10.1057/9780230106529 - Afro-Caribbean Poetry and Ritual, Paul A Griffith Copyright material from www.palgraveconnect.com - licensed to Feng Chia University - PalgraveConnect - 2011-03-03 Afro-Caribbean Poetry and Ritual 10.1057/9780230106529 - Afro-Caribbean Poetry and Ritual, Paul A Griffith Copyright material from www.palgraveconnect.com - licensed to Feng Chia University - PalgraveConnect - 2011-03-03 This page intentionally left blank Paul A Griffith 10.1057/9780230106529 - Afro-Caribbean Poetry and Ritual, Paul A Griffith Copyright material from www.palgraveconnect.com - licensed to Feng Chia University - PalgraveConnect - 2011-03-03 Afro-Caribbean Poetry and Ritual afro-caribbean poetry and ritual Copyright © Paul A Griffith, 2010 Paul Griffith: “Space, Time, and Interval: Charting Routes through Myth and Mythos in Selected Works of Kamau Brathwaite and Derek Walcott” from On and Off the Page: Mapping Place in Text and Culture appears in excerpts from the Introduction, chapter 1, and chapter 2, published with the permission of Cambridge Scholars Publishing First published in 2010 by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN® in the United States—a division of St Martin’s Press LLC, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010 Where this book is distributed in the UK, Europe, and the rest of the world, this is by Palgrave Macmillan, a division of Macmillan Publishers Limited, registered in England, company number 785998, of Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS Palgrave Macmillan is the global academic imprint of the above companies and has companies and representatives throughout the world Palgrave® and Macmillan® are registered trademarks in the United States, the United Kingdom, Europe and other countries ISBN: 978-0-230-62364-4 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Griffith, Paul A., 1952– Afro-Caribbean poetry and ritual / Paul A Griffith p cm Includes bibliographical references ISBN 978-0-230-62364-4 (alk paper) 1.Caribbean poetry (English)—Black authors—History and criticism Caribbean poetry (English)—History and criticism Ritual in literature Caribbean Area—In literature I Title PR9205.2.G75 2010 811.009’896098611—dc22 First edition: April 2010 A catalogue record of the book is available from the British Library Design by Scribe Inc 10 Printed in the United States of America 10.1057/9780230106529 - Afro-Caribbean Poetry and Ritual, Paul A Griffith 2009036197 Copyright material from www.palgraveconnect.com - licensed to Feng Chia University - PalgraveConnect - 2011-03-03 All rights reserved —Jean-Paul Sartre, Preface to The Wretched of the Earth by Frantz Fanon 10.1057/9780230106529 - Afro-Caribbean Poetry and Ritual, Paul A Griffith Copyright material from www.palgraveconnect.com - licensed to Feng Chia University - PalgraveConnect - 2011-03-03 Their fathers, shadowy creatures, your creatures were but dead souls; to you only did they dare speak, and you did not bother to reply to such zombies They dance; and then the dance mimes secretly the refusal they cannot utter and the murders they dare not commit Formerly this [possession by spirits] was a religious experience in all its simplicity, a certain communion of the faithful with sacred things; now they make of it a weapon against humiliation and despair 10.1057/9780230106529 - Afro-Caribbean Poetry and Ritual, Paul A Griffith Copyright material from www.palgraveconnect.com - licensed to Feng Chia University - PalgraveConnect - 2011-03-03 This page intentionally left blank Preface ix Acknowledgments xv Introduction Part I: Mediating Sacred Time and Space The Limbo: Ritual Reentry into History 15 Shipwrecked in the Middle Passage: Limbo as Agon of Soul 47 Folk Masques: Ritualizing Time and Space 67 Part II: Oratorical Play Mythic Voices: Art as the Inheritance of Responsibility 87 Lullabies and Children’s Games: Word as Genesis of Spirit 109 Spiritual Adventure through Song 135 Tales and Fables: Charting the Interstice 159 Conclusion 189 Notes 191 Works Cited 207 Index 215 10.1057/9780230106529 - Afro-Caribbean Poetry and Ritual, Paul A Griffith Copyright material from www.palgraveconnect.com - licensed to Feng Chia University - PalgraveConnect - 2011-03-03 Contents 10.1057/9780230106529 - Afro-Caribbean Poetry and Ritual, Paul A Griffith Copyright material from www.palgraveconnect.com - licensed to Feng Chia University - PalgraveConnect - 2011-03-03 This page intentionally left blank This project examines literary production in the Caribbean against the background of conflicting attitudes argued by V S Naipaul in The Middle Passage and Reinhard W Sander in “The Thirties and Forties.” “In the pursuit of the Christian-Hellenic tradition, which some might see as a paraphrase for whiteness, the past has to be denied, the self despised Black will be made white,” says Naipaul, in measuring the impact of Eurocentrism on social, psychic, and aesthetic expression in the Caribbean (67) The challenges of “living in a borrowed culture” saddled Caribbean writers with the responsibility of shaping an indigenous identity, but they failed this assignment, Naipaul remarks (68–69) Conversely, literary creativity, Sander observes, evolved from an inchoate cultural and nationalistic consciousness in the region (45) The “pioneering efforts to stimulate a West Indian theory and practice of literary and cultural criticism,” he notes (48), were channeled with remarkable success under the sponsorship of such regional forums as Bim, Beacon, Picong, Kyk-over-al, Focus, and Caribbean Quarterly.1 Categories of the art and literature that have consistently been overlooked but whose exploration is pertinent to these issues of identity, aesthetics, and politics in the region pertain to the orally expressive media Regrettably, the richness of spirit informing indigenous cultural symbols while fully interiorized in diasporan people’s consciousness, has also been as tragically marginalized as Richard Wright suspected: “I wondered if clear, positive tenderness, love, honor, loyalty, and the capacity to remember were native to man I asked myself if these human qualities were not fostered, won, struggled and suffered for, preserved in ritual from one generation to another” (Black Boy 45) This spiritual imperative finds expression in ritualistic and oratorical forms that provide imaginative glimpses into the past as corollary investments in human cosmic rootedness Wright’s earlier essay “Blueprint for Negro Writing” (1938) did recognize the sustaining power of spirit in the folk art that formulated self-awareness as a function of the reflective consciousness (39) Primary symbols stood out, therein, as visionary modules of interpenetrating psychocosmic energies, that is, as conduits of belief systems that helped to clarify cultural consciousness Lyrical expressions 10.1057/9780230106529 - Afro-Caribbean Poetry and Ritual, Paul A Griffith Copyright material from www.palgraveconnect.com - licensed to Feng Chia University - PalgraveConnect - 2011-03-03 Preface Notes ● 205 Discussed in Chapter 2 This Barbadian tale I heard in the 1950s reappears in Tembo’s Legends of Africa (1997) The former’s domestic theme also indicts the sterile materialist reductionism in colonialist culture Similarly, in “Oba’s Ear: A Yoruba Myth in Cuba and Brazil,” William Bascom records disporan adaptations of African myth Douglas Fraser declares the bird (transcendent spirit) and the serpent (netherworld agent) binary cosmic forces in African cultures In Song of Solomon, Ruth is an incestuously clinging parent whose protracted nursing inhibits Milkman’s psychospiritual individuation Initiatory passage, his psychic exit from necrophilia problematizes Terry Otten’s reduction of his “flight” to callous abandonment (61) St Augustine’s denunciation of sexuality as corrupting human innocence and sacredness found favor with Philo in the first century B C Proclaiming sexuality an animal residue in humans, Darwin offered scientific basis for such religious taboos on sex Similarly, Freud declared human beings civilized only to the extent that they repress their sexual instincts Promulgating this sex-negative heritage, Methodists introduced cricket to Papua New Guinea in 1903 intending to curtail a ritual the missionaries deemed erotic In an act of ironic inversion, the Trobrianders wove the exogenous gesture into their dance (“Trobriand Cricket”) Live burial of children and adults in Christian society, Barbara Walker explains, was also a religious act Sacrificial victims were placed under building foundations to ensure structural stability (245–46) Metamorphosing into a bird, Isis descends on Osiris’s penis while, as a swan, Zeus copulates with Leda The Alazon (senex iratus), a comic archetype, is manifested through this sinister version whose threats impede the love of the heroine His counterpart, the Miles Gloriosus, is Monkey in “Monkey Wedding.” Here, the absoluteness of the father’s will declares him a fiendish underworld god who reduces the daughter to a state of desolation This product of a vast hideous darkness that seems to threaten the entire human family, Walcott’s Ti-Jean personifies as the planter-devil Such networks of allusions diagram the folk forms as symbolic complexes John Mbiti’s chapter “Initiation and Puberty Rites” discusses the initiation sexrituals traditionally linked to nature’s processes and symbols (121–32) 10 Walker explains this vital balance of surface and depth As a reminder that death was integral to life, she notes, Roman triumphal processions showed military heroes partnered with surrogates of Death Homer dramatizes this tension in Book 24 of the Iliad when, kneeling before Achilles, gray-haired Priam requests Hector’s body Telling ironic reversals structure this scene where fearless youth and care-worn humility meet Priam carries a “heart made of steel” and Achilles, ponderously philosophizes: “This is the way the gods have spun their threads for poor mortals! Our life is all sorrow” (292) The contemplative moment fills the dashing warrior with a glimpse of soul, a deeper self-awareness The Orpheus story, its theme the mythic mind, affirms also the quiet contemplative power of the creative imagination as a vital underside of active life Orpheus’ tragic end suggests, however, that to 10.1057/9780230106529 - Afro-Caribbean Poetry and Ritual, Paul A Griffith Copyright material from www.palgraveconnect.com - licensed to Feng Chia University - PalgraveConnect - 2011-03-03 Chapter 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 ● Notes seek to live entirely in the realm of the imagination or the subconscious is in itself a mode of death “In Ethiopia the Goddess’s image was placed in the center of a wheel of flames, like Indian images of Kali.” She was “called an old woman with the power of the evil eye.” Her alleged powers included a capacity to resurrect (Walker 1072) This form Finnegan names a basic mythic structure in Limba culture is evidently also an intracultural archetype This syncretizing was common A Barbadian woman repeatedly moralized discipline though the tale of a mother who indulged her son’s delinquency When sentenced to die for a serious offense, the son bit off her ear for failing him As an adult, I discovered that this was probably an Aesop fable, not a local occurrence Finnegan too highlights embedded European lore in Limba narratives The dramatic appeal of Raja’s chance defeat of evil (like Ti-Jean’s calculated strategy) also inheres in the underdog motif—the wonder Finnegan explains as “that a child beginning from such well-known disadvantages should yet achieve success” (56) In Things Fall Apart, for example, Chinua Achebe imaginatively replays the psychic toll on families compelled by Umuofian law to discard twins in the evil forest Coke, for example, declares that Amerindians were omitted from “the divine schedule” and allowed “for reasons inscrutable to us to wander in a state of intolerable darkness, while we have been favored with the light of the glorious gospel” (175) Having surrendered to non-Christian gods, to “blind, maleficent forces” that were “only faint resemblances of the more hideous images of his mind” (114–15), the native, Coke remarks, was inalienably earmarked for divine wrath: God preferring European genocide over “pestilence or earthquake” (124) This monkey parallels the Signifying Monkey celebrated in Afro-American lore and the picaresque bandit of the Toast—a form that climaxes with a boast as in “Wedding.” He figures also as the Alazon or braggart in Greek comedy—a self-deceiving impostor who inhibits the romance of hero and heroine His counterpart, the senex iratus appears in “Strange Fruit.” I find no evidence that this tale describes a natural phenomenon Blackbirds often build nests in trees even in dense human populations Gaulins are rarely seen except in remote natural settings The Barbadian tale “The Traveling Companions” treats this theme of cooperation; it is not included here Eating is often presented as an amusing topic, especially surrounding men with legendary appetites—such talents exhibited in competitions in Hillaby Archetypes linked with this fertility principle include the Yoruba Àjé, the Egyptian Isis, the Greek Gaia and Demeter, the Zuni Indians Awonawilona, and the Mexican Ilamatecuhtli 10.1057/9780230106529 - Afro-Caribbean Poetry and Ritual, Paul A Griffith Copyright material from www.palgraveconnect.com - licensed to Feng Chia University - PalgraveConnect - 2011-03-03 206 Adam, Ian, ed Past the Last Post: Theorizing Post-Colonialism and Post-Modernism New York: Harvester, 1991 Adjaye, Joseph K., ed Time in the Black Experience Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1994 Ashcroft, Bill, et al The Empire Writes Back: Theory and Practice in Postcolonial Literatures London: Routledge, 1989 Babcock, Barbara “‘A Tolerated Margin of Mess’: The Trickster and His Tales Reconsidered.” Critical Essays on Native American Literature Ed Andrew Wiget Boston: G K Hall, 1985 153–85 Baker, Houston A., Jr Blues, Ideology, and Afro-American Literature: A Vernacular Theory Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1987 Baraka, Amiri Blues People: Negro Music in White America New York: William Morrow and Company, 1963 ——— Dutchman The LeRoi Jones/Amiri Baraka Reader Ed William J Harris New York: Thunder’s Mouth Press, 1991 Barricelli, Jean-Pierre, and Joseph Gibaldi, eds Interrelations of Literature New York: Modern Languages Association, 1982 Bear, Luther Standing “Native American Culture: Famous People.” Native American Culture 17 Feb 2005 C Pepper 25 Jan 2008 http://www.Ewebtribe.com/NACulture/ famous.htm Bell, Bernard W The Afro-American Novel and its Tradition Amherst: U of Massachusetts P, 1987 Bell, Gordon Wayside Sketches: Pen-Pictures of Barbadian Life Bridgetown, Barbados: Nation Publishing, 1985 Benitez-Rojo, Antonio The Repeating Island: The Caribbean and the Postmodern Perspective Trans James Maraniss Durham, NC: Duke UP, 1992 Bernal, Martin Black Athena: The Afroasiatic Roots of Classical Civilization New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers UP, 1987 Best, Curwen Roots to Popular Culture: Barbadian Aesthetics: Kamau Brathwaite to Hardcore Styles London: Macmillan, 2001 Bettelheim, Judith “Jamaica Jonkonnu and Related Caribbean Festivals.” Africa and the Caribbean; The Legacies of a Link Eds Margaret E Crahan and Franklin W Knight Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins UP, 1979 Bettelheim, Judith, and Peter Marsden “Maskarade” 27 May 2008 http://www.talawa com/article.php3?id_article-131 10.1057/9780230106529 - 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Afro-Caribbean Poetry and Ritual, Paul A Griffith Copyright material from www.palgraveconnect.com - licensed to Feng Chia University - PalgraveConnect - 2011-03-03 212 ● 213 Rohlehr, Gordon “Man’s Spiritual Search in the Caribbean Through Literature.” The Troubling of the Waters: A Collection of Papers and Responses Presented at Two Conferences Ed Idris Hamid San Fernando, Trinidad: Rahaman,1973 ——— Pathfinder: Black Awakening in The Arrivants of Edward Kamau Brathwaite Port of Spain, Trinidad: Rohlehr, 1981 Rojo, Antonio Benitez The Repeating Island: The Caribbean, the Postmodern Perspective Trans James Maraniss Durham, NC: Duke UP, 1992 Said, Edward W Culture and Imperialism New York: Vintage, 1994 ——— Orientalism New York: Pantheon, 1978 Sandiford, Keith “Monk Lewis and the Atlantic Imaginary.” Unpublished essay, 2006 Sannes, G W African “Primitives”: Function and Form in African Masks and Figures Trans Margaret King New York: Africana, 1970 Santari, J “Saul Bellow and his Infamous ‘Racist’ Quote.” 2002 Helium May 23, 2006 http://www.helium.com/items/849253-saul-bellow-and-his-infamous-racist-quote Sarup, Madan An Introductory Guide to Post-structuralism and Postmodernism Athens: U of Georgia P, 1989 Schuler, Monica “Myalism and the African Religious Tradition in Jamaica.” Africa and the Caribbean; The Legacies of a Link Eds Margaret E Crahan and Franklin W Knight Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins UP, 1979 64–79 Shaw, Andrea Elizabeth The Embodiment of Disobedience: Fat Black Women’s Unruly Political Bodies New York: Lexington Books, 2006 Simon, Bruce “Traumatic Displacements and Militant Mourning: Paule Marshall’s The Chosen Place, the Timeless People and Mahasweta Devi’s Peterodactyl, Puran Sahay, and Pirtha.” Unpublished essay, 2007 Smallwood, Lawrence L “African Cultural Dimensions.” Journal of Black Studies 6.2 (1975): 191–99 Smith, Evans Lansing Rape and Revelation: The Descent to the Underworld in Modernism Lanham, MD: UP of America, 1990 Smith, Jonathan Z “The Influence of Symbols upon Social Change: A Place on Which to Stand.” The Roots of Ritual Ed James D Shaughnessy Grand Rapids, MI: William B Eerdmans, 1973 21–43 Sparrow, Mighty “Lion and Donkey.” Mighty Sparrow Volume Two London: Ice Records, 1992 Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty Translator’s preface Of Grammatology Jacques Derrida Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP, 1976 Szwed, John F., and Roger D Abrahams “After the Myth: Studying Afro-American Cultural Patterns in the Plantation Literature.” African Folklore in the New World Ed Daniel J Crowley Austin: U of Texas P, 1977 65–86 Taylor, Patrick The Narrative of Liberation: Perspectives on AfroCaribbean Literature, Popular Culture, and Politics Ithaca, NY: Cornell UP, 1989 Tembo, Mwizenge Myths of the World: Legends of Africa New York: Friedman, 1996 Thieme, John The Web of Tradition: Uses of Allusion in V S Naipaul’s Fiction Hertfordshire: Hansib, 1987 10.1057/9780230106529 - Afro-Caribbean Poetry and Ritual, Paul A Griffith Copyright material from www.palgraveconnect.com - licensed to Feng Chia University - PalgraveConnect - 2011-03-03 Works Cited ● Works Cited Torgovnick, Mariana Gone Primitive: Savage Intellects, Modern Lives Chicago: Chicago UP, 1990 “Trobriand Cricket: An Ingenious Response to Colonialism.” 2004 Berkeley Media LLC 12 July 2006 http://www.berkeleymedia.com/catalog/berkeleymedia/films/ artshumanities/trobrian Wade, David Li: Dynamic Forces in Nature New York: Walker, 2003 Walcott, Derek Another Life Collected Poems 1948–1984 New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2001 ——— “The Caribbean: Culture or Mimicry?” Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs 16.1 (1974): 3–13 ——— The Castaway Collected Poems 1948–1984 New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2001 ——— “The Figure of Crusoe.” Critical Perspectives on Derek Walcott Ed Robert D Hamner Washington, DC: Three Continents Press, 1993 33–40 ——— “The Muse of History.” Is Massa Day Dead?: Black Moods in the Caribbean Ed Orde Coombs New York: Anchor, 1974 1–28 ——— Omeros New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1990 ——— Remembrance and Pantomime New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1980 ——— Ti-Jean and His Brothers Dream on Monkey Mountain and Other Plays New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1970 83–166 ——— “What the Twilight Says: An Overture.” Dream on Monkey Mountain and Other Plays New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1970 Walker, Barbara G The Woman’s Encyclopedia of Myths and Secrets New York: HarperCollins, 1983 Washington, Terese N Our Mothers, Our Powers, Our Texts: Manifestations of Àjé in Africana Literature Bloomington: Indiana UP, 2005 WaThiong’o, Ngugi Decolonizing the Mind: The Politics of Language in African Literature Nairobi: Heinemann, 1986 Webb, Barbara J “Myth and History in the Novels of Alejo Carpentier and Wilson Harris: Theories of Cultural Transformation (Cuba, West Indies).” Diss New York V, 1986 Dissertation Abstracts International 46.12A (1985): 3715 Websters New Twentieth Century Dictionary Unabridged 1977 Wicker, Brian “Ritual and Culture: Some Dimensions of the Problem Today.” The Roots of Ritual Ed James D Shaughnessy Grand Rapids, MI: William B Eerdmans, 1973 13–45 Woodman, Marion The Pregnant Virgin: A Process of Psychological Transformation Toronto: Inner City Books, 1985 Wright, Richard Black Boy: A Record of Childhood and Youth New York: Harper and Row, 1966 ——— “Blueprint for Negro Writing.” Richard Wright Reader Eds Ellen Wright and Michel Fabre New York: Da Capo Press, 1997 36–49 Wynter, Sylvia “Jonkonnu in Jamaica” Jamaica Journal 4.2 (1970): 34–48 Zahan, Dominique The Religion, Spirituality, and Thought of Traditional Africa Trans Kate Ezra Martin and Lawrence M Martin Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1979 10.1057/9780230106529 - Afro-Caribbean Poetry and Ritual, Paul A Griffith Copyright material from www.palgraveconnect.com - licensed to Feng Chia University - PalgraveConnect - 2011-03-03 214 Abrahams, Roger, 10, 24, 59, 110, 115–16, 121, 125 Adjaye, Joseph, xii, 27 Afro-American Folklore (Courlander), x “Ah Went,” 28–29 “Annie Roanie,” 141–43 Another Life (Walcott), 3, 4, 55 Arrivants, The (Brathwaite), xii, 1–2, 22, 27, 30, 35–36, 39, 120, 144, 147 Ashcroft, Bill, 37, 176 Babcock, Barbara, 58, 88, 192n5, 195n31 Baker, Houston, 189 Baraka, Amiri, 113, 120 Barricelli, Jean-Pierre, 200n15 Bear, Luther Standing, 199n17 Bell, Bernard, Bell, Gordon, xii Bellow, Saul, xi, 87 Benitez-Rojo, Antonio, xii, 27, 41, 88, 115–16, 136–38, 144–45, 154–55, 157 Bernal, Martin, 148 Best, Curwen, xii–xiii Bettelheim, Judith, 43, 69–70, 79, 197n3, 198n5, 199n12 Bhabha, Homi, 67, 112 “Bird, A,” 122–25 Blesh, Rudi, 114 Brathwaite, Kamau, xi–xii, 1–3, 5, 8–9, 11, 16–28, 30–40, 42, 44–45, 48, 50–52, 57, 68–69, 71, 73, 76, 82–83, 89–90, 92–99, 101–2, 106– 7, 114, 120, 134, 135, 144–47, 154–55, 157, 164, 185, 189 “Brown Girl,” 143–44 “Brown Skin Gal,” 145–48 Bull Play, 77–78 Burke, Kenneth, 107 calypso, 5, 20, 28, 34, 44, 56–61, 88, 113, 139, 146–47 Campbell, Joseph, xii, 19, 28–29, 42, 75, 77, 99, 135–36, 140, 145, 160, 163, 166–68, 170, 175–76, 180, 182 Campbell, Mary, 102 Camus, Albert, 72 “Carpenter, The,” 183–87 Carpentier, Alejo, 4, Castaway, The (Walcott), 3, 49 Cavendish, Richard, 101, 110, 133, 202n7 Chagnon, Napoleon A., 175 Chickaboodie, 151–52 children’s games, verbal and nonverbal, 121–28 “Bird, A,” 122–25 “Hubner, Bubner,” 125 “Jumbie,” 127–28 “Little Monkey, A,” 126–27 children’s songs and rituals, 136–37 Clarke, Richard L W., 114 “Cocka Raja,” 6, 171–76, 182 Coke, Thomas, 18, 76, 89, 195n27, 196n4, 201n20, 206n16 Collymore, Frank, xii, 198n4, 201n4 “Controversial Tree of Time, The” (Brathwaite), 23 Conversations with Nathaniel Mackey (Brathwaite), xii, 37, 69, 134 10.1057/9780230106529 - Afro-Caribbean Poetry and Ritual, Paul A Griffith Copyright material from www.palgraveconnect.com - licensed to Feng Chia University - PalgraveConnect - 2011-03-03 Index ● Index “Cookie Jar,” 150–51 cosmic order, 16–26 Courlander, Harold, x–xi, 194n16 courtship play, 137–52 “Annie Roanie,” 139, 141–43 “Brown Girl,” 143–44 “Brown Skin Gal,” 145–48 “Chickaboodie,” 151–52 “Cookie Jar,” 150–51 “Jessamy,” 139, 140–41 “Ma Children,” 148–50 “Sally Water,” 139, 141 Cowley, Malcolm, 104 “Crusoe’s Island” (Walcott), 87 Dante Alighieri, 61, 64, 98 Davidson, Basil, 24–25, 31, 110, 159 Dayan, Joan, 43, 54–55, 81–82, 193n12 De Leon, Rafael, 193n16 Deleuze, Gilles, 110 Depestre, Réné, 39 Deren, Maya, 5, 22, 26, 40–41, 77, 100–101, 114, 134, 193n9, 194n23, 195n29 Dessalines, Jean Jacques, 54 dialectics, 4, 26 Douglas, Aaron, 80, 83, 97, 100–102, 107, 155 Douglas, Mary, 29 Douglass, Fredrick, 194n19, 199n5, 204n5 Dream on Monkey Mountain and Other Plays (Walcott), DuBois, W E B., 73, 88, 93–94 Dumas, Henry, 91–92, 195n30 Dundes, Alan, 4, 203n21 dyadic verbal contests, 128–29 Eagleton, Terry, 17 Edwards, Brian, 104 Ellison, Ralph, 1, 4, 88, 98, 195n25, 201n1 Equiano, Olaudah, 3, 94–95, 182, 199n4, 200n6 Evers, Lawrence J., 19, 109 Fanon, Frantz, v, 35, 43,104 “Figure of Crusoe, The” (Walcott), 4, 45, 47–48, 56–58, 65, 115 “Finger,” 133–34 Finnegan, Ruth, xii, 9, 109, 120, 137, 152, 159, 166, 182, 184, 202n6, 206n12 Folk Culture of the Slaves in Jamaica (Brathwaite), 94 Forde, Addington, xii Fraser, Douglas, 7–8, 20, 27, 43, 59, 75, 82, 96, 100, 107, 110, 136, 187, 204n7, 205n3 Frazier, Franklin E., 203n21 frivolous word games, 129–34 “Finger, The,” 133–34 “Hi There Chest,” 129–30 “Mosquito One,” 131–33 Fu-Kiau, K K Bunseki, 44, 201n2 Gates, Henry L., xii “Gaulin Seeks a Home,” 181–83 Geertz, Clifford, 195n27 gombey, 9, 67, 69–70, 72, 74–75, 79, 197n1, 198n11, 199n13 “Go on Horse,” 118–21 Greene, Thomas, Griaule, Marcel, xii, 22, 32, 69, 72, 97, 102, 106, 109, 120–21, 174, 186, 194n23, 195n29, 198n6, 202n12 Gulf, The (Walcott), Gwynn, R S., 192n3 Hamlyn, David, 192n4 Harris, Wilson, 4, 6, 9, 17, 29, 32, 37–38, 51, 54, 64, 67, 73, 88, 99, 102, 114, 135, 164, 189 Heart of Darkness (Conrad), 98, 101 Hegel, G W F., 26, 36–37, 54, 90, 173, 193n14, 200n6 Herskovits, Melville J., x, 203n21 Highwater, Jamake, 6, 20, 29, 43, 74, 118, 138–40, 142–43, 169, 185–86 “Hi There Chest,” 129–30 Hodge, Merle, 106 10.1057/9780230106529 - Afro-Caribbean Poetry and Ritual, Paul A Griffith Copyright material from www.palgraveconnect.com - licensed to Feng Chia University - PalgraveConnect - 2011-03-03 216 “Hubner, Bubner,” 125 Huggan, Graham, 144, 153 Hurston, Zora Neale, 112, 130, 139, 169, 193n9, 202n11 “Hushum Baby,” 117–18 identity, history and, 8–9 Imafuku, Ryuta, 15–16, 21, 31 In a Free State (Naipaul), 62 In a Green Night (Walcott), Islands (Brathwaite), 1, 35, 76 Izevbaye, D S., 172, 175 Jackman, Ernestine, xii, 132–33, 155 James, Louis, 204n16 Jameson, Fredrick, “Jazz and the West Indian Novel” (Braithwaite), Jekyll, Walter, 137 “Jessamy,” 140–41 “John Belly,” 138, 142 jonkonnu, 9, 43, 67, 69–75, 197n1, 198n7 Joseph, Margaret Paul, 22–23 “Jumbie,” 127–28 Jung, Carl, 6–7, 25, 26, 45, 74–75, 92, 110–11, 114, 123, 133, 165–67, 169, 191n4, 193n7, 194n22 Keller, Karl, 93 Kipling, Rudyard, 154, 201n22 Laguerre, Michael, 43, 89, 132, 193n12 Lamming, George, 35, 56, 145, 156, 199n1 landship, 68–77 Levine, Lawrence, 4–5, 10, 59, 136, 152, 193n16 Lévi-Strauss, Claude, 19, 38, 73, 79, 111, 162 Lewis, Maureen W., 43, 137 “Little Monkey, A,” 126–27 living landscape, psyche and, 26–32 Lynch, Louis, xii, 28, 79 ● 217 “Ma Children,” 148–50 “Mango Pond,” 156–57 Mannix, Daniel P., 16, 104 Marshall, Paul, 33, 194n22 Marshall, Trevor, xii Masks (Brathwaite), 1, 20, 25, 28, 31, 39, 42, 135 Mbiti, John, xii, 26, 33, 42, 68, 92, 124, 127, 139, 193n13, 196n32, 199n17, 202n13, 204n7 McKay, Claude, 106, 200n8 mediators, artists as, 32–45 Melville, Herman, 192n3 Middle Passage, The (Naipaul), ix Miguel Street (Naipaul), 60–61, 63–64, 138–39, 204n8 Millette, James, 145, 197n12 “Monkey Wedding,” 176–81 Moody, Harry R., 54 Morrison, Toni, 172, 202n14 “Mosquito One,” 131–33 Murapa, Rukudzo, 201n18 “Muse of History” (Walcott), 3–4 myalism, 81–83 Myth of the Negro Past, The (Herskovits), x Naipaul, V S., ix–x, 9, 11, 30, 45, 47, 52, 138, 146–47, 159, 189, 193n16, 196n6, 197n10, 202n15, 204n8 enigma of severance, 59–65 Neal, Larry, 76 nekyia, xii, 10, 32, 39, 45, 49–50, 55, 62, 68, 82–83, 91, 97 O’Flaherty, Wendy D., 40, 167 Omeros (Walcott), 3, 48–50, 68 Opie, Peter and Iona, 78, 117, 119, 142, 204n13 order/disorder, 16–26 Osbon, Diane, 19, 42, 140, 166, 182–83 Other Exiles (Brathwaite), Otten, Terry, 205n4 10.1057/9780230106529 - Afro-Caribbean Poetry and Ritual, Paul A Griffith Copyright material from www.palgraveconnect.com - licensed to Feng Chia University - PalgraveConnect - 2011-03-03 Index ● Index Pantomime (Walcott), 3, 34, 56, 58 Patterson, Orlando, 192n1 Pencheon, Creighton, 43, 67, 77–78, 102, 197n3 Perrot, Dominique, 200n14 Piersen, William, 10, 57, 59, 67, 79–80, 88, 99, 115, 126, 153, 197n8, 203n20 Polan, Dan, 59 Preiswerk, Roy, 200n14 Proust, Marcel, xi psyche, living landscape and, 26–32 Quinn, Patrick J., 20 Ray, Benjamin, 2, 8, 15–16, 21, 28, 29, 59, 68, 72, 89, 201n2 Renwick, Roger, 110 Ricoeur, Paul, 9, 11, 26, 35, 62, 87, 111–12, 114, 116, 129, 134, 135, 159–60 Rights of Passage (Brathwaite), 1, 3, 18, 22, 24, 27, 92 Riordan, James, 175 Roach, Hildred, 113, 120, 141 Rogers, A J., 80, 96, 200n7 Rohlehr, Gordon, 1, 16, 23, 51, 55, 61, 88, 97, 135, 146, 204n12 Roots to Popular Culture: Barbadian Aesthetics (Best), xii–xiii Said, Edward, 18, 103, 105, 154 “Sally Water,” 141 Sander, Reinhard W., ix–x Sandiford, Keith, xv, 16, 40–42 Sannes, G W., 29, 31 Santari, J., xi Sartre, Jean-Paul, v Schuler, Monica, 43, 82–83 scrubbing, 78–81 Sea Grapes (Walcott), secular disorder, 16–26 Shakespeare, William, 34, 40 Shaw, Andrea, 105, 142–44, 197n8, 199n12 Simon, Bruce, 33 Smallwood, Lawrence L., 201n18 Smith, Evans Lansing, xii, 6, 16, 30, 32, 34, 37, 45, 50, 55, 87, 92, 100–101, 124, 134, 138, 160, 163, 166, 168–71, 180–81 Smith, Jonathan Z., 7, 15, 17, 20, 35, 42, 68, 72–73, 121, 145 Song of Solomon (Morrison), 172, 202n14 Sparrow, Mighty, 88, 112–13, 201n1 spells, 117–21 “Go on Horse,” 118–21 “Hushum Baby,” 117–18 Spivak, Gayatri, 88 Star-Apple Kingdom, The (Walcott), “Strange Fruit,” 160–70 “Sundays of Satin-Legs Smith” (Brooks), 146 Szwed, John, 10, 22, 59, 115–16, 121–22 Taylor, Patrick, 56, 58 Tembo, Mwizenge, 160, 181, 205n2 Tempest, The (Shakespeare), 34–36 Thieme, John, 60, 61 tidalectics, 8, 19, 26, 30, 33–34, 37, 83, 97 Ti-Jean and his Brothers (Walcott), 36, 53–54, 83, 156, 164, 171, 173, 175, 182, 194n17, 205n8, 206n14 Torgovnic, Mariana, 89–90, 104 tuk, 9, 67, 69–70, 75, 78, 197n1, 198n5 Tutu, Desmond, 103 vodun, xi, 6–7, 21–22, 26, 29, 37–38, 40–41, 43, 48, 52, 68, 70, 72, 75, 77, 191n6, 195n30, 202n6 Voodoo, 43, 191n6 Wade, David, 16, 19, 33–34, 100 Walcott, Derek, 3–5, 9, 11, 20–21, 34, 36, 41, 45, 47–49, 51, 53, 55–59, 65, 68, 83, 87, 97, 112, 115, 127, 10.1057/9780230106529 - Afro-Caribbean Poetry and Ritual, Paul A Griffith Copyright material from www.palgraveconnect.com - licensed to Feng Chia University - PalgraveConnect - 2011-03-03 218 Index 219 work songs, 152–57 “Mango Pond,” 156–57 “Wickham,” 153–55 Wright, Richard, ix Wynter, Sylvia, 27 X/Self (Brathwaite), 1, 22–23 Yates, Anne, xii Zahan, Dominique, xii, 18, 24, 42, 59, 134 10.1057/9780230106529 - Afro-Caribbean Poetry and Ritual, Paul A Griffith Copyright material from www.palgraveconnect.com - licensed to Feng Chia University - PalgraveConnect - 2011-03-03 136, 155–56, 164, 173, 180, 189, 194n17, 196n2, 205n8 Walker, Barbara, xii, 25, 119, 123, 133, 163, 170, 174, 191n4, 196n31, 199n13, 205n6 Washington, Terese, 25, 76, 119, 123, 136, 152, 178, 185 WaThiong’o, Ngugi, 103 Webb, Barbara, Wicker, Brian, 34 “Wickham,” 153–55 ● ... Afro- Caribbean Poetry and Ritual, Paul A Griffith Copyright material from www.palgraveconnect.com - licensed to Feng Chia University - PalgraveConnect - 2011-03-03 Afro- Caribbean Poetry and Ritual. .. Afro- Caribbean Poetry and Ritual, Paul A Griffith Copyright material from www.palgraveconnect.com - licensed to Feng Chia University - PalgraveConnect - 2011-03-03 Afro- Caribbean Poetry and Ritual. .. conjunctions between myth and history, metaphysics and self-awareness, ritual action and ethical judgment, the Middle 10.1057/9780230106529 - Afro- Caribbean Poetry and Ritual, Paul A Griffith Copyright