Ecology and conservation of birds in urban environments

Enrique Murgui · Marcus Hedblom Editors Ecology and Conservation of Birds in Urban Environments Ecology and Conservation of Birds in Urban Environments Enrique Murgui • Marcus Hedblom Editors Ecology and Conservation of Birds in Urban Environments Editors Enrique Murgui G.V Marque´s del Turia Grupo para el Estudio de las Aves Valencia, Valencia Spain Marcus Hedblom Department of Forest Resource Management Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences Uppsala, Sweden ISBN 978-3-319-43312-7 ISBN 978-3-319-43314-1 DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-43314-1 (eBook) Library of Congress Control Number: 2016961426 © Springer International Publishing AG 2017 This work is subject to copyright All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations Printed on acid-free paper This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland Foreword Urbanization is one of the most transformative human land-use processes on our globe and will increase in the coming years Today, more than half of the world’s population resides in urban areas and it is projected that by 2050 at least two-thirds of the world’s population will be urban Urbanization has an enormous impact on natural habitats and resources, and urban growth is responsible for major losses in biodiversity However, urbanized areas can offer a wide variety and mosaic of habitats and structures, from almost vegetation-free city centers to various kinds of gardens in the suburbs and residential areas, including city parks, cemeteries, forest remnants, and fallow land with ruderal vegetation A core question relating to urban landscapes is, therefore, to what degree urban habitats can contribute to biodiversity, because it is not just man that urbanizes but wildlife also Birds are among the most conspicuous urbanizers and are the best studied Birds often serve as model organisms for many studies of how wildlife copes with and adapts to urban life Consequently, bird studies are at the forefront of research aiming to understand the role and consequences of urbanization on wildlife Birds have various abilities that enable them to cope with urbanization and the rural-to-urban gradient Some avoid urban areas, others exploit the new environment, and others adapt to the urban landscape and become common in cities Consequently, the composition of bird communities, species richness, and abundance of birds along an urbanization gradient are variable in space and time but may also have some features in common Numerous studies have shown the structural properties of bird communities in cities and revealed habitat–bird relationships in urban landscapes However, it is not just the occurrence and abundance of birds in cities that is important It is also necessary to know whether birds, and wildlife in general, in urban habitats reproduce and survive to serve and maintain viable self-sustaining populations or whether they are “sink” populations that are unable to so and are composed mainly of immigrants from nearby rural habitats Consequently, understanding wildlife in urban habitats and the consequences of urbanization on wildlife also requires an understanding of functional properties Key to understanding ecological functionality are studies evaluating the demography of urban versus rural v vi Foreword populations and connectivity in urban landscapes, which is the degree to which a landscape and its habitats enable the movement and gene flow of organisms Because human activities affect the behavior of animals and their ability to move freely, movement studies from rural landscapes cannot simply be translated to the urban landscape but require specific “urban” approaches At the same time, we need to quantify the increase in biodiversity in urbanized areas versus the loss of biodiversity as a result of urbanization Specialized and, thus, often rare species from natural landscapes are very likely to be heavily affected by loss of natural and rural habitats, whereas generalists benefit from urban landscapes Consequently, evaluation of the conservation value of urban habitats and urban biodiversity requires a more differentiated approach than study of species richness and biodiversity in cities With increasing urbanization, conservation of wildlife in urban areas also becomes a matter of interest, although it sounds contradictory, and urban biodiversity must never distract from conservation of natural habitats However, the mosaic of habitats in urban landscapes offers new opportunities for conservation and modern urban landscape planning Preservation of as much as possible of remnant natural habitats of appropriate area size is certainly the most effective and sustainable strategy Restoration of habitats, re-vegetation of sites with a variety of native plants, and natural undisturbed succession sites, corridors, and under-road wildlife passages can also offer a wide array of support for wildlife in urban areas to maintain or restore functional connectivity By doing so, urban habitats and their populations of native wildlife can supplement biodiversity conservation in the wider countryside Conservation activities in urban landscapes should not only be considered in the light of wildlife conservation per se They also have a huge potential for public biodiversity education In no other landscape are man and biosphere as tight as in cities Attracting public attention to city-dwelling wildlife (e.g., by citizen science projects) offers great opportunities for education on the importance of conservation to society and to improve social support for conservation of wildlife and biodiversity in general Therefore, I very much hope that this book achieves its aims for the development of urban wildlife research and science, for effective knowledge transfer between biodiversity sciences and urban landscape planning practice, for conservation, and for the education of society Institute of Avian Research Wilhelmshaven, Germany Franz Bairlein Preface In the period when we were planning the scope and content of this book, two other titles on urban bird ecology were published This entailed two consequences for our task as editors of this volume: on the one hand, it forced us to discard some of the intended chapter topics that already had been recently examined (in a very brilliant way) in those books; on the other hand, it confirmed that there were many other issues of urban bird ecology that deserved attention Above all, far from feeling discouraged by the coincidence in time of seemingly similar projects, we were truly pleased that the interest in bird fauna in cities and of urban ecology as a whole were growing and that the pioneering books Urban Bird Ecology (Marzluff et al 2001) and Birds in European Cities (Kelcey and Rheinwald 2005) were followed by such outstanding examples We hope that this volume will be comparable The growing interest in urban ornithology mentioned above is not a fortuitous circumstance All around the planet we are witnessing an unprecedented expansion of urban areas, not only over land already transformed for agricultural purposes but, especially in developing countries, over relatively untouched types of ecosystems Unavoidably, this provokes changes in ecological patterns and processes that can rarely be defined as positive for biodiversity conservation at a global scale For investigation of the consequences of urbanization, as has previously occurred in ecological research, birds may play an important role Indeed, the considerable literature on urban bird ecology provides crucial information about how urbanization impacts many aspects of bird ecology and behavior, along with useful guidelines on how to minimize the deleterious effects of urban development Furthermore, the literature shows how urban bird fauna (even the “dull” bird species) can contribute to increased ecological awareness in citizens that experience little daily contact with nature Of course, this picture is not free of uncertainties (we probably know rather less about urban bird ecology than we think) and controversy, but these are powerful engines for good science Our own research on urban bird ecology comes from quite different experiences (acquired at, respectively, the northern and southern extremes of Europe) of bird fauna, urban development, and their interactions We have tried to incorporate such vii viii Preface different perspectives in our contributions to the book as well as in the selection of chapters As editors, we truly enjoyed the great number of talented people who dared to join us for this exciting journey towards the making of this book By contacting and discussing topics on urban bird ecology, we undertook a global journey that led us through urban areas in different geographical regions It was a privilege and great fun to obtain a first glimpse of new research findings and methodology in current urban bird ecology and to see the patterns made apparent through review of published works We can only hope that you as a reader will share this excitement and fascination for the new advances in urban bird ecology Valencia, Spain Uppsala, Sweden Enrique Murgui Marcus Hedblom References Marzluff JM, Bowman R, Donnelly R (eds) (2001) Avian ecology and conservation in an urbanizing world Kluwer, Boston Kelcey J, Rheinwald G (eds) (2005) Birds in European cities Ginster, St Katharinen Acknowledgements A book such as this could be not possible without the work of all the contributors who generously devoted their time to prepare and revise their chapters We are very grateful to all of them A special mention is devoted to Franz Bairlein, who kindly provided us with a thoughtful Foreword Great thanks also go to Paige Warren, who encouraged and inspired us to go on with the book project after realizing that two other urban ecology books had been published while ours was in preparation, when she said “there are still so many researchers and interesting studies that are in need of recognition.” She was right We would like to express our gratitude to Springer Verlag for encouraging us to produce this book, and we appreciate the efforts of the Springer Production Team, in particular the advice and kind support of Lars Koerner, who helped us through most of the stages of publication ix Contents Part I Introduction Urban Bird Research in a Global Perspective Marcus Hedblom and Enrique Murgui Part II General Patterns and Processes Global Patterns and Drivers of Urban Bird Diversity Christopher A Lepczyk, Frank A La Sorte, Myla F.J Aronson, Mark A Goddard, Ian MacGregor-Fors, Charles H Nilon, and Paige S Warren Urbanization and Bird Communities: Spatial and Temporal Patterns Emerging from Southern South America M.I Bellocq, L.M Leveau, and J Filloy Bird Diversities and Their Responses to Urbanization in China Shuihua Chen and Siyu Wang Why Are Exotic Birds So Successful in Urbanized Environments? Daniel Sol, Cesar Gonza´lez-Lagos, Oriol Lapiedra, and Mario Dı´az 13 35 55 75 Becoming Citizens: Avian Adaptations to Urban Life Constantino Macı´as Garcia, Monserrat Sua´rez-Rodrı´guez, and Isabel Lo´pez-Rull 91 Mechanisms of Behavioural Change in Urban Animals: The Role of Microevolution and Phenotypic Plasticity 113 Ana Catarina Miranda xi Index A Abundance(s), v, 5–9, 20, 21, 24, 36, 41, 42, 45, 47–49, 57, 60, 61, 66, 67, 69, 70, 71, 76, 78, 81, 82, 84–86, 95, 100, 103, 104, 136, 137, 138, 143, 146–149, 154, 162, 164, 166, 170, 172, 173, 176, 185–203, 241, 279, 284, 292, 294–296, 300, 310, 315–318, 321, 326–330, 332, 334, 335, 346, 347, 361, 373, 375, 376, 378–384, 388, 403, 414–417, 420–422, 426, 443, 451, 454, 458, 459, 469, 470, 472, 473, 476–479, 482, 492, 494, 495, 497, 499, 500 Acadian flycatchers, 419 Acanthiza A ewingii, 353, 356 A pusilla, 353, 356 Acanthizachrys orrhoa, 354, 357 Acanthorhynchus tenuirostris, 354, 357 Acanthornis magna, 363 Accipiter A gentilis, 174, 275, 426, 442 A melanoleucus, 325, 326 A nisus, 275, 434, 477 A novaehollandiae, 347 Accipitridae, 6, 15, 16, 438 Accuracy, 188, 459 Acer rubrum, 414 Acridotheres A cristatellus, 60, 61, 276 A fuscus, 17 A tristis, 17, 118, 173, 276, 321, 335 Acrocephalus A arundinaceus, 434 A palustris, 434 A scirpaceus, 434 Actitis hypoleucos, 434, 438 Activity rhythms, 256 Adaptation, 5–7, 27, 69, 71, 79–83, 85, 91–106, 115, 124–128, 137, 170, 271, 288, 407, 500 Adaptive management, 483, 484 Aegithalidae, 66 Aegithalos caudatus, 434, 457 African harrier-hawk, 325, 326 African stonechat, 325, 326 Agapornis A personatus, 276, 335 A roseicollis, 335 Aggression, 115, 116, 364 Aggressive, 78, 115, 123, 136, 153, 154, 229, 292, 301, 375, 376 Aimophila botterii, 419 Aix A galericulata, 273, 335 A sponsa, 273, 335 Alarm, 115, 116, 123, 301, 331, 347 Alauda arvensis, 364, 408, 435, 438 Alaudidae, 66, 438, 442 Alcedinidae, 438 Alcedo atthis, 434, 438, 481 Alder buckthorn, 474, 476 Alectoris chukar, 17 Alexandrine parakeet, 276 Alien, 76, 272, 310, 316, 317, 319, 320, 327, 330–332, 455 Allee effects, 81 Alopochen aegyptiacus, 273 Alpha diversity, 50, 167, 168, 405 Amazon, 276, 422 Amazona © Springer International Publishing AG 2017 E Murgui, M Hedblom (eds.), Ecology and Conservation of Birds in Urban Environments, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-43314-1 511 512 Amazona (cont.) A ochrocephala, 276 A estiva, 276 Amblyospiza albifrons, 325, 326, 330 American crow, 116, 117, 120, 173 American goldfinch, 21 American robin(s), 21, 37, 168, 233, 262, 414 Amur honeysuckle, 419 Anas A clypeata, 273 A crecca, 273 A discors, 335 A hybrid, 335 A penelope, 274 A platyrhynchos, 17, 272, 321, 335, 434 A querquedula, 35, 273 A strepera, 273 A undulata, 332 Anatidae, 6, 15, 16, 321, 335 Anser A anser, 17, 273, 316, 335 A cygnoides, 273 Anthochaera A chrysoptera, 354, 357 A paradoxa, 355, 358 Anthus novaeseelandiae, 364 Aphelocoma coerulescens, 99 Apodemus sylvaticus, 255 Apus A apus, 279, 433, 434, 436 A melba, 434 A pallidus, 434 Arctic warbler, 70 Ardea cinerea, 281, 434 Ardeidae, 438 Ardeola bacchus, 70 Arthropod(s), 92, 95, 149, 176, 416, 420, 475, 476, 477, 478 Artificial feeders, 77 Artificial light, 93, 97, 252, 255, 256, 259, 260, 268, 493 Athene A cunicularia, 117 A noctua, 279 Atlas(es), 7, 9, 164, 200, 209–221, 315–317, 319–324, 427, 453, 455, 460, 494–496 Australian honeyeaters, 376 Australian magpie, 348, 352, 353, 356, 362 Avian community, 67, 139, 140, 143, 146, 150, 151, 312, 327 Avipoxvirus, 95 Aythya A ferina, 273 A fuligula, 273, 335 Azure-winged magpie, 60, 62 Index B Backyards, 346, 385, 386 Barnacle goose, 335 Barn owl, 325, 326 Barn swallow, 319 Before-after-control-impact (BACI), 474 Behavioral plasticity, 7, 170 Behavioural plasticity, 79–82, 92, 102, 105, 123–124, 126 Berberis thunbergii, 418 Beta diversity, 8, 36, 39, 50, 406 Betula spp., 478 Biodiversity hotspots, 6, 25, 28 loss, 36, 334 management, 26 planning, 387 Bioindicators, 239, 244 Biological rhythms, 254–256 Biomass, 22, 420, 476, 477 Biomonitoring, 245 Biophilia, 288–289, 301 Birch, 471, 472, 478 Bird assemblages, 20, 36, 39, 40, 50, 57, 66, 67, 93, 94, 102, 186, 187, 281, 346, 352, 359, 361, 364–365, 377 atlas, 200, 210–213, 217–220, 315–317, 319–324, 453, 455, 496 communities, v, 7, 16, 20–25, 35–50, 67, 93, 97, 135–155, 163, 166–169, 173, 176, 187, 310, 312, 316, 318, 327–329, 331, 333, 334, 336, 348, 352, 364, 365, 373, 375, 376, 381, 382, 385, 388, 404, 414, 420, 427, 432, 441, 443, 468, 473, 474, 478, 482, 493, 494, 498 diversity, 13–28, 38–40, 55–71, 151, 155, 173, 176, 287–303, 317, 330, 364, 372– 379, 384, 385, 387–389, 403, 470, 471, 476, 477, 494, 495, 496, 497 feeders, 95, 100, 136, 381, 382, 500 feeding, 25, 298, 372, 373, 379–382, 466, 473 numbers, 216, 217 populations, 7–9, 22–24, 94, 102, 103, 125, 162, 170, 171, 173, 174, 176, 187, 188, 200, 203, 227–245, 272–273, 282, 302, 303, 380–382, 385, 420, 450, 452, 456, 459, 461, 473, 481, 484, 492, 493, 495, 497, 500 richness, 17, 37, 38, 41, 47, 67, 373, 377–384 Bird-monitoring, 27, 199–201, 203, 373, 450, 451, 452, 455–457, 497 Birds of prey, 166, 170, 172, 176, 231, 241, 274, 298 Index Black bears, 382 Black-billed magpies, 71, 117 Blackbirds (Turdus merula), 8, 60, 61, 99, 122, 125, 126, 137, 166, 173, 233, 238, 254, 256–258, 260, 261, 262, 263, 265, 266, 267, 277–280, 282, 291, 292, 294, 353, 356, 457, 493, 1119 Blackcap, 100, 457 Black-chested prinia, 325, 326 Black-crowned night herons, 70 Black-headed greenfinch, 70 Black-headed gull, 71 Black-headed honeyeater, 355, 357, 362 Black redstart (Phoenicurus ochruros), 272, 402 Black-shouldered kite, 325, 326 Black sparrowhawk, 325, 326 Black-tailed prairie dog, 116, 117, 120 Blue-fronted amazon, 276 Blue-glossy starling, 276 Blue jays, 21, 168, 291 Blue tits, 255, 262, 294, 457 Blue-winged teal, 335 Body size, 138–139, 166, 167, 241, 260, 358, 476, 477 Bostrychia hagedash, 319 Botteri’s sparrows, 419 Box provision, 372 Branta B canadensis, 17, 273, 302 B leucopsis, 335 Brown-breasted bulbul, 70 Brownfield, 377 Brown-headed parrot, 335 Brown thornbill, 353, 356, 362 Bubo virginianus, 17 Bubulcus ibis, 17, 70, 319 Bucephala clangula, 273, 274 Budgerigar, 276, 335 Buntings, 473 Burrowing owl, 117 Buteo buteo, 434 C Cactus wrens, 375 Cadmium, 229, 234, 240–242 Cage birds, 271–284 Cage songbirds, 277 Cairina moschata, 335 Callipepla gambelii, 377 Callonetta leucophrys, 335 Campylorhynchus brunneicapillus, 375 513 Canada geese, 302 Canary, 325, 326 Cane toad, 117, 119, 120 Cape glossy starling, 321, 330 Cape ground squirrel, 118, 120 Cape longclaw, 327 Cape turtle dove, 319 Cape wagtail, 327 Cape weaver, 325, 326 Caprimulgidae, 438 Caprimulgus europaeus, 438 Captivity, 8, 81, 82, 257, 265, 267, 272–275, 277–280, 284 Capture methods, 191 Cardinal, 21, 172, 233, 291, 416, 419 Cardinalis cardinalis, 21, 173, 416 Cardinal woodpecker, 327 Carduelis sp., 426 C ambigua, 70 C cannabina, 402, 435, 438 C carduelis, 355, 357, 402, 433, 435, 457 C chloris, 292, 354, 357, 433, 457 Carnivorous, 44, 45, 46 Carolina wood duck, 335 Carolina wren, 233 Carpodacus mexicanus, 17, 95, 97, 118 Carrion/hooded crow, 282 Catbird, 233, 238, 383, 418, 420 Catharus C fuscescens, 418 C ustulatus, 419 Cats (Felis catus), 23, 94, 95, 138, 373, 374, 379, 382–384, 389 Cattle egrets (Bubulcus ibis), 70, 319 Cavity-nesting species, 15, 149, 322, 329, 331 Cedrus spp., 315 Celtis C africana, 315 C australis, 454 Celtis spp., 315 Cemeteries, v, 186, 193, 406, 408 Census(es), 188, 191–193, 199–202, 210, 212, 217–220, 492–494, 497 Censusing, 27, 174, 351 Certhia brachydactyla, 434, 457 Ceryle rudis, 325, 326 Cettia cetti, 434 Chaffinch, 294 Chalcites lucidus, 358 Changes in occurrence, 218 Charadrius C dubius, 434 C falklandicus, 119 514 Charadrius (cont.) C marginatus, 119, 121 Chemical compounds, 227, 228, 239, 245 Chemical pollutants, 237 Chinese bulbul, 60, 61, 70 Chinese pond herons, 70 Chlamydiaceae, 242 Chlorostilbon lucidus, 48 Chroicocephalus novaehollandiae, 292 Chromium, 229, 230, 235, 240 Chrysococcyx lucidus, 355 Ciconia ciconia, 279 Cinclus cinclus, 241, 435 Circus C approximans, 17 C pygargus, 434, 438 Cisticola C fulvicapilla, 327 C juncidis, 434 Cisticolidae, 67 Citizen science, vi, 26, 187, 199–203, 373, 385, 386, 389, 451, 455, 481 City centers, 19, 69, 174, v City parks, v, 67, 136, 141, 173, 174, 264, 454 Cliff, 171, 329, 332, 336, 493 Climate change, 26–27, 36, 167, 175, 311, 373, 452, 456, 483, 498 Coal tit, 65, 457 Coccothraustes coccothraustes, 434 Colius colius (C colius), 333 Colius striatus, 333 Collared dove, 64, 272, 276, 457 Colluricincla harmonica, 348, 355, 358 Colonisation/colonization, 14, 92, 98, 99, 102, 103, 105, 122, 125, 162, 168, 169, 190, 198, 274, 275, 282, 284, 332 Columba C arquatrix, 330 C guinea, 331 C livia, 15, 17, 48, 84, 96, 98, 241, 242, 272, 279, 291, 321, 335, 433, 434, 442 C livia domestica, 279, 434 C palumbus, 276, 434, 457 Columbidae, 15, 16, 60, 67, 276, 335, 438 Common blackbird(s), 60, 61, 70, 71, 166, 294, 353 Common grackle, 21, 291 Common greenfinch*, 334 Common kingfisher, 481 Common magpies (Pica pica), 60, 62, 70, 240 Common myna(s), 118, 173, 276, 321, 330–332, 335 Common pigeon, 98 Index Common pipistrelle, 255 Common sandpiper Actitis hypoleuca, 404 Common starling(s), 96, 321, 332, 335, 354, 357, 362 Community(ies) biodiversity, 143–150 composition, 39, 40, 47–50, 139–141, 143– 146, 150–152, 163, 167, 169, 173, 176, 318 Compact, 385, 454, 493, 498, 499, 501 Compact city, 454, 493, 498, 501 Competition, 24, 78, 140, 144, 154, 186, 382 Composition, 6, 21–23, 36, 37, 39, 40, 47–50, 71, 93, 94, 95, 97, 114, 135, 136, 139– 141, 143–152, 162, 163, 167–170, 173, 176, 187, 221, 253, 310, 318, 319, 348, 365, 366, 374, 388, 400, 403, 404, 406, 427, 499 Configuration, 23, 139, 141, 150–153, 374, 388, 495 Connectivity, v, 23, 69, 162, 346, 349, 385, 389, 454, 498 Conservation, vi, vii, 4–6, 8, 22, 26, 27, 36, 86, 152–154, 162, 174, 186, 210, 293, 303, 329, 330, 332–334, 343–367, 372, 373, 375, 382, 383, 384, 387, 388, 402, 405– 406, 413–422, 425–444, 454, 468, 472, 491–502 Conservation planning, 69, 154, 334 Cooper’s hawk(s), 137, 138 Coots, 272 Copper, 229, 230, 234, 239, 242, 245 Copsychus saularis, 60, 62, 239 Corridors, vi, 137, 143, 152–154, 454, 477 Corvidae, 66, 67 Corvus C brachyrhynchos, 116, 117, 120, 173 C cornix, 277, 433, 434, 436, 442 C coronoides, 292 C macrorhynchos, 63, 64, 101 C monedula, 200, 279, 434 C splendens, 17 C tasmanicus, 352, 355, 358 Corylus avellana, 474, 475 Coturnix coturnix, 434, 438 Counting techniques, 193–199 Cracticus C tibicen, 353, 356 C torquatus, 348 Crescent honeyeater, 354, 357, 362 Crested larks Galerida cristata, 402, 404 Crested myna, 60, 61, 276 Crested tit, 457 Index Crowned lapwing, 319 Crows, 63, 64, 96, 101, 116, 117, 120, 137, 173, 174, 277, 282, 283, 292, 298 Cuculus canorus, 432, 434 Cyanistes caeruleus, 101, 255, 262, 294, 434, 457 Cyanocitta cristata, 21, 168, 291 Cyanopica cyana, 60, 62 Cygnus atratus, 273 Cygnus olor, 17, 116, 272, 434 Cynomys ludovicianus, 116, 117, 120 D Dark-eyed junco(s), 80, 118, 119, 125 Dark-eyed junco Junco hyemalis thurberi, 122 Day length, 97, 259–263, 266, 267 DDE, 231 Delichon urbica, 279 Delichon urbicum, 427, 433, 435, 436, 438, 442 Demography, v, 23, 24, 26, 81, 136, 143, 149, 155, 166, 169–170, 176, 240, 244, 297, 300, 302, 373, 378, 499 Dendrocopos D leucotos, 481 D major, 63, 294, 435 D minor, 435, 481 Dendropicos fuscescens, 327 Density(ies), 4, 16, 20, 22, 44, 50, 67, 69, 70, 78, 81, 95, 136, 137, 141, 143–146, 149, 150, 168, 169, 176, 188, 191, 192, 193, 195, 196, 197, 198, 199, 201, 202, 217, 241, 277, 281, 282, 288, 295, 302, 316, 318, 344, 347, 361, 365, 376, 377, 385, 403, 404, 414, 417, 420, 429, 430, 432, 433, 437, 439, 440, 442, 465, 468–473, 475–478, 499, 500 Derelict land, 499 Detectability, 188–202, 493 Detection, 102, 189–199, 201, 202, 203, 237, 259, 260, 318, 321, 350, 492 Detection probability, 190–192, 195, 201, 202, 350, 492 Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDTs), 96, 231, 235, 239–241 Dickcissels, 419 Dicrurus adsimilis, 333 Dipper, 235, 236, 241, 242 Diptera, 95 Disease(s), 23, 24, 96, 98, 242, 382, 500 Distance sampling, 192, 196–199, 202, 203, 492 515 Distinctiveness, 364 Distribution, 14, 15, 16, 23, 24, 36, 39, 57, 58, 69, 93, 98, 100, 105, 114, 136, 152, 162, 164, 172, 173, 175, 186, 187, 197, 201, 210, 212, 214–216, 218, 220, 221, 239, 315, 316, 317, 330, 331, 346, 347, 360, 363, 387, 403, 414, 427, 455, 456, 460, 476, 495, 496 Disturbance(s), 67, 69, 70, 71, 76–78, 86, 92, 93, 114, 122, 144, 145, 148, 170, 187, 316, 317, 319, 322, 323, 330, 336, 350, 361, 364, 401, 403–407, 421, 442, 443, 476, 493, 494, 500 Disturbance sensitive, 316, 322, 323, 330, 404 Diversity, 6, 8, 13–28, 36–46, 50, 55–71, 78, 86, 94, 95, 103, 105, 114, 127, 136, 137, 139, 140, 141, 143–153, 167, 168, 170, 173, 176, 186, 187, 287–303, 310, 317, 318, 329, 330, 333, 334, 346, 347, 364, 365, 366, 371–389, 401, 403, 405, 406, 420, 422, 426, 451, 470, 471, 472, 475, 476, 477, 479, 482, 494, 495, 496, 497 DNA, 237, 243–244 Dog, 116, 117, 120, 404, 408, 493 Domestic goose, 335 Double sampling, 192 Doves, 21, 48, 60, 61, 62, 64, 70, 136, 137, 272, 276, 291, 319, 321, 331, 335, 457, 500 Ducks/geese, 291 Dumetella carolinensis, 238, 383, 418 Dunnock, 292 Dusky robin, 355, 358 Dusky warbler, 70 Dwelling species, 22 E Eastern grey squirrel, 117, 118, 120 Eastern rosella, 352, 353, 356, 362 Eastern spinebill, 354, 357, 362 Ecological traps, 93, 138, 382, 416, 500 Ecosystem, vii, 8, 14, 25, 36, 38–40, 50, 86, 91, 105, 141, 146, 148, 151–155, 162, 176, 186, 187, 229, 230, 245, 252, 255, 289, 311, 323, 333, 334, 384, 387, 389, 399, 400, 406, 415, 421, 426, 450, 452, 460, 492, 500 Ecosystem services, 8, 14, 287–293, 303, 311, 381, 450, 452, 465–484, 492 Edge species, 343, 348, 352, 359, 361, 363 Eimeria spp., 95 Elaenia parvirostris, 48 Elanus caeruleus, 325, 326 516 Emberiza cirlus, 435 Emberizidae, 16, 442 Empidonax E traillii extimus, 417 E virescens, 419 Endocrine system, 125 Environmental injustices, 378, 388 Environmental justice, 492 Epirrita autumnata, 478 Erithacus rubecula, 262, 294, 435, 457, 493 Escape, 115, 117, 123, 272, 273, 275, 276, 319, 332 Estrilda astrild, 17 Estrildidae, 66 Eucalyptus globulus, 347 Eucalyptus spp., 315, 349 Eurasian dipper Cinclus cinclus, 235, 236, 241 Eurasian kestrel, 241 Eurasian tree sparrows, 60, 61, 69, 70, 235, 236 European blackbird Turdus merula, 122, 137, 254, 256, 260–262, 265, 266, 277, 493 European goldfinch, 355, 357 European robin, 262, 294 European starling, 20, 21, 172, 291 Evolution, 6, 102, 124, 126, 128, 170–171, 300–302 Exaptations, 101, 102, 103 Exotics, 6, 8, 42, 45, 75–86, 93, 154, 273, 274, 276, 277, 284, 315, 317, 319, 321, 322, 327, 329, 331, 332, 335, 344–346, 348, 358, 363, 366, 375, 382, 414, 420, 441, 496 Experiments, 4, 8, 9, 25, 26, 78, 84, 98, 99, 116, 118, 120, 123–125, 167, 255, 260, 265– 267, 278, 279, 284, 287, 289, 293, 296, 297, 466–479, 483, 484, 497–498 Exploration, 24, 115, 119 Extinction, 14, 36, 48, 81, 86, 92, 94, 105, 152, 162, 168, 190, 198, 293, 310, 405 Exurban, 8, 143, 146, 343–366, 441 Exurbanisation, 8, 343, 344, 347, 351, 361, 363–366 Exurbia, 343, 347–350, 352, 353, 363, 365 F Falco F naumanni, 170, 426, 434, 438, 442, 499 F peregrinus, 96, 241, 275, 434, 438, 499 F subbuteo, 275, 434 F tinnunculus, 241, 275, 427, 434, 438, 442 Falconidae, 438–440, 443 Fallow land, v Index Feeding guilds, 149, 421 Feeding stations, 100, 382 Feral pigeons Columba livia, 81, 82, 84, 100, 233, 234, 241, 272, 276, 283, 456 Field larks Alauda arvensis, 408 Finches, 20, 21, 95, 97, 118, 136, 154, 176, 277, 473 Firecrest, 457 Fiscal flycatcher, 327 Flame robin, 355, 358 Florida scrub jays, 99, 100 Flycatcher, 48, 327, 348, 353, 356, 417, 419, 421, 422 Foliar insectivore, 422 Food availability, 8, 70, 93, 99–102, 114, 227, 244, 254, 259, 316, 414, 420–421 Forest bird, 366, 377, 441, 469, 473, 476, 477, 483 raven, 352, 355, 358 remnants, v, 348, 352, 404 specialists, 352 Fork-tailed drongo, 333 Fork-tailed flycatcher, 48 Fox squirrel, 118 Fragmentation, 7, 14, 67, 78, 150, 152, 153, 163, 168, 187, 343, 403, 441, 442, 450 Fragment size, 176 Frangula alnus, 474, 476 Fringilla coelebs, 294, 433, 435 Fringillidae, 66, 261, 438, 442 Frugivores, 69, 149, 309, 317, 336, 420, 422 Frugivorous, 15, 322, 324, 414, 415 Fulica atra, 272, 434 Functional connectivity, vi Functional diversity, 69, 168 Functional groups, 36, 41, 43–46, 77, 147, 356, 358, 427, 432, 433, 439, 441 Functional properties, v G Gadwalls, 273 Galerida cristata, 402, 404, 435, 438 Gallinula chloropus, 434 Gallus gallus, 17 Gambel’s quail, 377 Gardening, 93, 372, 374, 379, 380, 384, 473, 496 Gardening decisions, 379, 380, 496 Gardens, v, 8, 23, 26, 82, 93, 98, 99, 118, 120, 123, 124, 125, 140, 186, 193, 239, 259, 274, 277, 280, 281, 283, 284, 289, 290, 291, 292, 293, 296, 300, 315, 330, 332, 333, 343–348, 350–354, 358, 359, 361–366, Index 371–389, 414, 427, 428, 441, 450, 466, 472, 473, 484, 495, 496, 497, 499, 501 Garden skink, 118, 120 Garganeys, 273, 335 Garrulus glandarius, 434 Gauss-Krüger grid, 215 Generalist, 37, 80, 84, 94, 100, 101, 316, 399, 405, 420, 422, 441, 442 Geographical coordinates, 215 Gila woodpeckers, 375 Glittering-bellied emerald, 48 Goldeneyes, 273, 274 Golden whistler, 348, 353, 356 Goldfinch, 21, 355, 357, 375, 402, 457 Goldfinch Carduelis carduelis, 355, 357, 402, 433, 435, 457 Goosander, 274 Goshawk, 275, 283 Goshawks Accipiter gentilis, 174, 275, 347 Gradients, 6, 21, 22, 35–45, 49, 69, 78, 122, 127, 140–145, 148, 149, 150, 151, 163, 167, 171, 176, 186, 193, 238, 256, 299, 316, 317, 318, 329, 346, 348, 373, 414, 427, 456, 494, 495 Grallina cyanoleuca, 118 Granivores, 69, 97, 136, 148, 149 Granivorous, 6, 15, 44, 45, 46, 136, 346, 426 Gray catbird Dumetella carolinensis, 233, 238, 283, 418–420 Great egrets, 137, 138 Greater striped swallow, 319 Great tits, 60, 61, 96, 101, 104, 243, 262, 294, 457, 472 Green areas, 9, 67, 153, 289, 297–299, 303, 407, 428, 432, 442, 458, 459, 466, 467, 473, 479 Greenfinch, 62, 70, 292, 354, 357, 457 Green infrastructure, 9, 23, 374, 387, 389, 450– 457, 459, 460, 461 Green roofs, 105, 450, 466, 468, 472, 473 Green rosella, 354, 356 Green spaces, 22, 23, 25, 26, 136, 140, 152, 153, 154, 173, 174, 196, 289, 292, 293, 296, 298–300, 302, 303, 317, 318, 329, 333, 334, 372, 374, 376, 377, 379, 385, 387, 389, 406, 454, 458, 460, 465–467, 479, 481, 483, 484, 495, 498, 499, 501 Green walls, 193, 450, 473, 499 Green zones, 318, 326, 327, 329 Grey currawong, 355, 358 Grey fantail, 348, 355, 357, 362 Grey herons, 281 Greylag goose, 273, 316 517 Grey shrike-thrush, 348, 358 Ground-foraging, 383 Grouse, 469, 471 Guilds, 69, 136, 140, 146–151, 170, 174, 322, 324, 415, 419, 421, 422 Gymnorhina tibicen, 17, 348 H Habitat(s) alteration, 14, 348 heterogeneity, 18, 25, 37, 145, 168, 309, 316, 330, 387, 441 requirements, 169, 186, 388 Habitat-bird relationships, v, 23 Hadeda Ibis, 319, 330 Haemorhous mexicanus, 20, 21 Haemosporidian, 242 Harrier-hawk, 325, 326 Hazel, 474, 475 Heavy metals, 7, 8, 96, 103, 104, 228–230, 237, 239–245 Helmeted guineafowl, 319 Helmitheros vermivorum, 419 Herbicides, 231 Herring gulls, 243, 291 Heterogeneity, 18, 19, 25, 37, 67, 78, 138, 141, 145, 168, 187, 188, 199, 201, 316, 317, 321, 322, 329, 330, 334, 365, 366, 387, 406, 441, 443, 444, 495 Hexabromocyclododecanes (HBCDs), 231, 236, 239 Hippolais polyglotta, 434 Hirundinidae, 438, 439 Hirundo H cucullata, 321 H fuligula, 325, 326 H neoxena, 354, 357 H rustica, 15, 279, 319, 435, 438 Historical data, 164, 175 Historical perspectives, 171–173 Historical records, 172, 173 Hobby, 275 Holenesters, 426 Homogenization, 6, 9, 14, 36, 39, 50, 66, 86, 92, 310, 348, 351, 364, 365, 373, 417, 426, 427, 441 Honeysuckles, 414–421 Hooded crows Corvus corone cornix, 174, 277, 282 Hooded warblers, 419 Hormones, 99, 125, 126, 138, 231, 242, 254 Horseshoe bats, 255 518 House finch (Haemorhous mexicanus), 20, 21, 95, 97, 118 House sparrows Passer domesticus, 7, 20, 21, 48, 63, 96, 97, 98, 105, 119–122, 166, 169, 172, 233, 234, 235, 239, 244, 272, 279, 283, 291, 294–296, 321, 330, 331, 332, 335, 354, 357, 362, 373, 379, 404, 456, 472, 500 House wren, 234, 235 Human disturbance, 67, 69, 70, 71, 77, 86, 148, 403, 404, 442, 493, 500 Hylocichla mustelina, 168 I Indicators, 7, 9, 56, 137, 187, 201, 243, 301, 310, 346, 449–461 Indicator species, 14, 145, 385 Indigenous, 8, 315, 319, 329–332, 334, 345, 481 Innovation, 79, 80, 115, 119, 123 Insectivores, 69, 97, 136, 148, 149, 325, 351, 352, 358, 422 Insectivorous, 15, 44–46, 346, 415, 420, 421, 467, 475, 477, 478, 482 Introduced species, 69, 80, 144, 145, 148–150 Invasion, 76–85, 173, 329, 334, 346, 352, 363, 364, 420 Invasive, 6, 16, 17, 97, 136, 152–154, 167, 173, 321, 330–332, 400, 413–422 Invasive plants, 413–422 Iron, 229, 230, 235 Island biogeography, 140–144, 148–150, 161, 495 Ixobrychus minutus, 434, 438 J Jacaranda mimosifolia sp., 315 Jackdaw Corvus monedula, 200 Japanese barberry, 418 Japanese crows, 101 Jays, 21, 99, 100, 168, 291, 292 Junco hyemalis, 118, 119, 122, 125 Jynx torquilla, 427, 435, 438, 441 K Karoo thrush, 316, 330 Kite, 325, 326 L Lampropholis guichenoti, 118, 120 Lamprotornis L chalybaeus, 276 L nitens, 321 Index Land cover, 6, 14, 17–22, 37, 136, 139, 141, 144, 145, 150, 153, 154, 252, 346, 372 sharing, 385, 387 sparing, 385, 387 Landscapes composition, 140, 150, 162 ecology, 152, 494–496 scale, 7, 24, 25, 135–155, 346, 373, 377 Laniidae, 66, 438 Lanius L collurio, 402, 434, 438 L schach, 60, 61, 239 Larus spp., 291 L argentatus, 243 L michahellis, 434 L occidentalis, 169 L ridibundus, 71 Lathamus discolor, 347, 363 Laughing dove, 319 Lead, 95, 96, 229, 233, 238, 239, 240, 242, 243 Leiothrix lutea, 17, 84 Leptoptilos javanicus, 290 Lesser Goldfinches, 375 Lesser kestrels, 170, 499 Lesser spotted woodpecker, 481 Lichenostomus flavicollis, 348, 355, 357 Light intensity, 252–265 Light loggers, 8, 251–268 Light pollution, 97, 99, 104, 251–268 Light-vented bulbul, 236, 239 Linnet, 402, 403 Little egret, 235, 241 Little ringed plovers, 473 Little wattlebird, 354, 357 Local habitat, 25, 38, 151, 240, 346, 364 Local scales, 22–23, 25, 26, 78, 138, 139, 149, 151, 377 Long-crested eagle, 325, 326 Long-tailed shrike, 60, 61, 236, 239 Long-tailed tit, 457 Long-term, 7, 50, 161–178, 186, 187, 252, 253, 330, 459, 468, 473, 478, 497 Lonicera maackii, 419 Lonicera spp., 415–418 Lophaetus occipitalis, 325, 326 Lophophanes cristatus, 457 Loxia curvirostra, 435 Luscinia megarhynchos, 434, 493 M Macronyx capensis, 327 Magpie-lark, 118 Magpies, 174, 283, 292, 298, 301, 457 Index Mallard hybrid, 321, 335 Mallards, 272–274, 282, 321, 332, 335 Malurus cyaneus, 348, 354, 357 Management, 7–9, 20, 25–27, 37, 38, 47, 105, 146, 173–175, 186, 187, 200, 220, 303, 330, 366, 372, 373, 376, 379, 384, 387, 388, 389, 405, 408, 414, 426, 450, 454, 465–484, 492, 494, 496, 498, 499, 501 Management planning, 20, 467 Managing, 9, 24–26, 302, 466 Mandarin duck, 335 Manorina melanocephala, 116, 118, 348, 353, 356 Marabou stork, 290 Mark recapture, 191, 196–198 Marmota monax, 119, 121 Masked lapwing, 352, 354, 357, 364 Mate choice, 416 Matrix, 44, 46, 140, 141, 143, 148, 198, 330, 344, 361, 364, 385, 387, 388, 402, 403, 426, 442, 443, 450, 459, 460, 461, 495 Melanerpes uropygialis, 375 Melanodryas vittate, 355, 358 Melia azedarach, 315 Melithreptus M affinis, 355, 357 M validirostris, 353, 356 Melopsittacus undulatus, 276, 335 Melospiza melodia, 21, 116, 118, 122 Mergus merganser, 274 Meropidae, 438 Merops apiaster, 434, 438 Meyer’s parrot, 335 Mice, 255, 256, 298, 384 Microevolution, 113–128 Microevolutionary changes, 7, 124, 126 Migrant, 44, 46, 47, 48, 93, 94, 136, 141, 145– 148, 152, 280, 284, 318, 325 Migrating birds, 70, 420, 421 Migration, 21, 22, 70, 276, 281, 282, 311, 420, 421 Migratory, 21, 22, 44, 45, 47, 48, 99, 100, 141, 143, 146, 148, 241, 276, 282, 347, 363, 383, 386, 417, 421, 500 Migratory guilds, 146–148 Milvus M migrans, 279, 434, 438 M milvus, 381 Mimus polyglottos, 168, 383 Mockingbird, 168, 172, 233, 383 Molothrus M ater, 17 M bonariensis, 17 519 Monitoring, 9, 27, 175, 189, 195, 199, 200, 220, 239, 240, 242, 245, 317, 373, 386, 451–452, 455–457, 459, 481, 483, 484, 497, 500 Monitoring biodiversity, 56, 451 Monk parakeets, 82, 136, 276 Monticola solitarius, 427, 434, 438, 442 Motacilla M alba, 60, 62, 402, 435 M capensis, 327 M cinerea, 435 M flava, 435 Motacillidae, 66 Mourning dove, 21 Mousebird, 290, 333 Muscicapa striata, 427, 432, 434, 438 Muscicapidae, 16, 438 Muscovy duck, 335 Mute swans, 116, 272, 273, 274 Mutualism, 421 Myiagra cyanoleuca, 348, 353, 356 Myiopsitta monachus, 17, 82 N Native indicator, 145 plants, vi, 25, 66, 345, 366, 375, 380, 421, 496 Nectariniidae, 66 Nectarivorous, 15, 346, 422 Neophema chrysostoma, 363 Neophilia, 115, 119 Neophilic, 123 Neophobia, 115, 119 Neophobic, 123 Nest(ing) boxes, 102, 256, 274, 288, 289, 296, 298, 372, 383, 466, 468, 472, 473 Nestedness, 67, 69 Nesting guilds, 69, 148–149 Nesting habitat, 416, 422 Netta rufina, 335 New Holland honeyeater, 354, 357, 362 Newspaper articles, 7, 172 Nickel, 229, 240 Night heron, 70, 241 Nightingale, 493 Nightjar abundance, 470 Nightjars, 470–472 Night light, 8, 252, 253, 255, 257, 262, 267 Ninox strenua, 347 Noise pollution, 114, 187, 228 Noisy miner, 116, 118, 343, 348, 351, 352, 353, 356, 359–362, 364, 365 520 Nonnative, 6, 14, 19–22, 25, 137, 145, 149, 150, 167, 187, 318, 334, 380, 414 Nonnative species, 14, 20, 145, 149, 150 Non-synanthropic, 152, 163, 168 Northern, 5, 21, 28, 50, 127, 240, 312, 314, 318, 332, 333, 338 Northern cardinals, 21, 172, 233, 416, 419 Northern lapwings, 472, 473 Northern mockingbirds, 168, 172, 233, 383 Northern wheatear, 402–405, 407 Numida meleagris, 319 Nycticorax nycticorax, 70, 241 O Oak, 469, 470, 474, 476–478 Occupancy estimation, 202 modelling, 190 Occurrence, 20, 57, 60–62, 64, 138, 141, 151, 216–218, 230, 316, 351, 352, 359, 362, 364, 365, 376, 377, 404, 407, 456, 457, 478 Ochrocephala, 276 Ocyphaps lophotes, 346 Oenanthe oenanthe, 402 Olive thrush, 316 Omnivores, 97, 136, 148, 149 Omnivorous, 6, 15, 44, 46, 346 Onychognathus morio, 328 Operophtera brumata, 478 Organic compounds, 92, 230–231 Organic pollutants, 7, 8, 96, 228, 231, 237, 239, 245 Organohalogens, 230, 239–241, 244 Oriental magpie robin, 60, 62, 236, 239 Oriental magpie robin (Copsychus saularis), 239 Oriolus oriolus, 434 Ornithological atlas, 7, 164, 209–221 Ornithological cartography, 214, 215 Ovenbirds, 419 Owls, 117, 325, 326, 347 Oxyura jamaicensis, 17 P Pachycephala pectoralis, 348, 353, 356 Palm dove, 276 Paradoxornithidae, 66 Parasite(s), 44, 46, 78, 95, 103 Pardalotus P punctatus, 353, 356 Index P striatus, 348, 353, 356 Paridae, 66, 67, 101, 261, 438 Park(s), 8, 9, 23, 25, 93, 136, 137, 139–141, 163, 165, 169, 170, 173, 174, 176, 178, 186, 193, 196, 202, 216, 257, 258, 262– 265, 273–275, 277, 278, 281, 288, 292, 296, 299, 302, 314, 315, 317–318, 322, 325, 330, 333, 335, 364, 377, 382, 387, 400, 405, 406, 408, 425–444, 450, 454, 457, 460, 461, 466, 467, 472, 479–484, 493, 495, 501 Park size, 151, 152, 427, 429, 430, 432, 433, 436, 437, 439–443 Parrots, 276, 335, 347, 363, 366, 376 Parus major, 60, 61, 96, 101, 151, 243, 262, 294, 433 Parus ¼ Poecile atricapillus, 101, 102 Parus spp., 151 Passer P domesticus, 15, 17, 20, 21, 48, 63, 96, 98, 102, 119–122, 166, 239, 272, 279, 291, 321, 335, 354, 357, 373, 379, 404, 442, 500 P hispaniolensis, 435 P italiae, 433, 435 P montanus, 61, 240, 402, 435, 438, 442 Passeridae, 335, 438, 442 Patch area, 152, 495 Patch size, 67, 146, 150, 151, 401, 403 Pathogens, 24, 95, 103, 242–244 Pavo cristatus, 321, 335 Peregrine falcon Falco peregrinus, 96, 235, 236, 241, 275, 283, 499 Periparus ater, 434, 457 Peri-urban, 7, 14, 47–49, 153, 271, 441, 454, 481 Pernis apivorus, 434, 438 Pesticides, 136, 231, 242 Petrochelidon nigricans, 355, 358 Petroica P boodang, 353, 356 P phoenicea, 355, 358 Phalacrocorax carbo, 434 Phasianidae, 335, 438 Phasianus colchicus, 434 Phenotypic plasticity, 7, 98, 99, 105, 113–130 Phoenicurus P ochruros, 272, 402, 434 P phoenicurus, 427, 434, 438 Phoenix canariensis, 315 Photoperiod, 93, 257, 259, 260, 262, 264, 266 Phylidonyris P novaehollandiae, 354, 357 Index P pyrrhopterus, 354, 357 Phylloscopus P bonelli, 434, 437 P collybita, 434 P fuscatus, 70 P sibilatrix, 434, 438 P borealis, 70 Pica pica, 60, 62, 70, 117, 174, 240, 301, 434, 457 Picidae, 16, 60, 67, 438, 439, 440 Picus viridis, 433, 434, 436, 438, 441 Pied kingfisher, 325, 326 Pigeon, 15, 64, 81, 82, 84, 96, 98, 100, 104, 136, 233, 235, 241, 242, 271–284, 330, 331, 346, 456, 457 Pigeons Columba livia, 241, 242 Pine marten, 283 Pin-tailed whydah, 321 Pipistrellus pipistrellus, 255 Piranga olivacea, 168 Pitangus sulphuratus, 17 Planning, vi, 4, 8, 9, 20, 43, 45, 59, 60, 69, 94, 152, 154, 173–174, 210, 220, 221, 244, 268, 289, 303, 334, 366, 373, 374, 384– 387, 406, 451, 460, 466–468, 479, 496 Plantanus sp., 315 Plasticity, 6, 7, 79–83, 92, 98, 99, 102, 104, 105, 113–128, 170 Platanus hispanica, 454 Platycercus, 348, 352–354, 356 P caledonicus, 354, 356 P eximius, 352, 353, 356 Ploceus P capensis, 325, 326 P velatus, 321 Plum-headed parakeet, 335 Pochards, 273, 335 Podiceps cristatus, 434 Poecile palustris, 434, 438 Poicephalus P meyeri, 335 P senegalus, 335 Point counts, 44, 45, 139, 141, 192, 194–196, 200–203, 219, 318, 322, 351, 415 Pollutants, 7–9, 96, 227–245 Pollution, 5, 7, 95–97, 99, 103, 104, 114, 137, 138, 171, 187, 228–230, 232, 237–245, 253–268, 498 Polyboroides typus, 325, 326 Polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE), 231, 236, 239, 242 Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), 231, 235, 239–242 521 Population, 4, 17, 19, 22, 24, 25, 27, 44, 50, 55, 56, 58, 61, 67, 77, 78, 82, 83, 99, 114, 137, 149, 152, 162, 163, 166, 169–171, 174, 176–178, 186, 189–192, 194, 199– 201, 203, 227–245, 255, 267, 271–284, 288, 292, 293, 302, 310, 311, 315, 316, 329, 330, 334, 347, 366, 374, 380–382, 385, 404, 408, 414, 416–421, 428–430, 433, 437, 439–442, 451, 452, 458, 459, 471–473, 477–481, 484, 492, 493, 495, 497, 499, 500 Population-level, 9, 166, 167, 169, 170, 238, 241, 243, 450 Porcellio laevis, 119 Porphyrio porphyrio, 17 Post-fledging Survival, 419 Precision, 188, 196, 494 Predation, 24, 50, 94, 95, 102, 138, 152, 170, 186, 267, 364, 382–384, 403, 404, 416– 418, 426, 476–478 P relictum, 95 Presence-absence, 151, 189–191, 198 Prinia flavicans, 325, 326 Prunella modularis, 292 Psittacidae, 15, 16, 83, 321, 335 Psittacula P cyanocephala, 335 P eupatria, 276 P krameri, 17, 78, 276, 321, 335, 434 Ptyonoprogne rupestris, 435 Pycnonotidae, 66, 67 Pycnonotus P cafer, 17 P jocosus, 17, 62 P nigricans, 333 P sinensis, 60, 61, 239 Pycnonotus spp hybrids, 316 Pycnonotus xanthorrhous, 70 Pyrrhula pyrrhula, 435 Q Quercus robur, 474, 476, 478 Quercus spp., 315, 474 Quiscalus quiscula, 21, 291 R Radio-tracking, 196 Raptor(s), 66, 245, 271–284, 317, 325, 345, 347, 442, 500 Rats, 298, 347, 366, 384 Raven, 169, 173, 178, 292, 352, 355, 358 522 Red-backed shrike Lanius collurio, 402 Red-billed leiothrix, 84 Red-crested pochard, 335 Red-eyed bulbul Pycnonotus nigricans, 333 Red-eyed-dark-capped Bulbul Pycnonotus spp hybrids, 316 Red-eyed dove, 319 Red-eyed vireo (Vireo olivaceus), 168 Red kites, 381 Red wattlebird, 292 Red-winged starling, 327 Regulus R ignicapilla, 434, 457 R regulus, 434 Relative abundance, 187, 189, 190, 193, 195, 198, 202, 315, 335 Remiz pendulinus, 434 Reproductive timing, 225 Resident, 8, 26, 44, 46, 57, 61, 70, 93, 97, 136, 138, 144, 146, 148, 174, 187, 239, 245, 282, 287–303, 318, 325, 332, 347, 352, 377–389, 406, 407, 442, 481, 484 Residential areas, v, 70, 138, 372, 442 Rhinella marina, 117, 119, 120 Rhinolophus hipposideros, 255 Rhipidura albiscapa, 348, 355, 357 Rhipiduridae, 66 Richness, 6, 17–19, 21, 22, 25, 36–39, 41, 44, 47, 48, 50, 67, 69, 95, 136, 141, 143, 146–150, 152–154, 167–169, 293, 296, 302, 320, 322–328, 361, 365, 373, 375, 378, 379, 381, 388, 401, 405, 425–443, 468, 470, 473, 482, 492, 499 Ringed teal, 335 Ring-necked parakeet, 78, 276 Risk-taking, 115, 120, 123 Robin, 21, 60, 62, 233, 236, 239, 262, 294, 353, 355, 356, 358, 362, 457 Rock dove, 48, 291, 321, 331, 335, 500 martin, 325, 326, 331 Rock/feral pigeon, Columba livia, 272 Rook, 64, 234, 240 Rook Corvus frugilegus, 64, 240 Rose-ringed parakeet, 321, 330, 331, 335 Rosy-faced lovebird, 335 Rowan, 474, 476 Ruddy shelduck, 274, 335 Ruderal vegetation, v Ruffed, 471 Rural to urban gradient, v, 238, 414 Index S Sampling, 7, 37, 152, 174, 188, 190, 191, 194, 196, 198, 202, 232–238, 243, 245, 252, 253, 316, 318–322, 326, 327, 349, 363, 493, 494, 497, 498 design, 232, 245, 494, 498 Sand lizard Lacerta agilis, 403 Sardinian warbler, 457 Sarothrura boehmi, 316 Satin flycatcher, 348, 353, 356 Saxicola torquatus, 325, 326, 434 Scales, 5, 23, 37, 78, 116, 138, 161, 186, 321, 373, 460, 467, 496 Scarlet, 168 Scarlet robin, 353, 356, 362 Science initiatives, 200, 386 Sciurus S carolinensis, 117, 118, 120 S niger, 118 Scolopacidae, 6, 15, 16, 438 Seagulls, 298 Searsia spp., 315 Seasonal, 8, 21–22, 36, 47–48, 50, 69, 99, 148, 252–255, 259, 264–267, 330, 443 Seasonality, 19, 47, 48, 93–94, 99–100, 105 Seedeaters, 154, 325 Seiurus aurocapilla, 419 Senegal parrot, 335 Sericornis humilis, 348, 353, 356 Serin, 272, 457 Serinus S mozambicus, 325, 326 S serinus, 272, 433, 435, 457 Shining bronze-cuckoo, 355, 358 Short-toed tree creeper, 457 Shovelers, 273 Sigelus silens, 327 Silvereye, 345, 354, 357, 362 Silver gull, 292 Similarity, 36, 39, 40, 47, 281, 282, 300, 348, 352, 359, 363–365, 443 Sink populations, v, 153 Sitta europaea, 434 Small-billed elaenia, 48 Socio-economic status, 374, 378–379 Song sparrow, 21, 116, 118, 171, 233, 295 Song thrush(es), 262, 277, 382 Sorbus aucuparia, 474, 476 Sound pollution, 97, 104 Source-sink dynamics, 388 Southern masked-weaver, 321 Sparrowhawk, 275, 325, 326, 477 Index Sparrow Passer domesticus, 20, 21, 48, 63, 98, 119–122, 166, 272, 291, 321, 335, 354, 357, 379, 404, 500 Sparrows, 136, 154, 171, 176, 419 Spatial ecology, 162 Spatial scale(s), 5, 6, 23, 25, 50, 138, 140, 141, 145, 146, 148, 162, 174, 373, 374, 380, 384, 403, 496 Specialist, 83, 94, 221, 277, 331, 334, 351, 352, 358, 363–365, 373, 375, 401, 403, 405, 441, 443 Species assemblages, 348, 352, 361 diversity, 67, 77, 114, 136, 137, 141, 145– 150, 152, 167, 168, 296, 329, 346, 405 number, 58, 69 richness, v, vi 9, 17–19, 21, 22, 25, 36–39, 41, 44, 50, 67, 69, 136, 141, 143–147, 150, 152–154, 166–169, 174, 293, 296, 300, 302, 320, 322–328, 346, 361, 373, 377, 379, 401, 405, 425–443, 468, 469, 470, 473, 482, 492, 499 traits, 43 Species-area, 18, 22, 152 Species-area relationship, 22, 152 Speckled mousebird, 333 Speckled pigeon, 331 Spectral composition, 253–254 Spinus S psaltria, 375 S tristis, 21 Spiza americana, 419 Spotted dove, 60, 61 Spotted pardalote, 353, 356, 362 Squirrels, 154, 382 Starlings, 20, 21, 63, 64, 96, 172, 272, 276, 279, 291, 321, 327, 330, 332, 335, 354, 357, 362, 373 Stonechat, 325, 326 Stopover habitat, 22 Stopover sites, 420, 421 Streaky-breasted Flufftail, 316 Streptera versicolor, 355, 358 Streptopelia S capicola, 319 S chinensis, 60, 61 S decaocto, 17, 64, 272, 433, 434, 442, 457 S semitorquata, 319 S senegalensis, 276, 319 S turtur, 434, 438 Striated pardalote, 348, 353, 356, 362 Strong-billed honeyeater, 353, 356 Sturnidae, 66, 67, 335 523 Sturnus S unicolor, 435 S vulgaris, 15, 17, 20, 21, 96, 172, 272, 291, 321, 335, 354, 357, 373, 428, 434, 442 Suburban, 49, 104, 145, 153, 163, 168, 216, 253, 258, 273, 290, 294, 316, 318, 327, 329, 333, 334, 344, 346, 347, 348, 361, 364, 365, 383, 388, 466, 469, 479, 481 Suburban adaptables, 400 Suburban adapter(s), 310, 316, 322, 323, 330 Suburbs, v, 174, 193, 211, 288, 296, 299, 302, 314, 318, 332, 333, 345–349, 364–366, 379 Superb fairy-wren, 348, 354, 357, 362 Supplemental feeding, 169, 174 Supplemental food, 187, 381, 382 Supplementary feeding, 22–25, 381, 382 Supplementary food, 100, 374, 382, 389, 468, 471, 473 Swainson’s thrushes, 419 Swallows (Petrochelidon pyrrhonota), 171 Swifts, 136, 176, 426, 442 Sylvia S atricapilla, 100, 433, 434, 457 S cantillans, 434 S melanocephala, 434, 457 Sylviidae, 16, 66, 438 Synanthropes, 363 Synanthropic, 136, 137, 145, 279, 331 Synurbic, 271–284 Synurbization, 271, 273, 275, 282, 284 Syrian woodpeckers, 137, 138 Syringa, 315 T Tachybaptus ruficollis, 434 Tadorna ferruginea, 273, 274, 335 Tamarisk (Tamarix spp.), 417, 421, 422 Tanager, 168 Tasmanian native-hen, 355, 357 Tasmanian scrubwren, 348, 353, 356 Tasmanian thornbill, 353, 356 Tawny pipit, 402, 403 Taxonomic similarity, 36 Teals, 273, 335 Temporal dynamics, 48, 50, 166, 497 Temporal scales, 7, 174, 186, 460 Temporal trends, 163 Territory mapping, 455, 456, 475 Thick-billed, 325, 326 Thick-billed weaver, 325, 326 Threshold, 6, 41, 103, 153, 197, 260–263, 330, 459 524 Thrushes, 277, 281, 372, 382, 419, 426, 473 Timaliidae, 66, 67 Tortrix viridana, 478 Transects, 44, 47, 189, 192, 194, 197–200, 455, 457–459 Tree martin, 355, 358, 362 Tree sparrow, 60, 61, 69, 70, 235, 236, 283, 402, 403, 472 Tribonyx mortierii, 352, 355, 357 Troglodytes troglodytes, 435 Tropical kingbird, 48 Tufted ducks, 273, 274, 335 Turdidae, 66, 261, 438–440 Turdus, 372 T assimilis, 419 T merula, 60, 61, 99, 119, 122, 166, 238, 254, 277, 292, 353, 356, 426, 433, 434, 457, 493 T migratorius, 21, 168, 262, 414 T olivaceus, 316 T philomelos, 262, 277, 382, 426, 434 T smithi, 316 T viscivorus, 426 Turnover, 21, 22, 39, 50, 166, 167, 169, 172, 312, 314, 405 Two-banded plover, 119 Tyrannus T melancholicus, 48 T savana, 48 Tyto alba, 279, 325, 326 U Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) grid, 214–215 Upupa epops, 427, 434, 438 Upupidae, 438 Urban adapters, 67, 71, 154, 187, 322, 323, 330, 373 atlases, 7, 212–214, 427, 495 avoiders, 15, 154, 187, 310, 316, 346, 373, 400, 403 design, 498–499, 501, 502 dwellers, 15, 79, 80, 501 exploiters, 80, 187, 254, 310, 373, 400, 403, 442 forestry, 441, 466, 468 gradient, v, 49, 140–143, 148, 150, 151, 176, 238, 256, 318, 414, 427 green(ing), 449–461, 468 green planning, 466 habitat, 5, 8, 22, 23, 26, 44, 45, 66, 67, 69, 71, 76, 94, 103, 114, 122, 123, 124, 127, 136, 137, 201, 228, 230, 238, 257, 267, 277, 279, 284, 294, 302, 366, 378, 400, Index 403, 405, 406, 416, 426, 452, 495, 496, 499 matrix, 140, 141, 143, 148, 198, 385, 387, 388, 402, 403, 442, 459–461 noise, 104, 171, 187, 197, 302 planning, 8, 43, 45, 59, 60, 152, 153, 173– 174, 210, 221, 289, 373, 374, 385–387, 406–408, 468 sprawl, 280, 442, 498 utilizers, 15 Urbanization gradient, 36, 41–46, 50, 69, 140, 142, 144, 145 Urban/rural gradients, 193 Urban-sensitive, 348, 365, 377 Urban-sensitive native species, 376 Urocolius indicus, 290 Ursus americanus, 382 Use/land cover, 139, 141, 144, 145, 150 V Vanellus V coronatus, 319 V miles, 352, 354, 357 Veeries, 418 Vegetation, 6, 18, 25, 38, 45, 66, 77, 93, 137, 141, 167, 187, 252, 310, 344, 346, 349, 350, 372, 379, 384, 388, 400, 414, 450, 469, 473 Vidua macroura, 321 Vireo olivaceus, 168 Voles, 96 W Warblers, 70, 281, 294, 295, 418, 419, 457, 473 Wastelands, 8, 186, 399–408, 411, 450, 481 Wavelengths, 253–255, 268 Weaver, 321, 325, 326 Welcome swallow, 354, 357 Well-being, 3, 7, 8, 186, 230, 287–303, 333, 373, 381, 388, 501 Western Bonelli’s warbler, 457 Western gulls, 169, 170 White-backed mousebird, 333 White-backed woodpecker, 481 White-crowned sparrows, 171 White-fronted plover, 119, 121 White stork, 234, 235 White-throated thrushes, 419 White wagtail, 60, 62, 402 White wagtail Motacilla alba, 62, 402 Wigeon, 274 Willow, 294, 295, 417, 421 flycatcher, 417, 421 Index warbler, 294, 295 Wilsonia citrina, 419 Woodchuck, 119, 121 Wood mice, 255 Woodpeckers, 63, 137, 138, 294, 327, 375, 425, 441, 443, 481 Wood pigeon, 276, 282, 283, 457 Worm-eating warblers, 419 X Xerus inauris, 118, 120 Y Yellow-billed duck, 332 525 Yellow-collared lovebird, 276, 335 Yellow-crowned Amazon, 276 Yellow-fronted canary, 326 Yellow-rumped thornbill, 357 Yellow-throated honeyeater, 348, 357 Yellow wattlebird, 355, 358 Z Zenaida macroura, 21 Zinc, 103, 229, 230, 235, 239, 242 Zonotrichia leucophrys nuttalli, 171 Zosteropidae, 66 Zosterops Z japonicus, 17, 62 Z lateralis, 345, 354, 357 .. .Ecology and Conservation of Birds in Urban Environments Enrique Murgui • Marcus Hedblom Editors Ecology and Conservation of Birds in Urban Environments Editors Enrique... bird fauna in cities and of urban ecology as a whole were growing and that the pioneering books Urban Bird Ecology (Marzluff et al 2001) and Birds in European Cities (Kelcey and Rheinwald 2005)... state of the science in terms of basic patterns of urban birds in the world’s cities and lay out a research agenda to improve basic understanding of patterns and processes and to better inform conservation