Water at the surface of the earth

WATER AT THE SURFACE OF THE EARTH An Introduction to Ecosystem Hydrodynamics Student Edition This is Volume 21 in INTERNATIONAL GEOPHYSICS SERIES A series of monographs and textbooks A complete list of the books in this series appears at the end of this volume WATER AT THE SURFACE OF THE EARTH An Introduction to Ecosystem Hydrodynamics Student Edition DAVID €3 MILLER Department of Geological Sciences University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee Milwaukee, Wisconsin @ 1977 ACADEMIC PRESS A Subsidiary of Harcourt Brace lovanovich, Publishers New York London Paris San Diego San Francisco S i o Paulo Sydney Tokyo Toronto COPYRIGHT @ 1977, BY ACADEMIC PRESS,INC ALL RIGHTS RESERVED NO PART OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE REPRODUCED OR TRANSMITTED IN ANY F OR M OR BY ANY MEANS, ELECTRONIC OR MECHANICAL, INCLUDING PHOTOCOPY, RECORDING, OR ANY INFORMATION STORAGE AND RETRIEVAL SYSTEM, WITHOUT PERMISSION IN WRITING F R OM T HE PUBLISHER ACADEMIC PRESS, INC 111 Fifth Avenue, New York, New York 10003 United Kingdom Edition published b y ACADEMIC PRESS, INC ( L O N D O N ) LTD 24/28 Oval Road, London NW1 7DX LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOG CARD NUMBER:76-13947 ISBN 0-12-496752-3 PRINTED IN TH E UNITED STATES O F AMERICA 82838485 To Fritz This page intentionally left blank CONTENTS PREFACE Chapter I Introduction Just What Is the Earth’s Surface? The Budget Idea Water in Systems Water Supplied by the Atmosphere to the Earth’s Surface Chapter I1 Atmospheric Vapor Flows and Atmospheric Storms Water Vapor and Its Movement over the Earth’s 5urface Atmospheric Storms Sizes and Movement of Atmospheric Storms Atmospheric Storms: Causes of Variability in Rainfall References Chapter I11 Point Rainfall-The Delivery of Water to an Ecosystem Measuring Rain and Snow The Dimensions of Point Rainfall The Frequency of Precipitation-Intensity Events Water Delivery to Ecosystems References Chapter IV Hydrologic Storms The Area of Hydrologic Storms Areal Syntheses The Episodic Occurrence of Hydrologic Storms CONTENTS Vlll Closing References 87 88 Chapter V Large-Scale Organization of Rainfall Organization of Storms in Time Spatial Grouping of Rainfall Spatial Pattern of Annual Precipitation Areal Pattern of Long-Term Changes in Rainfall Associated Mass Fluxes Time and Space Organization of the Water Delivered to Ecosystems References 90 97 107 114 117 118 119 Chapter VI Reception of Water by Ecosystems Ecosystem Hydrodynamics Delivery of Rain and Snow to Vegetation Interception of Water by Vegetation Stvrage of Rain and Snvw on Foliage during Storms The Outflows from Interception Storage of Rain and Snow Evaporation as a Mode of Outflow from Interception Storage Water Intercepted by Litter Areal Redistribution of Water by Vegetation above the Soil References 122 125 132 134 139 145 149 150 152 Chapter VII Water Detained on the Soil Surface Snow Cover Liquid Water on the Ground Outflows from Detention Storage References 155 187 193 193 Chapter VIII Infiltration of Water into the Soil of an Ecosystem The Soil as Environment of Water Infiltration of Water into the Soil Influences of Vegetation o n Infiltration Time Differences in Infiltration Infiltrated Water in Ecosystems References 198 200 205 210 212 13 Chapter IX Soil Moisture Soil-Moisture Bookkeeping Soil-Moisture Distributions in Space 215 224 CONTENTS Time Variations of Soil Moisture Freezing and Melting of Soil Water Outflows of Water from the Soil References 1x 228 243 247 248 Chapter X Evaporation from Wet Surfaces Determining Evaporation Rates Evaporation from Deep Water Bodies Evaporation from Shallow Water Bodies Evaporation from a Wet Soil Surface Evaporation References 251 257 265 269 272 272 Chapter XI Evaporation from Well-Watered Ecosystems Transpiration of Water from Leaves Evapotranspiration from Plant Communities Empirical Patterns of Potential Evapotranspiration Evaporation Differs with Ecosystems References 275 276 297 301 301 Chapter XI1 Evaporation from Drying Ecosystems Bare Soil Surfaces Evapotranspiration from a Drying Soil-Vegetation System Variations i n Evapotranspiration over Time Large-Scale Patterns The Era of Evaporation References 304 309 319 334 34 342 Chapter XI11 Water in the Local Air Water Vapor in the Local Air Visible Forms of Water in the Local Air Condensation of Vapor on the Underlying Surface References 345 353 362 370 Chapter XIV Percolation from Ecosystems Shallow Percolation Deeper Percolation Mass Transports by Percolating Water Significance of Percolation 373 374 381 386 546 INDEX 167-174, 184-185, 425 yield from, 505-507 Mulch, 206-208, 225 Muller, I< A., 144, 153, 161, 195, 329, 330, 331, 343, 501, 516 Murphy, C E., Jr., 149, 153 Murray Valley, 287 p1, 409 Musgrave, G W., 189, 191, 195, 203, 207, 214 Muskingum River, 432 Mustonen, S E., 321, 323, 343 Mutchler, C K., 443, 473 Myrhe, D L., 194 Myths dew, 363-364, 366 evaporating power of air, 267, 306, 316317 evaporation pans, 266-268, 316 evaporation of snow, 185 interception of snow, 145-147 raingage accuracy, , 95-96 underground rivers, 399 wind effect on evaporation, 266, 284 285, 522 zone of maximum precipitation, 18-19 N Nace, I< L , 9, 36, 394, 422 Namias, J , 25, 36 Narayanan, A V S , 448, 471 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 41, 52, 56-60, 70, 76, 97 National Research Council, 399, 418, 419, 422, 500, 517 Near-surface runoff, 4 Nebraska, 326-327, 460461, 463 Nechayev, N., 63 Needle ice, 244, 444 Negev, Neiburger, M , 21, 36 Nelson, L B., 432, 471 Nesina, L V., 260, 273 Neutron probes, 223 New England, 22, 82, 383-384, 484, see also Hubbard Brook, N.H New Hampshire, 41, see also Hubbard Brook New Jersey, see Laboratory of Climatology New Mexico, 74-77, 100 n New Orleans, 58-59 New South Wales, 101-102, 410, 439, 442443, sw also Hunter Valley; Sydney Newton, C W., 16, 17, 18, 36, 37, 67 New Zealand, 84-86, 234-239, 1, 498499, 506, scc also Canterbury Plains; Waikato Valley Nicholson, H P., 469 Nickell, C D., 302 Nikonorova, S N , 469 1948 flood, 9 1973, spring and summer, 53-54, 100-101, 232, 488, 530 Nitrogen, 118, 383-384, 398, 445-446, 484485 "Noah-Joseph' property of rainfall, 62 "Non-point" sources, S E E Off-site transport North America, 11-15, 245-246, 038-339, 376, 389, 461, 512, S E P ~ilso specific experimental sites, localities, and states eastern, 22, 29-30, 98-99, 106, 240-242, 334-335, 350-352, 8 North Central Region, Agricultural Experiment Stations, 92, 104, 105, 120 North Fork, California, 374-376, 396 Norway, 20, 506 Nutrient recycling, scc Mass recycling in ecosystems Nutrients, see Mass fluxes; Nitrogen; Phosphorus; Potassium Oahu, groundwater, 396-398, 416417, 475 pl irrigation and percolation, 383, 387 precipitation on, 27, , 72-73, 78, 79-80, 111 soil-moisture bookkeeping, 219-22 I Oakland, G L., 390, 516 Oasis effect, 285-287, 351, see ulso Advective energy in evapotranspiration Oceans, 114, 511-514 Odum, E P., 275, 292, 302, 351, 371, 450, 471 547 INDEX Off-site flow, 190-192, 245, 426442, 452461, 465-468, 492-515 dissection by, 435, 5 energetics, 425, 426, 443, 5 episodic nature of, 427, 431432, 452459 induced, 4 I variations in, 431432, 452461, 503, 512 volume of, 494, 505-510, 512-513 Off-site transport, 423483, 492-517 of biocides, 448-450, 513-514 of nutrients, 445-446, 449, 463, 503-504 of pollutants, 448452, 463, 524 of sediment, 442448, 450451, 453455, 461464, 490 of water and debris, 453455, 6 Ogalalla aquifer, Texas 409, 419 Ogrosky, H 0.; 56, 63, 412, 422, 460, 471 Ohio, s c c Coshocton Ohio River, 33, 9 Oklahoma, 16-17, 3:-33 O'Neill, Nebraska, 326-327 Oregon, 145-146, 312-313, 356 Orlob, T., 421 Orographic influences on rainfali, 18-19, 20, 71-73, 82, 108-112, 164, 505-506, see nlso Terrain influences Oster, J D., 517 Outcalt, S I., 165, 195, 316, 331, 342, 343 Outflows of groundwater, see Groundwa- ter cutflows Out-of-phase regimes, 279-280, 298, 339, 342, see U / S ( J Seasonality Overland flow, see Off-si te fiow Ovington, J D , 142, 153 Owen, J B., 443, 469 Ozeki, Y., 137, 138, 154 PardC, Maurice, 506, 517 Parmele, L H., 502, 517 Parsons, J J , 128, 154 Partial-area runoff, 193, 227-228, 403, 405, 432434, 437, 446, 463 Partitioning of water i n ecosvstenis, 2, 123 124, 197-198, 378, 427-430, 437441, 515, 520, 532 Patric, J H., 37Y, 390 Patterson, C C., 11, 36 Peak flow, 5 terrain influences on, 454459 uncertainties, Pease, S I