The ulster renaissance poetry in belfast 1962 1972

THE ULSTER RENAISSANCE This page intentionally left blank The Ulster Renaissance Poetry in Belfast 1962–1972 HEATHER CL ARK Great Clarendon Street, Oxford OX2 6DP Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide in Oxford New York Auckland Cape Town Dar es Salaam Hong Kong Karachi Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Nairobi New Delhi Shanghai Taipei Toronto With offices in Argentina Austria Brazil Chile Czech Republic France Greece Guatemala Hungary Italy Japan Poland Portugal Singapore South Korea Switzerland Thailand Turkey Ukraine Vietnam Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries Published in the United States by Oxford University Press Inc., New York © Heather Clark 2006 The moral rights of the author have been asserted Database right Oxford University Press (maker) First published 2006 All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics rights organization Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above You must not circulate this book in any other binding or cover and you must impose the same condition on any acquirer British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Data available Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Clark, Heather L The Ulster renaissance : poetry in Belfast, 1962–1972 / Heather L Clark p cm Includes bibliographical references (p ) and index ISBN-13: 978–0–19–928731–4 (alk paper) ISBN-10: 0–19–928731–7 (alk paper) English poetry—Irish authors—History and criticism English poetry— Northern Ireland—Belfast—History and criticism English poetry—20th century—History and criticism Belfast (Northern Ireland)—Intellectual life—20th century Ulster (Northern Ireland and Ireland)—In literature Belfast (Northern Ireland)—In literature I Title PR8761C53 2006 821Ј.9140994167—dc22 2005036615 Typeset by Newgen Imaging Systems (P) Ltd., Chennai, India Printed in Great Britain on acid-free paper by Biddles Ltd., King’s Lynn, Norfolk ISBN 0–19–928731–7 978–0–19–928731–4 10 For my parents, Mark and Cheryl Clark, with love This page intentionally left blank Acknowledgements First and foremost, I wish to thank Professor Jon Stallworthy, Wolfson College, Oxford, who oversaw this project in its dissertation form If this study is at all valuable, it is due in no small measure to Professor Stallworthy’s wise guidance and unfailing support One could not ask for a more generous or conscientious supervisor I would also like to thank Seamus Heaney, Michael Longley, Paul Muldoon, Derek Mahon, and Janice Simmons for answering my questions and for kindly allowing me to quote from unpublished letters and manuscripts held at the Special Collections Archive at Emory University, where Stephen Ennis, Kathy Shoemaker, Teresa Burk, and Gavin Drummond offered invaluable help Others to whom I am grateful for assistance include Terence Brown, George Watson, Bernard O’Donoghue, Seamus Deane, Hugh Haughton, Tom Paulin, Louis Asekoff, Frank Ormsby, and, in particular, the late Philip Hobsbaum In addition, I wish to thank Oxford University and Emory University for scholarships which allowed me to pursue research in Dublin and Atlanta; the Harvard Club of the United Kingdom for financial assistance while at Oxford; Lincoln College, Oxford, for providing an idyllic environment in which to live and work; my OUP readers for their helpful suggestions; Paul Gregg for opening his home to me in Dublin; my colleagues at Marlboro College, especially Laura D’Angelo, for their support; the librarians at Rice Library, Marlboro College, for research assistance; and Gavin and Kate Drummond for their hospitality in Atlanta Finally, I am deeply grateful to my husband Nathan for editing several drafts of this book, as well as for his continual encouragement and love I would like to thank The Random House Group Ltd for permission to quote ‘Birthmarks’ from Poems 1963–1983 by Michael Longley, published by Secker & Warburg, 1991, and ‘To Derek Mahon’ and ‘No Continuing City’ from Selected Poems, by Michael Longley, published by Jonathan Cape, 1998 I am grateful to Faber and Faber Ltd for permission to quote the following poems by Seamus Heaney: ‘The Ministry of Fear’ (North, 1975); ‘The Peninsula’ (Door into the Dark, 1969); ‘Lovers on Aran’ (Death of a Naturalist, 1966); and ‘Bye-Child’ (Wintering Out, 1972) Thanks also to Roisin McAuley and Zinzan Productions for viii Acknowledgements allowing me to quote from ‘Hobsbaum’s Choice’ Parts of Chapter appeared in The Cambridge Quarterly, 31: (Mar 2002) and Eire-Ireland, 38: 1–2 (Summer 2003) H.C Cambridge, Massachusetts September 2005 Contents List of Illustrations x Introduction 1 Beginnings 15 The Belfast Group 43 Renaissance 72 ‘Genuine Accents’ 104 ‘MacSimmittoon’ 142 Separate Selves 173 Bibliography Index 208 233 Bibliography 231 Watson, George, ‘The Narrow Ground: Northern Poets and the Northern Ireland Crisis’, in Masaru Sekine (ed.), Irish Writers and Society at Large (Gerrards Cross: Colin Smythe, 1985), 207–24 Wills, Clair, Improprieties: Politics and Sexuality in Northern Irish Poetry (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993) Wilson, A N., ‘A Bloodless Miss’, review of The Penguin Book of Contemporary British Poetry, ed Blake Morrison and Andrew Motion, Spectator, 27 Nov 1982 Wroe, Nicholas, ‘Middle Man’, Guardian, 21 Aug 2004, Review, 12–15 York, Richard, ‘Louis MacNeice and Derek Mahon’, in Kathleen Devine and Alan J Peacock (eds.), Louis MacNeice and His Influence (Gerrards Cross: Colin Smythe, 1998), 85–98 This page intentionally left blank Index Adorno, Theodor 171, 193 AE, see George Russell Akhmatova, Anna 26 Allen, Michael 55, 68, 106–8, 123, 186 Allen, Walter 87 Allingham, William 118 Allison, Jonathan 106 Alvarez, A 26, 85, 136, 192 Amis, Kingsley 50, 51, 90 Aran Islands 160–8, 176 Arts Council of Great Britain 88 n 55, 116–17 Arts Council of Northern Ireland 8, 10, 28, 76, 87–8, 144–5, 178–9 Honest Ulsterman, patronage of 98, 144, 145 n sponsorship of poetry tours 81, 84 support of Ulster literary magazines 145 n support of Ulster writers 145 n Asekoff, Louis 31 Atlantis 193–4 Auden, W H 7, 29, 46, 50, 127–31, 136, 140, 152 Letters from Iceland 184 Banister, Rodney 47 Banville, John 151 n 24 Baudelaire, Charles 24 BBC 2, 49, 52, 69, 74, 76, 86, 89–90, 93–5, 138, 202–3 The Arts in Ulster programme 90, 121 as employer of Belfast poets 121–2, 150–1, 179, 182 and exclusion of Catholics 120 ‘The Northern Drift’ programme 86 and regionalism 120–2 ‘Soundings’ 150–1 Beat poets 88 Beckett, Samuel 29 Belfast Festival 69, 73–4, 77–8, 80, 86, 142, 176, 182 Belfast Festival pamphlet series 74, 76, 80, 84, 142–3 Belfast Group workshop 1–7, 9, 13, 43–4, 52–71, 76, 87, 101, 176, 206; see also Belfast poetry coterie discussion format 54–5, 57, 61–2 favoured aesthetic 62–71 as forum for cultural exploration 61, 142 founding members 55 Philip Hobsbaum, as chairman of 1–4, 6, 8, 12–13, 42–4, 52–71, 73, 101, 121, 142, 176 as label 1, 6–7 later additions 55 F R Leavis, influence of 54–5, 62, 68 and mutual influence 161 and provincial identity 44, 64 resentment towards 175–6 and rivalry 68 and Ulster Renaissance 142 Belfast poetry coterie 1–14, 57, 65, 68, 96–8, 99, 177, 202; see also Belfast Group workshop American influences 106–8 American poetry scene, criticism of 108–11 and ‘Belfast Group’ label 1, 6–7 and Belfast Group workshop 52–71 and collaboration 7–10, 156–72, 180, 191 and Dublin 22–30, 28 n 67, 65, 76–80, 104, 119, 153–6 English influences 77, 105–6, 108 and formalism 104–6 and group promotion 142–56 Honest Ulsterman, identification with 143 influence of John Hewitt 7, 104, 112–13, 122–7, 141 influence of Louis MacNeice 7, 104, 127–41 mutual influence 156–72 and Northern aesthetic 105–6, 111, 113, 141–2; see also regionalism poetic influences 7; see also Seamus Heaney; Philip Hobsbaum; Michael Longley; Derek Mahon; Paul Muldoon; James Simmons and provincial identity 44 and regionalism 106, 126–8, 153–6 resentment towards 175–7 234 Index Belfast poetry coterie (cont.): reviews of 151–3, 151 n 24, 152 n 30 and rivalry 175–207, 206 and the Troubles 11–12, 172–5 The Bell 118–19, 119 n 78 Bell, Sam Hanna 43, 91–3, 112, 115–16, 119 n 78, 120–1, 144, 151 n 24 Betjeman, John 92 Bhabha, Homi 164 Bloody Sunday 11, 69, 101, 175, 189–90 Bloom, Harold 2, 14, 131–3 The Anxiety of Influence 2, 14, 132 Blunt, Anthony 136 Bly, Robert 188 Boddy, Michael 48 Bodley Head, the 96 Boland, Eavan 43, 153 Door into the Dark, review of 85 and Field Day 198 and Eamon Grennan 32 and literary sexism 29 and Michael Longley 33, 79–80 and Derek Mahon 28–30, 33, 79 and ‘The Northern Writers’ Crisis of Conscience’ 173–4 and Trinity coterie 65 Bond, John 55 Boyd, John 5, 112, 115, 118, 120–1, 178, 202 Boyle, John 20–1 Braidwood, John 37 Brautigan, Richard 99 Brearton, Fran 68, 72, 105, 107, 164 n 72, 171 n 101 Brecht, Bertolt 24 Bredin, Hugh 55 Brooke, Sir Basil, see Lord Brookeborough Brookeborough, Lord 20, 52, 119 Brown, Terence 105–6, 123, 128–9, 167 Brownjohn, Alan 49, 106 Bull, Iris 55 Buller, Norman 55 Burroughs, William 98 Butler Education Act 37, 88 n 55 Butter, Peter 41 Buxton, Rachel 85 n 45, 106 The Calendar of Modern Letters 45–6 Cambridge Group 47–8 Campbell, Joseph 118 Camus, Albert 25, 29–30 Capella 80 n 31 Carey, John 206 Carson, Ciaran 13, 14, 55, 69, 102–3, 149, 194–5, 206 ‘Farset’ 14 Chadbon, John 98 Chambers, Harry 55, 74 n 12, 76, 90, 143 Chaucer, Geoffrey 31, 36 civil rights movement 72, 87, 95–6, 101, 188–90 Clarke, Austin 26, 33, 53 Coleridge, Samuel Taylor 3, collaboration, see Belfast poetry coterie; Belfast Group workshop Connolly, James 20 Conquest, Robert 50 Corcoran, Neil 3, 118, 129, 137 n 170, 138–9, 149 n 19, 204, 206 n 117 Corkery, Daniel 205 Cowan, Joe 18 Crane Bag 194, 197–9 Crane, Hart 24, 108, 154 Criterion 46 cummings, e.e 23–4, 28, 108 Dante Alighieri Davidson, Donald 46 Davie, Donald 50–1 Davis, Tony 47 Dawe, Gerald 162–3, 200 Day Lewis, Cecil 136 Deane, Seamus 6, 7, 40, 80, 127, 182 n 31, 194 and Atlantis 193–4 and Belfast poetry coterie 143 early pamphlets 74 and Field Day 197–9, 201 poetic influences 37–9 at St Columb’s 36–37 and Seamus Heaney 12, 15, 36–42, 105, 190 Dedalus, Stephen 30, 36, 50, 92, 134, 141, 169; see also James Joyce de la Mare, Walter 21 Delta 48–9 Dickinson, Emily 7, 106 dinnseanchas 124 Dodds, E R 127 Dolmen Press 26, 75 Donne, John 31, 169 Doolittle, Hilda Douglas, Keith 105 Index Drummond, Gavin 184, 185 n 39, 186 n 44 Dryden, John 184 Dublin-Belfast rivalry, see Belfast poetry coterie Dublin literary scene, see Belfast poetry coterie Dublin Magazine 77, 79–80 Dugdale, Norman 55, 70 Dunn, Douglas 147 n 17, 151 n 24 Durcan, Paul 28 n 67, 152, 155 Eliot, T S 8–9, 38, 46 n 9, 51, 60, 106 Collected Poems 60 ‘The Waste Land’ Emerson, Ralph Waldo 106 Emmerson, Michael 73–4 Empson, William 46, 51, 62 Eric Gregory Award 74, 76–7, 80 Evans, Estyn 123 n 97 Ewart, Gavin 91, 103, 194 existentialism 25, 30, 135 Faber and Faber 74–5, 84–5 Fallon, Peter 80 n 31, 187 n 46 Ferguson, Samuel 118 Fiacc, Padraic 78, 81, 85, 90, 93 Field Day 13, 103, 127, 197–203 First World War 15, 17, 56, 105–6 Flanagan, T P 112 Foley, Michael 57, 93, 97–9, 100–1, 143, 148, 155, 175–8, 194 Forster, E M., see Howard’s End Foster, John Wilson 123 Foster, R F 52, 72–3 Friel, Brian 73, 127, 197, 200–2 Translations 198, 200 Frost, Robert 7, 38, 64, 85, 104, 106–7, 123–4, 150 ‘The Gift Outright’ 107 Fuller, Roy 50 Gallagher, Maurice 55 Gallen, John 112 Gascoyne, David 50 Gide, André 25 Ginsberg, Allen 108–9 Glob, P V The Bog People 189 Gonne, Maud 21 Gorgon 39, 40 Graham, W S 62–3 ‘The Nightfishing’ 62–3 235 Graves, Robert 24, 150 Greacen, Robert 112, 115–16, 118, 121, 144–5, 202 Northern Harvest 115 Greene, Graham 92 Gregory, Lucille 55 Grennan, Eamon 19, 28 n 67, 31–2, 35 Guevara, Che 95 Gunn, Thom 50–1 Hall, Donald 3, 26, 69 Hammond, David 73, 81, 85, 88, 112, 121, 150, 195, 197 Hardy, Thomas 37 Harland & Wolff shipyard 19 Harrison, Tony 58, 87, 91, 93, 194 Aikin Mata: The Lysistrata of Aristophanes 87 Hartnett, Michael 28 n 67 Harvey, John 55, 74 Hazlitt, William 37, 38 Heaney, Marie 55, 59, 69, 112, 145 Heaney, Seamus American audience 200 American influences 38, 106, 108, 188–9 American poetry scene, criticism of 108–11 Anglo-Saxon poetry, influence of 37 and the Aran Islands 160–3 and the BBC 121–2, 150–1 Belfast Festival, participation in 73, 80–1 Belfast Group workshop, chairmanship of 8, 12, 68–9, 81 Belfast Group workshop, participation in 1, 6, 7, 13, 42–3, 53, 54, 58, 61–4, 70–1 Belfast Group workshop, as star of 63–4, 66, 177 and Belfast poetry coterie 1–14, 42, 85, 105, 141, 143, 145–52, 155–8, 160–2, 164, 168–72, 158, 177, 191, 206–7 and Catholic identity 38–9, 72–3, 81, 106, 123, 126 n 106, 169, 174, 189–91, 198–200 and collaborative exchange 8, 105, 158 and contempt for pretension n 22 and Seamus Deane 12, 15, 36–42, 190 Dublin literary scene, involvement in 77, 80 early fame 69, 75, 77, 81, 86, 177 236 Index Heaney, Seamus (cont.): early publications 53, 74, 81 and the efficacy of art 73 and T S Eliot 60 English poetic influences 37–8, 53, 77, 105–6, 108 and Field Day 127, 197–200, 202 and formalism 105 Robert Frost, influence of 64, 85, 106–7 group identity, uneasiness with 4, 8, 86, 191–2 at Harvard 200, 206 and John Hewitt 53, 112–13, 122–7 and Philip Hobsbaum 53–4, 55, 58, 64–7, 69–71 Honest Ulsterman, contributor to 93, 194 hostile reviews of 85, 156, 194–5 and Ted Hughes 53, 85, 162 identification with Michael Longley and Derek Mahon 57, 88–9, 101, 150–1, 177, 182, 192 and insecurity 2, 24, 60, 65–7, 70 and Irish literature 40, 53 and Patrick Kavanagh 53, 73, 137–8 and Michael Longley 10, 56–7, 65–6, 68, 70, 81–4, 127, 141, 145–7, 150–1, 157–8, 162, 174–5, 195–7, 206–7 and Louis MacNeice 40, 53, 122–3, 127–9, 134, 136–41 and Derek Mahon 36, 57, 65–6, 70, 84, 127, 141, 150–1, 154, 157–8, 174–5 modernism, distrust of 60, 85 and Paul Muldoon 84, 141, 157–8, 204, 206 Nobel Prize award 41, 206–7 Northern aesthetic, proponent of 105, 112–13 and Northern reticence 61 and Northern Review 76 poetic influences 7, 37–8, 53, 104–41, 157–8, 160–2, 164, 168–72, 158, 188–9 poetry readings and tours 81–5, 88 and political optimism 72–3, 81, 96 political pessimism 73, 103, 189 and provincial identity 2, 36, 44, 60, 82 and Queen’s University Belfast 37–40, 76, 81, 84, 112 and regionalism 112–13, 126, 202 ‘renaissance’, use of 71, 74, 76 resentment towards 175–80 residence abroad 10, 69, 109, 111, 123, 168, 180, 188–91 and rural themes 40, 53, 75–6, 84, 123–6 at St Columb’s 36–7 and James Simmons 70, 174–5, 191–3 Threshold, guest editor of 84–5 and the Troubles 65, 174–5, 189–90 as ‘Ulster poet’ 5, 154 Unionist hegemony, subversion of 37, 61–2, 81, 189 and Yeats 38, 137, 206–7 youth and adolescence 36–7 ‘Act of Union’ 161 ‘An Advancement of Learning’ 53 ‘Aran’ 39 Beowulf 37 ‘Bogland’ 113 ‘Bog Queen’ 205 ‘Broagh’ 204 ‘Bye-Child’ 170–1 ‘Churning Day’ 75, 84 n 39 ‘Clearances’ 136 Death of a Naturalist 1, 64–5, 75–6, 81, 123, 161, 195–6 ‘Death of a Naturalist’ 64–5, 123 ‘Digging’ 84 n 39, 150 n 20 ‘The Diviner’ 75, 84 n 39, 123 Door into the Dark 85, 123, 195 ‘Eel Returning’ 84 n 39 ‘Elegy for a Still-Born Child’ 84 n 39 ‘Follower’ 157, 150 n 20 ‘For the Commander of the Eliza’ 61–2 ‘For Marie’ 84 n 39 ‘Frontiers of Writing’ 107 The Government of the Tongue 72 ‘The Grabaulle Man’ 205 ‘The Harvest Bow’ 197 The Haw Lantern 206 n 118 ‘Honeymoon Flight’ 169 ‘Last Look’ 84 n 39 ‘Letter to an Editor’ 101 ‘The Loaning’ 171 n 100 A Lough Neagh Sequence 74 ‘Lovers on Aran’ 161–2, 164 ‘Mid-Term Break’ 53 ‘The Ministry of Fear’ 38, 40 North 13, 37, 102, 140, 161, 190, 194–5, 201, 203–5 Index ‘October Thought’ 53 An Open Letter 198 n 86, 200 ‘Orange Drums, Tyrone 1966’ 62 ‘The Peninsula’ 56, 84 n 39, 124–6, 168 ‘Personal Helicon’ 158 ‘Poem’ 160 n 61 ‘Postscript’ 125, 168 ‘Punishment’ 204–5 ‘Reaping in Heat’ 40 ‘Requiem for the Croppies’ 84 n 39 ‘Requiem for the Irish Rebels, Wexford, 1798’ 62 ‘Scaffolding’ 160 n 61 ‘Shore Woman’ 161–2 ‘Soliloquy for an Old Resident’ 62 Station Island 205 ‘Station Island’ 171 n 100 ‘Storm on the Island’ 161–3 ‘Synge on Aran’ 161 ‘Thatcher’ 150 ‘The Tollund Man’ 189 ‘Tractors’ 53 ‘Turkeys Observed’ 53 ‘Tweed’ 62 ‘Viking Dublin: Trial Pieces’ 171 n 100 ‘Westering’ 168–9 ‘Whatever You Say, Say Nothing’ 60–1, 171 n 100 ‘Widgeon’ 157, 206 Hederman, Mark Patrick 197–9 Hemingway, Ernest 38 Herbert, George 24, 31 Hewitt, John 7, 12, 28, 43, 53, 73–4, 78, 84 and Belfast poetry coterie 122, 148–9 and Seamus Heaney 53, 75, 112–13, 122–7 and the Honest Ulsterman 90–1, 93, 127 influence on Belfast poets 104, 112–13, 122–7, 179 intellectual influences 114 move to Coventry 122 and Northern aesthetic 107 and Protestant identity 113, 122–3, 125 and Rann 119 n 78 and regionalism 94, 104, 112–16, 118, 121–7, 145, 154, 156, 200–2 and socialism 114 ‘The Alder Stick’ 123 237 Collected Poems 104, 125, 143 ‘The Colony’ 126 ‘Glenariffe and Parkmore’ 124–6 ‘An Irishman in Coventry’ 122 ‘The Witch’ 123 Hibernia 75–6, 77–8, 81, 86, 101, 156, 174 Hicks, Jerry 84 Higgins, F R 138–41, 203 Hill, Geoffrey 82, 92, 104, 110 Hobsbaum, Hannah 54, 59 Hobsbaum, Philip aesthetic sensibility 62–4 Belfast Festival, participation in 73 Belfast Group workshop, chairman of 1–4, 6, 8, 12–13, 42–4, 52–71, 73, 101, 121, 142, 176 and Cambridge Group 47–8 and Delta 48–9, 66 departure from Belfast 158 early youth 45 and Glasgow Group 69 and Seamus Heaney 41, 53–4, 63–7, 69 and the Honest Ulsterman 93 and Ted Hughes 48–9, 51, 66 Jewish identity 59–60 and F R Leavis 45–7, 89, 105 London connections 2, 60, 66, 69 and London Group 48–51 and Philip Larkin 59 and Michael Longley 25, 56–7, 67–8, 181 and Derek Mahon 4, 25, 60, 70 modernism, distrust of 51, 64 and the Movement 51, 64 and Paul Muldoon 84 and the Northern Review 76 provincial identity 59–60, 64 and James Simmons 58, 98, 181 theories of language 63 ‘The Frog Prince’ 64 The Place’s Fault 51, 59, 64 A Theory of Communication 51, 62–3 Hogan, Desmond 103 Holloway, John 50 Honest Ulsterman, the 3, 12, 58, 70, 74, 80–1, 85–103, 152, 174, 206; see also James Simmons Belfast poets, as mouthpiece of 97–9, 148–9 denounced by church 93, 99 238 Index Honest Ulsterman, the (cont.): and Dublin rivalry 80, 155, 178, 193–4 and Louis MacNeice 128 and regionalism 77, 89, 91, 93–5, 97–8, 127, 201 reviews of 91–3, 91 n 67 as target of investigation 98 and the Troubles 95–6, 100–2 and Ulster Renaissance 142 Holzapfel, Rudi 26 Hopkins, Gerard Manley 7, 53 Horton, Patricia 167 Howard’s End 60 Hughes, Eamonn 166 Hughes, Ted 7, 24, 26, 48–9, 51, 66, 82, 104, 121, 192 influence on Seamus Heaney 53, 85, 162 The Hawk in the Rain 162 Lupercal 53 ‘Wind’ 162 ‘The Woman With Such High Heels She Looked Dangerous’ 48 hunger strikes 200–1 Hutchinson, Pearse 26 Huws, Daniel 48 Icarus 23–6, 28, 39–40, 77 Industrial Revolution 45 Inst, see Royal Belfast Academical Institution Ireland, Denis 93 Irish America 199–200 Irish Literary Revival 139, 161, 164, 197 Irish Republican Army 17, 81, 95, 188, 199 Jarrell, Randall 38 Jennings, Elizabeth 50 Johnston, Denis 20 Johnston, Dillon 1, 3, 18, 110 n 39 Jones, David 47 Joseph, Rosemary 49 Joyce, James 38, 134, 137, 205; see also Stephen Dedalus Kavanagh, Patrick 7, 18, 20, 25–6, 73, 104–5, 123, 137–8 Come Dance with Kitty Stobling 26 The Great Hunger 53 Kearney, Richard 197 Keats, John 8, 21, 37 Kendall, Tim 85 n 45, 139 n 178, 169 Kennelly, Brendan 26–7, 30, 43, 65, 80, 90–1, 93, 97, 153, 155, 194 Kilroy, Thomas 197 Kinsella, Thomas 6, 26, 33, 53 Kirkland, Richard 44 n 4, 92 n 73, 100, 105, 127, 155–6, Lagan 112, 117 Larkin, Philip 7, 24, 26, 50–1, 59, 77–8, 82, 104, 110, 135, 150 The Less Deceived 24, 77–8 The Whitsun Weddings 24 Lawrence, D H 24, 93 Leavis, F R 45–7, 54, 89, 95, 105–6 Culture and Environment 45 Lefevere, André 132 Leitch, Maurice 90 Lemass, Sean 52 Lerner, Laurence 37, 40 Levenson, Christopher 47 Lewis, Cecil Day 86 Lodge, David 45, 50 London Group 48–51, 106 Longley, Edna and Belfast Group workshop 42–3, 52, 55–6, 59 and Belfast poetry coterie 6, 14, 68, 148–9, 196–7 Belfast poetry, as scholar of 3, 14, 106, 108, 206 and Crane Bag 198–200, 203–4 criticism of American poetry scene 111 n 46 criticism of North 195, 203–5 Door into the Dark, review of 85, 195 and Dublin rivalry 154–5, 155 n 41 and Field Day 198–200, 203–4 and Seamus Heaney 195–7, 203–4 on intertextuality 11 and Michael Longley 68, 108, 165, 180, 196–7 and Louis MacNeice 128, 131 and Derek Mahon 32, 34–5, 108, 152, 159, 165 and Paul Muldoon 84, 203–5 and James Simmons 93, 95, 99–100, 180 at Trinity 28, 65, 108 Longley, Michael American influences 107–8 American poetry scene, criticism of 108–11 Index and Aran Islands 160–5, 167–8 and Arts Council of Northern Ireland 19, 96, 130, 143–5, 201, 206 and the BBC 121–2 Belfast Festival, participation in 73, 80 and Belfast Group workshop 1, 2, 6, 7, 42–3, 55–7, 59, 61–2, 162 and Belfast Group workshop, hostility to 3, 53–4, 62 and Belfast Group workshop, influence of 67 and Belfast poetry coterie 1–14, 42, 68–9, 105, 143–72, 177, 196, 207 and Eavan Boland 33, 43, 65, 79–80 and the classics 18, 22–3, 25, 27, 43 and collaborative exchange 6–7, 105, 156–72, 180 and cummings, e e 23–4 and Dublin literary scene 22–30, 28 n 67, 65, 77–80 early fame 74, 77, 81, 86 early pamphlets 74 and efficacy of art 10, 11, 96, 147, 174 n and English influences 77, 82, 105–6, 108 and European poetry 26 and father 16–17, 56 and First World War 17, 56, 174 n and formalism 104–6 group identity, uneasiness with 3, 8, 19, 86 and Seamus Heaney 11, 33, 56, 66–7, 68, 70, 81–4, 145–7, 150–1, 157–8, 162–3, 173–5, 195–7, 206–7 and John Hewitt 28, 112–13, 122, 127 and Geoffrey Hill 82, 110 and Philip Hobsbaum 25, 56–7, 67–8, 181 and the Honest Ulsterman 90, 93, 98–9, 103, 194 hostile reviews of 156 and Ted Hughes 24, 26, 82 identification with Seamus Heaney and Derek Mahon 57, 88–9, 101, 150–1, 177, 182 and Inst 17–19, 21–2, 81 and Irish literature 18, 24, 26 and Irishness 22–3, 56, 185 n 39 and Patrick Kavanagh 25–6, 73 and Brendan Kennelly 43, 26–7, 65, 80 239 and Thomas Kinsella 26 and music 21, 84 and Philip Larkin 24, 26, 77, 82, 110 ‘Letters’ controversy 183–8 and Robert Lowell 24, 107–8 and Louis MacNeice 24–6, 28, 112, 122, 127–31, 134–6, 138, 140–1, 162, 164 and Derek Mahon 11, 12, 15, 21, 24–8, 30–6, 43, 68, 70, 86, 145–7, 150–2, 159–60, 173–5, 183–8 and John Montague 26 and the Movement 105 and Paul Muldoon 68, 84, 157, 203 and Richard Murphy 26 Night-Crossing, review of 35, 151 and Northern aesthetic 105–6, 113 Northern poetry, promotion of 76, 98–9, 143–56 and Northern Review 76 and Wilfred Owen 174 n poetic influences 7, 20, 23–4, 26, 67, 77, 81, 123, 104–41, 147 n 17, 157–72 poetry readings and tours 27, 81–5 and political optimism 72, 74 Protestant identity 18, 22–3, 25, 61–2, 163, 167–8, 173–5, 185–6, 200 and provincial isolation 2, 43 and regionalism 113, 153–6, 202 resentment towards 175–6 and rivalry 10, 13–14 and ‘schizoid’ identity 12, 15–16, 18–19, 62, 104, 136, 164–5 and James Simmons 11, 70, 99, 145–7, 152, 179–82, 185 and Edward Thomas 25 at Trinity 22–8, 65, 108 the Troubles, reaction to 11, 17, 170, 173–5, 185, 189 as ‘Ulster poet’ 5, 18–19, 86, 153 and the west of Ireland 162–3 and writing blocks 34, 183 and Yeats 21, 24, 174 n youth and adolescence 15–19, 17 n ‘Alibis’ 164 An Exploded View 146, 157, 183 ‘Birthmarks’ (originally titled ‘To Derek Mahon’) 33, 62, 146, 170–2 ‘Carrigskeewaun’ 163 Causeway 127, 143, 145 ‘Christopher at Birth’ 68, 84 n 39, 150 n 20 240 Index Longley, Michael (cont.): ‘Circe’ 108, 158 ‘Dr Johnson on the Hebrides’ 33, 68, 84 n 39, 162 The Echo Gate 152 ‘Elegy for Fats Waller’ 68, 84 n 39, 150 n 20 ‘Emily Dickinson’ 33, 56, 84 n 39, 150 n 20 ‘Epithalamion’ 84 n 39 ‘For Derek, Seamus & Jimmy’ 146–7 ‘The Freemartin’ 33 ‘Freeze-Up’ 84 n 39 ‘Gathering Mushrooms’ 68 ‘The Hebrides’ 62, 108, 131, 161–2, 164 n 72 ‘In Memoriam’ 17, 150 n 20 ‘The Island’ 161–3 ‘Lares’ 123 n 97 ‘Leaving Inishmore’ 33, 62, 84 n 39, 131, 158 n 54, 161–2, 164–5 ‘Letters’ 147, 147 n 17, 183 ‘The Linen Industry’ 131, 197 ‘The Linen Workers’ 140 ‘Lore’ 163 Louis MacNeice: Selected Poems 130, 135, 141 ‘Narcissus’ 33 No Continuing City 68, 85, 164 ‘No Continuing City’ 159–60 ‘The Osprey’ 84 n 39 ‘Persephone’ 158 ‘Questionairre for Walter Mitty’ 56 ‘Remembrance Day’ 84 n 39 ‘River and Fountain’ 42 Secret Marriages 74 ‘To Derek Mahon’ (part of ‘Letters’ sequence) 161, 164, 167–8, 186–8 ‘The West’ 163 ‘A Working Holiday’ 33 ‘Wounds’ 17 Lowell, Robert 7, 24, 26, 104, 106–8, 206 Near the Ocean 107 Lucie-Smith, Edward 49, 51, 69 Lynch, Patrick 76 Lynd, Robert 115 Lyric Theatre, Belfast 20, 52, 100 McAuley, Roisin, ‘Hobsbaum’s Choice’ 43–4, 47–9, 55, 57 MacBeth, George 49, 74 McCroskery, Lynette 55 MacDiarmid, Hugh 150 McDonald, Peter 128, 163 McFadden, Roy 43, 52, 78, 112, 115, 117–18, 119 n 78, 121, 145 McGahern, John 93 McGann, Jerome 158 McGee, Dan 55 McGough, Roger 91, 93, 95 McGuckian, Medbh 13, 149, 206 McKinley, John 118 MacLaverty, Bernard 43–4 55, 57–8 Cal 58 McLaverty, Michael 43, 75, 112, 115, 117, 121 MacNeice, Louis 14, 50, 87, 118, 152, 167 and the BBC 122 biographical details of 133 death of 73 and Englishness 133 F R Higgins, BBC debate with 138–9, 203 influence on Belfast poets 7, 12, 104, 113, 122, 127–41 influence on Seamus Heaney 40, 53, 123, 127–9, 134, 136–41 influence on Michael Longley 18, 20, 24–6, 28, 66, 112, 127–31, 134–6, 138, 140–1, 162, 164, 184 influence on Derek Mahon 24–6, 29, 66, 112, 127–9, 130–2, 134, 141, 184 influence on James Simmons 128, 134 and Irishness 128–30, 133, 137, 140–1, 167 and regionalism 145, 202 and Thirties poets 129–30, 136 ‘August’ 136 Autumn Journal 130–1, 134, 136 Autumn Sequel 26, 130 ‘Belfast’ 14, 130–1, 134–5 ‘Birmingham’ 136 ‘Carrick Revisited’ 128, 137, 140–1 ‘The Casualty’ 130 ‘The Closing Album’ 130 Collected Poems 40, 104, 118, 127–8 ‘Day of Returning’ 130–1 ‘Death of an Actress’ 128, 130 ‘The Dowser’ 128 ‘The Hebrides’ 16 ‘Leaving Barra’ 131, 161, 164 Index Letters from Iceland 184 ‘Letter to Graham and Anna’ 135 ‘The Mayfly’ 128, 130–1 ‘The Mixer’ 130 ‘Morning Sun’ 136 ‘Prayer Before Birth’ 128 Selected Poems 130, 135, 141 ‘Snow’ 128, 132, 136 ‘Suite for Recorders’ 140 Ten Burnt Offerings 26 ‘Trains in the Distance’ 130 ‘Turf-Stacks’ 128 ‘Valediction’ 134 MacSimmittoon 145–6 MacSpaunday, see Thirties poets Magee, Wes 143 Mahon, Derek American influences 24, 26, 107–9 American poetry scene, criticism of 108–11 and Aran Islands 160–1, 165–6 and Arts Council of Northern Ireland 144 and Atlantis 193–4 Belfast Festival, participation in 80 and Belfast Group workshop 1, 2, 4, 6, 7, 43, 55, 57, 70 and Belfast Group workshop, hostility towards 4, 53–4 and Belfast poetry coterie 1–14, 6, 105, 143, 148–61, 163, 165–8, 170–2, 158, 177, 207 and Eavan Boland 28–30, 33, 65 in Cambridge, Massachusetts 31–3, 35 in Canada 31, 35, 43 and collaborative exchange 158, 180 and Hart Crane 24, 108, 158 and Dublin literary scene 22–30, 65, 77, 80 early fame 74, 77, 80–1 early pamphlets 74, 80 English influences 77, 108 English reviews of 156 and European poetry 26 and formalism 19, 34, 104–5 and French literature 25, 27, 29–30 group identity, uneasiness with 8, 86, 202 and Seamus Heaney 33, 36, 57, 66, 70, 80–1, 84, 150–1 and John Hewitt 113, 122, 127 and Philip Hobsbaum 60, 70 and the Honest Ulsterman 90–1, 93 241 identification with Seamus Heaney and Michael Longley 57, 88–9, 101, 150–1, 177, 182 at Inst 20–2 and Irish literature 13, 20, 24, 26, 29 and Irishness 20–3 and Patrick Kavanagh 26, 73 and Brendan Kennelly 26–7, 30, 65 and Thomas Kinsella 26 and Philip Larkin 77 and ‘Letters’ controversy 185–8 and Michael Longley 12, 15, 24–8, 30–6, 57, 68, 80, 86, 145–7, 150–1, 159–60, 183–8 and Robert Lowell 24, 26, 107 and Louis MacNeice 24–6, 29, 112, 122, 127–9, 130–2, 134–5, 141 and John Montague 26, 13 n 52 and Paul Muldoon 84, 203 and Richard Murphy 26 and Northern aesthetic 105, 113 Northern poetry, promotion of 104, 142–3, 153–6, 202 and Northern Review 76 in Paris 30–1 as poète maudit 22, 27–8 poetic influences 7, 19–20, 24, 26, 77, 104–41, 158–61, 163, 165–8, 170–2 poetry readings and tours 27, 84–5 Protestant identity 19–23, 25, 163, 167–8, 173–5, 185–6, 200 provincial isolation residency abroad 80 and Dylan Thomas 21, 24 at Trinity 22–9, 65, 108 and the Troubles 173–5 as ‘Ulster poet’ Ulster Renaissance, dismissal of n 2, 187 n 46 and Yeats 20, 24, 29 youth and adolescence 19–22 ‘After the Titanic’ 33 ‘Beyond Howth Head’ 108 ‘Day Trip to Donegal’ 108, 150 n 20 ‘A Disused Shed in Co Wexford’ 140, 171–2 ‘Ecclesiastes’ 36 ‘Girls in Their Seasons’ 34 n 99, 159–60 ‘Grandfather’ 150 n 20 The Hunt by Night 107 242 Index Mahon, Derek (cont.): ‘In Carrowdore Churchyard’ 33, 128 n 116, 131–2, 141 ‘In the Aran Islands’ 161, 165–7 ‘Love Poem’ 24 ‘My Wicked Uncle’ 150 n 20 Night-Crossing 33, 35, 81, 151–2, 161 ‘Nostalgias’ 163 The Penguin Book of Contemporary Irish Poetry 4, 203 ‘The Poets Lie Where They Fell’ 33 ‘A Portrait of the Artist’ 150 n 20 ‘Rathlin’ 161 The Sphere Book of Modern Irish Poetry 187 ‘Subsidy Bungalows’ 24 ‘An Unknown Child’ 34 n 99 ‘What Would You Say If I Were to Tell You Darling’ 34 Mallarmé, Stéphane 38 Marlowe, Christopher 38 metaphysical poets 38 Michie, James 96 Middleton, Colin 112 Miller, Karl 69, 84 Milton, John 31, 37, 70 Mitchell, Michael 55, 76 Mitchell, Rex 55 modernism 50–1, 60, 85 Montague, John and the BBC 121 and Belfast poetry coterie 13, 13 n 52, 80, 143–4, 148–9, 154, 177, 179 and Dublin rivalry 153–4 and the Honest Ulsterman 93, 102–3, 194 as poetic influence 26, 53 poetry tours 84 as ‘Ulster poet’ 86, 154 ‘All Legendary Obstacles’ 26 ‘Like Dolmens Round My Childhood’ 21 ‘The Trout’ 26 Monteith, Charles 75, 84 Moore, Brian 52, 93 Moore, George 100 Morris, Neil 47 Morrison, Blake 5, 7, 50, 117 Movement, the 5, 7, 50–1, 64, 105–6, 117 Muldoon, Paul 55, 63, 69, 74 American poetry scene, criticism of 111 American poetry, influence of 106–7 and the BBC 121 and Belfast poetry coterie 6–14, 143, 148–9, 152, 207 and Catholic identity 106, 169 and collaborative exchange 8, 68, 180 and Field Day 203 first meeting with Seamus Heaney and Michael Longley 84 and formalism 105 group identity, uneasiness with 4–5, 8, 150 and Seamus Heaney 97, 140, 156–7, 169, 203–6 and John Hewitt 126–7 and the Honest Ulsterman 85, 89, 93, 96–7, 103, 194 hostile reviews of 156 and literary production and Edna Longley 203–4 and Michael Longley 68, 157, 203 and Louis MacNeice 138–41, 203 and Derek Mahon 203 modernism, distrust of 85 No Continuing City, review of 85 poetic influences 7, 84–5, 104, 106–7, 113, 156 poetry readings and tours 84 at Princeton 206 as Professor of Poetry at Oxford 206 and James Simmons 84, 96–7, 179 ‘Centrepiece’ 96 n 93 ‘Easter Island’ 96 The Faber Book of Contemporary Irish Poetry 138, 141, 203–4 ‘Good Friday, 1971 Driving Westward’ 169 ‘Hedgehog’ 96 n 93 ‘Immram’ 140 ‘January’ 96 Knowing My Place 74 Meeting the British 206 n 118 ‘Meeting the British’ 107 ‘The More a Man Has, the More a Man Wants’ 107, 204–5 New Weather 85 n 45, 152, 157 ‘Poem at Eighteen’ 96 n 93 ‘Rodgers at Loughall’ 96 n 93 ‘Seanchas’ 96 n 93 ‘7 Middagh St.’ 139–41 ‘Snail’ 84 ‘Stillborn’ 84 ‘Taking the Rust’ 96 n 93, 97 Index Mumford, Lewis 114 Murphy, Michael J 75 Murphy, Richard 26, 53 ‘The Cleggan Disaster’ 26 ‘Sailing to an Island’ 26 Myers, Lucas 48 Nationalism 72, 140, 198–201 New Criticism 46 n 9, 105, 110 Newmann, Joan 55, 57, 59, 69, 74, 77, 96 New Northman, the 112 Northern Ireland Education Act 37 Northern Review 76–7, 80, 98, 142, 201 O’Brien, Conor Cruise 195, 198, 202 O’Casey, Sean 154 O’Connor, Frank 20 O’Connor, John 75 O’Donnell, Peadar 75, 119 n 78 O’Donoghue, Bernard 151 n 24 O’Faolain, Sean 118–19, 153 O’Kelly, Sean B 36 O’Malley, Mary 20, 52, 76, 92 O’Neill, Terence 11, 52, 72–3, 173 Ormsby, Frank 69, 93, 97, 101–2, 104, 143, 149, 155, 179, 206 Orr, Peter 132, 159 n 55 Orwell, George 110 Over the Bridge, see Thompson, Sam Owen, Margaret 49 Owen, Wilfred 105 Pakenham, Jack 55, 63–4 Parker, Michael 72, 188 Parker, Stewart 43, 52, 55, 58, 69, 74, 77, 90, 94, 121, 143–4 Paulin, Tom 13, 93, 149, 156, 197–8, 201 Phoenix 74, 76, 80, 90, 107, 143 Plath, Sylvia 48–9, 106 Ariel 108 Poetry Book Society 117 poetry readings and tours 81–5, 87–8, 99 Poet’s House, the 58 Pope, Alexander 184 Porter, Peter 47–9, 66, 151 n 24 Pound, Ezra 3, 8, 9, 70, 106 Propertius, Sextus 25, 27 ‘provincial’ poetry 2, 46, 50, 59, 64, 77, 88, 112, 117–18 Randolph, Jody Allen 243 Rann 5, 43, 112, 117–18, 119 n 78, 121, 145 Ransom, John Crowe 38, 46, 110 Rea, Stephen 197, 202 Redgrove, Peter 47–9, 66 Redmond, John 67 n 118 regionalism 112–128, 145 and the BBC 94–5, 120–1 and Belfast poets 106, 126–8, 153–6 Sir Basil Brooke, as proponent of 119 early proponents of 112, 113–22, 145, 153, 178, 200–2 in England 116–17, 120 and Field Day 200–2 and Seamus Heaney 112, 125–7 and John Hewitt 94, 104, 112–16, 118, 121–7, 145, 154, 156, 200–2 and the Honest Ulsterman 77, 89, 91, 93–5, 97–8, 127, 201 and Protestantism 94, 120, 153, 201 regional poetry 106, 112 regional promotion 76–7, 80, 89, 91, 93–5, 98, 104, 117–22, 128, 142–56 and James Simmons 89, 94–5, 96 n 88, 113, 127, 153, 202 Reid, Alec 25–6 Reid, Forrest Richards, I A 46 Richtarik, Marilynn 197–8, 200–2 Ricks, Christopher 75, 85 Rilke, Rainer Maria 24, 26 Rimbaud, Arthur 24, 51 Rodgers, W R 50, 53, 66, 73, 112, 115, 119 n 78, 128, 145, 202 ‘Room to Rhyme’ poetry tour 81–4, 88 Rosenberg, Isaac 105 Ross, David 48 Royal Belfast Academical Institution 17–18, 20–1 Russell, George 114 Saddlemyer, Ann 190 Said, Edward 10, 12, 61, 198, 201 St Botolph’s Rectory 48 Sands, Bobby 200 Sartre, Jean Paul 30 Sassoon, Siegfried 105 Scrutiny 45–6 Second World War 114–16 sectarianism 37, 52, 61, 70, 72, 94, 96, 98, 124, 139 Shakespeare, William 9, 31, 36, 38 244 Index Sheehy-Skeffington, Owen 25 Shelley, Percy Bysshe 37 Shovlin, Frank 119 n 78 Simmons, James alienation from Belfast poetry scene 87–9, 93, 176–82, 182 n 31 as balladeer 87 and the BBC 121 Belfast Festival, participation in 80 and Belfast Group workshop 1, 2, 6, 7, 43, 55, 58–9, 63, 70 and Belfast poetry coterie 143, 148–9, 176, 179, 185 belief in art as a social force 69, 87, 95–6 and collaborative exchange 180 and Seamus Deane 182 n 31 and Dublin literary scene 77 and Dublin rivalry 155 early fame 81, 86 early pamphlets 74 employment at University of Ahmadu Bello 87 employment at University of Ulster at Coleraine 81, 87 at Friends’ School 87 friendship with Belfast poets 96, 148–9, 179, 185 and Tony Harrison 87–9, 91 and Seamus Heaney 178, 191–3 and John Hewitt 91, 93, 95, 96 n 88, 113, 127 and Philip Hobsbaum 58, 89 and the Honest Ulsterman 12, 58, 70, 81, 86–103, 153, 182, 194 jealousy towards Belfast poets 88–9, 93, 176–82, 193 and Lawrence, D H 93 and Leavis, F R 89 at Leeds University 86–7 and liberal humanism 95–6 and Michael Longley 145–7, 177, 180–2, 185 and Louis MacNeice 122, 128, 134 and Derek Mahon 177 and John Montague 13 n 52, 93 and Paul Muldoon 84, 93, 96–7 and Stewart Parker 94 poetic influences 104, 122 poetry readings and tours 84, 87, 99 and political naiveté 95–6 and populist sensibility 89, 95–7, 176, 194 and Protestant identity 173, 96 n 88 on provincial isolation 2, 43, 58 regionalism, as proponent of 89, 94–5, 96 n 88, 113, 127, 153, 202 and the Troubles 173–5 as ‘Ulster poet’ 86 youth and adolescence 86 Aikin Mata: The Lysistrata of Aristophanes 87 Ballad of a Marriage 58, 93 ‘Flight of the Earls Now Leaving’ 179 In the Wilderness 58, 152 Late But in Earnest 58 Simmons, Laura 86–7, 180 Sinn Fein 173 Sitwell, Edith 50 Smith, Stevie 90–1, 93 Smyth, Paul 55 Snyder, Gary 188 socialism 114 Southey, Robert Spender, Stephen 50, 136, 152 Spenser, Edmund 137 Stallworthy, Jon 136 Stanford, W B 25–6 Stephens, Michael 87, 90–1, 98–9 Stevens, Wallace 24, 38, 106, 108 Stewart, John D 90–1, 99 Stillinger, Jack 8, 158 n 52 Stormont 20, 52 Stronge, Marilyn 55 Sullivan, Robert 55 Sweeney, Jack 32 Swift, Jonathan 31 Synge, Jonathan Millington 40, 160–1, 164, 200 Tate, Allen 38, 39, 46 Tennyson, Alfred Lord 37 Terry, Arthur 55, 63, 74, 93, 99 Thirties poets 129–30, 136, 146, 174 Thomas, Dylan 20 n 19, 21, 24, 50, 150 Thomas, Edward 25, 105 Thompson, Denys 45 Thompson, Sam 100 Threshold 76, 80, 84–5, 89, 91, 125–6, 174, 189 Thwaite, Anthony 192 ‘Tight Assed Trio’ 57, 101 Tomelty, Joseph 112 Toulson, Shirley 49 Index Troubles, the 11–12, 69, 81, 95–6, 98, 101–3, 106, 173–5, 185, 188–91 Turner, W Price 91 Ulster Museum 89 Ulster Renaissance 1, 2, 6, 13, 14, 71, 74, 76, 80, 86, 103, 142, 206 Unionism 18–21, 37, 52, 72–3, 81, 94, 120, 122, 189, 200–1 United Irishmen 16, 17, 20 Valéry, Paul 38 Varsity 47 Vendler, Helen 200 Vietnam War 109, 188 Wain, John 50 Warren, Robert Penn 46 Webster, John 38 Weissbort, Daniel 48 Whitman, Walt 106, 109 Wilbur, Richard 24, 26, 28, 108 245 Wilde, Oscar 41 William, Carlos Williams 3, 106, 108 Wilson, Robert McLiam 200 Wolfe Tone 16 Woodberry Poetry Room 32 Wordsworth, William 3, 7, 8, 37, 124 Wormell, Donald 25, 26 Yeats, William Butler 15, 18, 38, 128–9, 134, 160–1 and Belfast poets 7, 104, 135, 150, 207 and Seamus Heaney 38, 137, 206–7 and John Hewitt 124 and Michael Longley 21, 24, 86 and Derek Mahon 20–1, 24, 86, 154 and Paul Muldoon 139, 206 and James Simmons 96 and vernacular, use of 106 n 16 Collected Poems 21 Responsibilities 139 ‘The Stolen Child’ 20 York, Richard 131–2 ... their in uence on each other during these years Finally, I discuss the discord within the literary community during the North controversy and the Field Day debate Because I am interested in the. .. O’Neill in the mid-sixties and the latent expectation of a more liberal era had much to with the emerging literary renaissance The beginning of violence, on the other hand, marked a setback: in 1972, .. .THE ULSTER RENAISSANCE This page intentionally left blank The Ulster Renaissance Poetry in Belfast 1962 1972 HEATHER CL ARK Great Clarendon Street, Oxford