Emotions? Perceiving and Thinking about Emotions 236 Recognizing Emotions in Others Emotional Contagion CONTENTS ix ... Developing a Theory of Mind 482 Early Aspects of Theory of Mind 483 Comparative Perspectives on Theory of Mind 484 Understanding False Beliefs 487 Evaluating the False-Belief Task A Theory of Mind Module?... Street, London W1T 3QT 1234567890 About the Author Frank C Keil is the Charles C and Dorathea S Dilley Professor of Psychology and Linguistics and chair of the Psychology Department at Yale University... of leading investigators in developmental psychology so that they can understand what drove the researchers both in terms of theory and their passion to design and execute studies to answer developmental