XXXXXX This page intentionally left blank The Georgics has for more than twenty years been a source of fierce controversy among scholars of Latin literature Is the work optimistic or pessimistic, pro- or anti-Augustan? Should we read it as a eulogy or a bitter critique of Rome and her imperial ambitions? This book suggests that the ambiguity of the poem is the product of a complex and thorough-going engagement with earlier writers in the didactic tradition: Hesiod, Aratus and – above all – Lucretius Drawing on both traditional, philological approaches to allusion, and modern theories of intertextuality, Monica Gale shows how the world-views of the earlier poets are subjected to scrutiny and brought into conflict with each other Detailed consideration of verbal parallels and of Lucretian themes, imagery and structural patterns in the Georgics forms the basis for a reading of Virgil’s poem as an extended meditation on the relations between the individual and society, the gods and the natural environment is a Lecturer in Classics at Trinity College, Dublin She is the author of Myth and Poetry in Lucretius () XXXXXX VI GIL ON T H E NA TU E OF THINGS The Georgics, Lucretius and the Didactic Tradition Monica Gale Trinity College, Dublin The Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge, United Kingdom The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 2RU, UK 40 West 20th Street, New York, NY 10011-4211, USA 477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, VIC 3207, Australia Ruiz de Alarcón 13, 28014 Madrid, Spain Dock House, The Waterfront, Cape Town 8001, South Africa http://www.cambridge.org © Monica R Gale 2004 First published in printed format 2000 ISBN 0-511-03071-1 eBook (Adobe Reader) ISBN 0-521-78111-6 hardback for my parents qui potuerunt rerum cognoscere causas I am wary of the words pessimism and optimism A novel does not assert anything; a novel searches and poses questions C ON T E NT S Preface ix List of abbreviations xiii Introduction: influence, allusion, intertextuality Beginnings and endings The gods, the farmer and the natural world Virgil’s metamorphoses: mythological allusions Labor improbus The wonders of the natural world The cosmic battlefield: warfare and military imagery Epilogue: the philosopher and the farmer Bibliography Index of passages cited General index vii XXXXXX . n .– . n , n .– n .– .– n , n . . n .– n . n .– n .– n . n .– n . n .– n . n , n .– n .– n . n . n . n . n . n . n .– n . n . n .– n . n . n . n . n .– n . n .– n Eclogues . .– .– n . n . n .– , n , n , –, n . n , – . n , n . . . .– . .– .– . .– . . .– .– Georgics .– .– .– . . .– . .– . . .– . . . .– .– .– .– . .– .– . .– . .– . .– .– .– . .– .– n n , n n , – n , n n , n n n n n –, n n n – n n –, n , n , n , – n , , – – n (cont.) .– – .– n , , –, , , , .– , , , –, n , – . , . n . n , n , .– , n , , n .– n , n , .– n , n . n , n , n . . , n , n , n .– . . n .– , n . , n .– n .– n . n . .– – .– .– , .– . .– , , . – . .– .– .– n . , n . n . , n . n .– , –, , –, n . n , n .– n . .– n .– , , . n .– – . , .– .– n .– . n .– , , –, , , –, , , , –, , –, , n . . , n .– n .– . n .– , , . , n , , .– , –, . n . , n , n , . n .– n . n . – .– . n . n .– – .– n . n , n . , .– , – .– – .– .– n , –, , . –, n . .– n . n . n , n , n .– n . .– –, –, .– – .– n . .– . .– . .– . . .– .– .– . . .– .– . .– . . . . .– .– . .– . . .– .– . .– . .– .– . . . .– .– .– .– . .– .– . .– n , , , n n , , n , – , –, –, – –, – n , n n – n n , , n , n , , n n n , n , , n , n – n , , n n , , n , , , n , –, – , n n n n . n . n . .– –, .– – .– –, n , n , , , n , –, , n . n . . .– n . n . n . n .– n . n .– n , n , , , – .– – .– , , – . n .– . .– n .– .– –, –, .– n . .– . . .– n , .– .– n . n . n .– n , n , , , n .– .– n . n . , n .– . .– , , n , , – (cont.) . n .– n , –, .– n .– n . . n , n . . . n , . .– –, n .– n , .– n .– –, , –, , n , , .– –, , –, , . . n , . n .– .– –, – . n . n .– .– n . n .– –, , , , . .– , , .– –, –, – .– .– n .– , .– n .– .– , , , n , . .– n . .– , , , . n .– , .– –, , –, , –, – .– n . n . , n .– . .– n . n . n .– n . n .– , , n .– , , , , n . n , n .– n .– . n . , n .– – . n . n .– . , .– –, . .– , –, n , , , , n , , . n , n , n . n , .– – . n , .– n , n . , . n . n , n , n . , n , n .– .– n . n . .– – . n .– n , . .– , – .– . n . , n .– .– .– , .– n . . n .– , .– – .– .– , n . n . n , n .– n , n .– , , – . . n .– – .– , , , n , , n , , –, – .– n .– . n . n , n , .– n . n .– n , , .– n , n . n , n . n . . n .– n , , , n .– n , n . n . n .– .– , n , n , – .– .– .– n , n . n .– n . n .– , .– . .– .– .– .– .– . .– .– . .– . . .– . .– .– .– . .– . . .– .– . . .– . . .– . .– .– .– .– .– . . .– .– .– . . n n –, – n n n n , n n n n n , , n n n n n , n n , –, , –, – n n – n n n , , n , n n n , , , n , n n , – n , n , n n , –, n , –, , , – n , (cont.) .– . .– . . . . . .– . . .– .– .– .– .– . .– .– . . .– .– . . . .– .– .– . .– . . . .– .– . . . . . . .– n , n n – , n n , n n , – n , n , – n , n , n , n n n , , n , – n – n n , n n , n n n – n n n , n n n n , n .– . .– . . .– . .– .– .– .– . . . .– . .– .– . .– . . .– .– .– .– . . . . . . .– . .– .– .– .– . . . .– .– .– – , n n , , n n , n n n n , n n , n n n n , – n n , n n , , –, –, , –, n n n , n , n n n – n n n n n , – n , , , n , [ ] Ciris – – ..– .. fr . Diels–Kranz n n n n fr Cyropaedia .. Memorabilia .. ..– Oeconomicus . .– n n n n n n GE NE A L I N D EX : Names of modern scholars are indexed only where mentioned in the main text, or where there is extensive discussion of their work in the notes Achilles – horses of , , , adynata , , n , –, , n , , –, n , –, , , , –, Aeetes , aemulatio Aeschylus n , – aetiology –, , , , , , –, –, , , , ‘aetiology of labor’ , , , , , –, , , , , n , , –, , , , – Aetna , –, , Ajax Alcyone n , Allecto n allegory , , , –, , , allusion , – amor n , , absence of, in the beehive , n , –, and metamorphosis –, –, – as destructive force , –, , –, , , in Georgics , , , –, , , –, , – in Lucretius , –, , , – poetry and , –, Anchises animals , , , –, , , , –, –, , –, , , –, , , –, , –, in Lucretius –, , , , sacrificial , , –, –, –, see also cattle, horses, sheep anthropomorphism –, , –, , , –, , , –, , , – Aphrodite ; see also Venus Apollo , , , Apollonius Rhodius n , n , n , n Apuleius Arachne n , n Aratus , , n , , –, , , –, , , –, n , –, , , –, n , –, n , , , n , , , Aristaeus , , , , –, , n , , n , –, –, n , –, , –, n , – Aristophanes n Aristotle –, , n , n ataraxia –, , , , , , , –, , , , , , , , , Athene ; see also Minerva Athens –, , n , n , , , n Augustus, see Octavian authorial intention – Avernus , Bacchus , –, n , , , –, n , , n , , , n , beehive, as paradigm for human society –, , , , , , , n , – bees , , , –, , –, –, n , , , , –, –, , –, , –, – birds , , , , n , , –, –, , , , Bonus Eventus – bougonia , , , , , –, , , n , –, , Buchheit, V n Callimacheanism , , , n , –, , , , Callimachus –, , –, n , –, n Callisto Calvus n Cato , n , n , cattle –, , , , –, , –, –, , , , , –, , , , , –, –, , –, Cecrops , Centaurs n , , , , , , , , , –, , , , n cereal crops , , –, , , – Ceres , –, , , , , , , –, Chiron n , n , –, , Cicero n , n , , n , n , n , n , , n , , – Cincinnatus Circe , Clay, J S n , Columella n , n , , n , n Conte, G B , , Corycian gardener , –, , , Cotta , , Crocus n cura , , , –, –, –, –, , , , , Curius Dentatus Cybele , cycle of growth and decay in Lucretius –, –, , , , , , , in the Georgics –, , , , Cyclopes , , , Cyllarus Cynicism , Cyrene , –, n , , , , n Daphnis , death in Lucretius –, , –, , , , , –, , – in the Georgics , –, , , , , –, –, , , –, , deification of Aristaeus – of Epicurus –, of Octavian , –, , , –, , , Democritus Deucalion , , , Diomedes horses of , , Dionysius of Halicarnassus divination , n dreams , Egypt , Eidothea n Empedocles n , , –, –, , – Ennius –, n , n , , , , , n Ephialtes Epicureanism , , , , , , , , –, –, , , –, , , –, , , – Epicurus , , –, , , –, , n , , , , , , n , , , –, , , n , , , n , , , , , , , , , –, Eratosthenes n , Eridanus , n Eris , , , , Etruria , Eurydice –, , , –, n , , Fabricius Farrell, J n , Farrington, B , Fauns , n fear, see metus finales , , , , – book –, , , , n , –, , , –, , –, , , , –, – book –, –, –, n , , , , , –, , , –, , , , –, , book –, , –, , , –, –, book , , , –, –, –, –, , –, in Lucretius –, –, –, , –, , Flora – formulae , , , , , n , Fulvius Nobilior furor , n , , n , , n , n , , , , –, gadfly , –, gardens , , giants –, –, –, n , Glaucus, mares of n , , , , gods in Lucretius , , , , , , , , , , , , –, in the Aeneid n , n , n , n , in the Georgics , , –, –, –, , , , , , , –, –, , –, , –, , , , –, , , , , , Golden Age , , , –, , –, –, n , , , , , n , –, , –, –, , –, , n , –, , , , –, grafting n , , – hapax legomena – Harris, W V Harrison, E L n Helicon Helios Heracles, see Hercules Heraclitus (‘the allegorist’) n , Heraclitus (of Ephesus) Hercules , , , , Hermes Hero Herodotus Hesiod , , , n , , –, , , , , , –, , , –, , , , , , allusions to , –, , , , –, , , n , – Hesperides, dragon of , heuretai –, –, , , –, , n , , , n hieros gamos , hippomanes Homer , n , , n , , , n , , n , n , , , –, , , , , , , Homeric similes , n , n , –, , , –, , , , n Horace , n horses , –, , –, , , –, –, , –, , –, –, –, , Hyacinthus n hyperbole , , , , –, n Iacchus imagery agricultural , –, , – chariots , –, , , –, , Dionysiac , , fire n , –, –, , –, , , gigantomachy –, – journey n , light and darkness , –, military , , , –, , –, –, –, , –, – solar , – storms , , , –, , – triumphal , , see also similes intertextuality –, , , , –, , –, , , –, –, n , – Invidia , – Io , –, Iphigenia , , Jahn, P Jason Jermyn, L A S Julius Caesar , –, , Juno , , n , , Jupiter , , , , n , , –, , , –, , , , , –, –, , –, , , , –, , n , , , n , , ; see also Zeus Kristeva, J n labor , , , –, defined – in Aratus – in Hesiod –, –, , in Lucretius , –, , , , , , , , , in Roman ideology –, –, , , , , in the Georgics , , , , , –, –, , , , , –, , Lapiths n , , , Latona Lau, D – laudes Galli laudes Italiae , , , n , , –, , –, Leander , , , , Liber , –; see also Bacchus Libya –, Livy locus amoenus , , love, see amor Lucretius –, agriculture in , –, –, –, n , –, –, , , , , –, , animals in –, , , , culture-history in –, –, , , , , –, –, , , –, – cycle of growth and decay in –, –, , , , , , , death in –, , –, , , , , –, , – Lucretius (cont.) formulae in , , , , n , gods in , , , , , , , , , , , , –, labor in , –, , , , , , , , , laws of nature in , n , –, , , , mirabilia in –, –, n , myth in , –, , –, –, –, –, , , natura in , , , , , , , , , , , , politics in –, –, , –, , –, – praise of, in Georgics finale , religion in –, , , , –, –, , , –, –, , war in –, , , , , , –, , –, – Luna , Lympha – Maecenas , , makarismos –, , –, , , , Mars n , , n , , , , horses of , , , Medes Melampus n , , Memmius – metamorphosis –, , –, , , , metempsychosis , metus –, , , –, n , , –, , –, –, –, , , –, , , , , – Minerva –, , , n , –, n ; see also Athene mirabilia , n , in Lucretius –, –, n , in the Georgics , , –, –, –, –, – monsters –, , –, n , , –, n , , , , , , – Muses , , n , , n , n , , , , Mynors, R A B mysteries , , myth in Lucretius , –, , –, –, –, –, , , in the Georgics –, , –, –, , , – Naples Narcissus n natura n , n , , , , , , , , , , –, , , , , Neikos – Neptune –, Nicander , , n , n nightingale , – Nisus –, , Nyctimene –, nymphs , , n , , n , Octavian , , –, –, , , –, , , , , –, , –, , –, , , Odysseus , olives , , , , –, , , , , oppositio in imitando optimism , , , , , , , , , Orpheus , –, n , n , , , –, , n , –, , , –, n , otium –, , , , , , , , Otus Ovid n , n , –, , –, n , n , n Palaephatus n Pales , Pan , , n , , Pandion Pandora paradoxography –, , n , n Parry, A n Parthenope Parthians , Pasiphae n Pasquali, G pastoral , –, , , , n , , , –, , –, , , – Penelope Perses personification n , , , , , , , , , , ; see also anthropomorphism pessimism , n , , , , , , Phaethon , –, , , Philia – Philippi , Philodemus n Philomela n , – Philyra n , , Pindar –, , plague –, , –, , –, , , –, –, , , –, –, n , , , , , –, n , , , Plato , , n Pliny n , , poetry and poetics –, –, , , , , –, , –, –, –, –, –, politics in Lucretius –, –, , –, , –, – in the Georgics , , , –, –, –, –, , – polyphony , n , , , , , Porphyry portents –, n , , –, praise of spring –, , – prayer , , –, , –, , primitivism –, , , Procne – proems , –, , , – book –, book –, –, , –, book –, –, , , –, , , – book , , in Lucretius –, –, , , , , , , , , , , , n , , –, , , , , , ‘proems in the middle’ –, Proetides Prometheus –, , –, , pronoia Propertius n , , Proteus , –, , – providentialism , , –, , –, –, , –, , –, , Pythagoras , –, n recusatio religion in Cicero’s De Natura Deorum in Lucretius –, , , n , , –, –, , , –, –, , , n in the Georgics , , , , , –, –, –, –, , –, , – remythologization , –, , Robigo – Romulus and Remus , , Ross, D O , , Sabines , Sallust , n Saturn , , , , –, , , , Scepticism Schaăfer, S n , n Scipio Scylla n , –, , Scythia –, , – Sellar, W Y – Servius n , n , n , , , n , n , n , , , sex, see amor sheep –, –, , , , , – Sicily Silvanus , n similes , , , , , , , –, , , , –, –, , –, , Sirens Siro Sisyphus n , Sol sphragis , –, , , , , , , Stoicism , , –, , , , , , –, n , n , – storms , , –, , , , –, , , , , – Strabo Tantalus n , Tarentum n , – Tartarus n , , , Telemachus Tellus , Tereus thaumata, see mirabilia Theocritus n , Theophrastus , n , n , n , n , n. Thomas, R F –, n , n , n , , , n , , , , Thucydides n , , , Thyrsis Tisiphone n , , , , Tityos Tityrus , , , , trees , , , –, , , , , , , , –, , , –, –, , ; see also olives, vines tricolon , Triptolemus , , Typhoeus –, Underworld n , –, , n , , , , ; see also Tartarus Varro , –, n , n , , n , , n , n , , n , n , n , Venus , n , –, –, , , , , , , –, , n , n , –, , , , ; see also Aphrodite vines , –, , , , , –, , , , , –, ; see also wine Virgil and Aratus , , , –, , , –, , , , –, , , –, , , , , , and Callimachean poetics , , , –, , , , and Ennius –, n , n , n and Hesiod , , , , –, , , , , , , –, , –, , n , –, , and Homer , , n , , , –, , , n , –, – and Octavian , –, , , , –, , –, , and Scepticism – as Parthenias n as pastoral figure , , Epicurean studies under Siro reception of Lucretius –, –, –, –, –, –, , , –, , –, –, –, , , , –, , , , , –, –, Vitruvius vituperatio vitis –, , –, , war and agriculture , , –, –, and poetry –, , – and Roman ideology , , , – civil war –, , , , –, n , , , , , , –, , –, – in agricultural writers –, in Homer in Lucretius –, , , , , , –, , –, – in presocratic philosophy – in Roman elegy in the Georgics –, , , –, –, , , –, Octavian as warrior , , , , , , , –, , , Peloponnesian War Punic Wars , Trojan War , see also imagery, military weather signs , , , , , –, , , Wilkinson, L P – Wills, J wine –, , , , , , , , Xenophanes n , n Xenophon Xerxes Zeus n , n , , , –, , , –, –, ; see also Jupiter zoogony , , , , –, ... both traditional Roman religion and the more sophisticated philosophical theologies of the Stoics and others fall squarely under the latter heading Hence, the nature of the gods and their relationship... College, Dublin She is the author of Myth and Poetry in Lucretius () XXXXXX VI GIL ON T H E NA TU E OF THINGS The Georgics, Lucretius and the Didactic Tradition Monica Gale Trinity College,... Lucretius on the thought, composition and even the diction of the Georgics’, through Wilkinson’s straightforwardly biographical account of Virgil s enthusiastic reaction to the publication of