Pot-Honey Patricia Vit • Silvia R.M Pedro Editors Pot-Honey A legacy of stingless bees • David W Roubik Editors Patricia Vit Universidad de Los Andes Mérida, Venezuela The University of Sydney Lidcombe, NSW, Australia Silvia R.M Pedro University of São Paulo Ribeirão Preto São Paulo, Brazil David W Roubik Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute Ancon, Balboa Panama ISBN 978-1-4614-4959-1 ISBN 978-1-4614-4960-7 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-4960-7 Springer New York Heidelberg Dordrecht London Library of Congress Control Number: 2012952932 © Springer Science+Business Media New York 2013 This work is subject to copyright All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed Exempted from this legal reservation are brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis or material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the Copyright Law of the Publisher’s location, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer Permissions for use may be obtained through RightsLink at the Copyright Clearance Center Violations are liable to prosecution under the respective Copyright Law The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use While the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication, neither the authors nor the editors nor the publisher can accept any legal responsibility for any errors or omissions that may be made The publisher makes no warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein Printed on acid-free paper Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com) This book is dedicated to our families, friends, colleagues—past, present, future− observers of stingless bee life, and stingless bee keepers Foreword The stingless bees are one of the most diverse, attractive, fascinating, conspicuous, and useful of all the insect groups of the tropical world This is a formidable and contentious claim but I believe it can be backed up They are 50 times more species rich than the honey bees, the other tribe of highly eusocial bees They are ubiquitous in the tropics and thrive in tropical cities In rural areas, they nest in a diversity of sites and are found on the flowers of a broad diversity of crop plants Their role in natural systems is barely studied but they almost certainly deserve that hallowed title of keystone species They are popular with the general public and are greatly appreciated in zoos and gardens The chapters of this book provide abundant further evidence of the ecological and economic importance of stingless bees Given their extreme interest, then it follows that this group must have been the subject of a huge body of scientific research Unfortunately, this is not the case Although the stingless bees contain 50 times as many species as the honey bees, the latter have been the subject of perhaps 50 times as much research effort, as estimated by published papers We have squandered this precious natural heritage by our lack of attention, and in our failure we have limited our use of this resource But this book starts to address that failure The chapters of this book summarize much of the current knowledge of stingless bees and also provide new findings The diversity of species, behaviors, and the wide geographic range is explored in the Part I The close relationships between humans and stingless bees through history is the topic of the chapters of Part II The importance of stingless bees in agricultural and natural ecosystems derives from their flower visitation behavior and resulting pollination; this is the focus of the third part The final two parts provide reviews and original research on the use and properties of the products of the hives of stingless bees, in particular the honey Stingless bees are an ancient source of sweetness and medicine for many indigenous people in the tropics, from the nomadic hunters and gatherers of northern Australia to the mighty Mayan empire of Central America But modern commercial exploitation of this product has been hampered partially by a lack of information on its properties and composition A strength of this book is the focus on “pot-honey,” honey derived from the pots of stingless bees, as opposed to the comb of honey vii viii Foreword bees Perhaps now stingless bee honey will move from locally available and start to be seen in the global marketplace Indigenous peoples may not have knowingly used stingless bees as pollinators of their crops, but certainly these industrious insects would have played an important role Stingless bees also have an important role to play in education These harmless and fascinating animals can be used in schools and universities, public gardens, and zoos, as case studies in ecological interactions These bees may even have economical value as pets Housing a colony of these bees in a city apartment provides an opportunity for urban dwellers to have some contact with nature This book is one of the few specifically devoted to stingless bees Let us hope that it stimulates a generation of further research so that the enormous potential of this group can be realized Brisbane, Australia Tim A Heard Foreword Yes, we can We live in a time when bees seem to become scarce in relation to their former numbers engaged in pollination and honey production Our time is also one of competition and upset between different kinds of bees First, in the nineteenth century, Apis mellifera invaded the Americas and Australia That was large-scale invasion And in the twentieth century and afterwards, we saw the invasion, in a larger scale, of the African A mellifera scutellata in the tropical and subtropical Americas, and there was also a strong decline in the numbers of the meliponine bees We, the friendly breeders of stingless bees, must in some way make them recover at least some parts of the areas already nearly lost For doing so, we must improve and increase our breeding of stingless bees such as Scaptotrigona and Melipona, good for pollination In other words we must as soon as possible improve MELIPONICULTURE and also increase the number of colonies engaged in different projects We are not against any bee properly bred and cared for However, we must also protect meliponiculture For doing so, we must improve our breeding experience in MELIPONICULTURE This is quite possible, since in Nature, in Africa, in some places A mellifera and the native meliponines are present after millions of years of coexistence However, now in parts of tropical America, A mellifera scutellata seems to be still gaining ground, becoming generally the dominant bees In such a situation it is important to publish papers about the best ways of helping the Meliponini to survive and also to let people know more about their life history and their potential in pollination and in other fields I am glad to send my congratulations to the authors of the articles here published and for those who organized this initiative Some efforts like this one are needed from time to time, for promoting the survival of stingless bees I would say: yes, we can save them We really can São Paulo, Brazil Paulo Nogueira-Neto ix 640 Meliponini (cont.) Geotrigona acapulconis Guatemala, Mexico, 101, 140, 395 Geotrigona argentina, Argentina, 126 Geotrigona chiriquiensis Costa Rica, 116 Geotrigona inusitata [= Geotrigona mombuca (Smith, 1863)], 274 Geotrigona leucogastra, 571 Geotrigona lutzi Costa Rica, 100, 116 Geotrigona mombuca Brazil, 211, 325 Geotrigona subgrisea, 571 Geotrigona subnigra Venezuela, 76, 94 Geotrigona subterranea, 571 Geotrigona terricola, 100 governmental and nongovernmental organizations, 130 Heterotrigona, Heterotrigona, Heterotrigona (Heterotrigona), Heterotrigona, Trigona (Heterotrigona), 35, 36, 38, 41, 45–48, 51, 56, 60, 61, 67 Heterotrigona (Sundatrigona) moorei Indonesia, Thailand, 8, 11 Homotrigona, and honeybees, 223–224, 285, 486 hunters and stingless bee keepers, 354 Huottuja consumers, 354, 355 hymenoptera, 3–4 Hypotrigona, Hypotrigona araujoi Africa, 264 Hypotrigona gribodoi Africa, 264 Hypotrigona penna Africa, 264 Hypotrigona ruspolii Africa, 264 Kelneriapis eocenica, 14 Lepidotrigona, Lestrimelitta, 7, 20, 93 Lestrimelitta chacoana Argentina, 126 Lestrimelitta, 1999 Mexico, 140 Lestrimelitta danuncia Costa Rica, 116 Lestrimelitta glaberrima French Guiana, Venezuela, 76, 90 Lestrimelitta guyanensis French Guiana, 90 Lestrimelitta limao Brazil, 292 Lestrimelitta maracaia Venezuela, 76 Lestrimelitta monodonta French Guiana, 90 Lestrimelitta mourei Costa Rica, 116 Lestrimelitta niitkib Guatemala, Mexico, 101, 140 Lestrimelitta rufipes Argentina, 126 Lestrimelitta sulina Argentina, 126 Leurotrigona, 20, 93 Leurotrigona (= Trigonisca), Index Leurotrigona muelleri Argentina, Brazil, 126 Leurotrigona pusilla French Guiana, 90 Liotrigona bottegoi Africa, 264 Liotrigona, Liotrigonopsis rozeni, 14 Lisotrigona, Lophotrigona, Megachile Latreille, 177 Megachile rotundata, 175, 176 Melikerria (= Melipona), 7, 93 Melipona Brazil, Colombia, 7, 20, 93 Melipona apiformis, 82 Melipona asilvai Brazil, 368, 542, 543, 549 Melipona baeri Argentina, 126 Melipona beecheii Costa Rica, Guatemala, Mexico, 101, 116 Melipona beecheii honey, 223 Melipona belizeae, 147 Melipona bicolor Brazil, 274 Melipona bicolor schencki Argentina, 126 Melipona brachychaeta Bolivia, 469 Melipona capixaba, 179 Melipona carrikeri Costa Rica, 116 Melipona colimana Mexico, 140 Melipona compressipes Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela, 76, 90 Melipona compressipes manaosensis (= Melipona interrupta) Brazil, 289 Melipona concinnula, 76, 82 Melipona costaricensis Costa Rica, 116 Melipona cramptoni, 77, 82 Melipona crinita Bolivia, 410 Melipona eburnea Colombia, 370, 385–387, 391, 420–422 Melipona fasciata Mexico, Panama, 140 Melipona fasciata cramptoni duidae [= Melipona (Michmelia) cramptoni], 77, 82 Melipona fasciata guerreroensis [= Melipona (Michmelia) fasciata], 357, 435 Melipona fasciculata, 355 Melipona fasciculata Brazil, 158, 165, 355, 380, 435, 439, 440, 471, 488, 543, 548, 549, 553 Melipona favosa Colombia, Venezuela, 77, 90, 363 Melipona flavolineata Brazil, 56, 543, 549 Melipona fuliginosa Argentina, Costa Rica, 90, 116 Melipona fulva, 1836, 77, 90 Melipona fuscipes (= Melipona fasciata), 82 Index Melipona fuscopilosa Venezuela, 77 Melipona grandis Guérin, 1844 Bolivia, 370, 410–412, 414, 435, 469, 526, 531, 535 Melipona illota, 370 Melipona illustris, 76 Melipona indecisa, 77, 82 Melipona lateralis, 77, 90 Melipona lateralis kangarumensis [= Melipona (Michmelia) lateralis], 77 Melipona lupitae Mexico, 140 Melipona mandacaia Brazil, 288, 368, 412, 543, 549 Melipona marginata, 274 Melipona melanopleura [= Melipona (Michmelia) costaricensis], 544 Melipona mondury Brazil, 549, 553 Melipona obscurior Argentina, 126, 129 Melipona ogilviei, 76, 90 Melipona orbignyi, Melipona [sic = Melipona orbignyi] Argentina, 126, 129, 131 Melipona panamica Costa Rica, 116 Melipona paraensis, 77, 90 Melipona quadrifasciata Argentina, Brazil, 274 Melipona quadrifasciata anthidioides Brazil, 412, 530, 531, 543 Melipona quadrifasciata quadrifasciata Brazil, 543 Melipona quinquefasciata Argentina, Brazil, 126, 174, 177, 181, 182, 326 Melipona rufiventris Brazil, 177, 180, 471, 476, 488, 542, 543, 548 Melipona rufiventris paraensis, 288 Melipona scutellaris Brazil, 274 Melipona seminigra Brazil, 161, 162, 192, 288, 289 Melipona seminigra merrillae, 288 Melipona solani Guatemala, Mexico, 101, 140, 396 Melipona subnitida Brazil, 156, 179, 204, 331, 435, 439, 440, 471, 482, 487 Melipona torrida Costa Rica, 116 Melipona titania, 126 Melipona trinitatis, 77 Melipona variegatipes, 145 Melipona yucatanica Costa Rica, Guatemala, Mexico, 101, 116, 140 Melipona (Melipona) Melipona, 7, 20, 75, 93 Melipona (Eomelipona) bradleyi French Guiana, 90 Melipona (Eomelipona) concinnula Venezuela, 76 641 Melipona (Eomelipona) Eomelipona, 7, 93 Melipona (Eomelipona) illustris Venezuela, 76 Melipona (Eomelipona) ogilviei French Guiana, Venezuela, 76, 90 Melipona (Eomelipona) puncticollis French Guiana, 90 Melipona (Melikerria) compressipes French Guiana, Venezuela, 76, 90, 274 Melipona (Melikerria) grandis, 573 Melipona (Melikerria) interrupta French Guiana, Venezuela, 76, 90 Melipona (Melikerria) Melikerria , 7, 93 Melipona (Melipona) favosa French Guiana, Venezuela, 77, 90, 363 Melipona (Michmelia) apiformis Venezuela, 77, 82 Melipona (Michmelia) captiosa French Guiana, 90 Melipona (Michmelia) cramptoni Venezuela, 77, 82 Melipona (Michmelia) crinita Venezuela, 77, 410 Melipona (Michmelia) eburnea, 370, 385–387, 391, 418, 420–422 Melipona (Michmelia) fasciata, 82, 140 Melipona (Michmelia) fuliginosa French Guiana, 90, 116 Melipona (Michmelia) fulva French Guiana, Venezuela, 77, 90 Melipona (Michmelia) indecisa Venezuela, 77, 82 Melipona (Michmelia) lateralis French Guiana, Venezuela, 77, 90 Melipona (Michmelia) melanoventer French Guiana, 90 Melipona (Michmelia) Michmelia Venezuela, 7, 93 Melipona (Michmelia) paraensis French Guiana, Venezuela, 77, 90 Melipona (Michmelia) trinitatis Venezuela, 77 Meliponula, Meliponula bocandei Uganda, 264 Meliponula ferruginea, 264 Meliponula nebulata Uganda, 264 Meliponula (Axestotrigona) Axestotrigona, Meliponula (Axestotrigona) cameroonensis Africa, 264 Meliponula (Axestotrigona) eburnensis, 263 Meliponula (Axestotrigona) ferruginea Africa, 264 642 Meliponini (cont.) Meliponula (Axestotrigona) richardsi, 263 Meliponula (Axestotrigona) sawadogoi, 263 Meliponula (Meliplebeia) beccarii Africa, 264 Meliponula (Meliplebeia) griswoldorum Africa, 264 Meliponula (Meliplebeia) lendliana Africa, 264 Meliponula (Meliplebeia) Meliplebeia, Meliponula (Meliplebeia) nebulata (Smith, 1854) Africa, 264 Meliponula (Meliplebeia) ogouensis Africa, 264 Meliponula (Meliplebeia) roubiki Africa, 264 Meliponula (Meliponula) bocandei Africa, 264 Meliponula (Meliponula) Meliponula , Meliwillea Roubik, 7, 20, 93, 116 Meliwillea bivea Costa Rica, 116 Micheneria Kerr, Pisani & Aily, 1967 [= Melipona (Michmelia)], 7, 252 Michmelia (= Melipona), 7, 93 monofloral honeys, 288 Mourella, 20, 93 Mourella [= Plebeia (Plebeia)], Mourella caerulea Argentina, 126 Nannotrigona Colombia, Venezuela, 7, 20, 78, 93 Nannotrigona chapadana, 78 Nannotrigona melanocera Venezuela, 77 Nannotrigona mellaria Costa Rica, 116 Nannotrigona perilampoides Costa Rica, Guatemala, Mexico, 77, 101, 116, 140, 396 Nannotrigona punctata French Guiana, 90 Nannotrigona schultzei French Guiana, Venezuela, 78, 90 Nannotrigona testaceicornis Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, 274 Nannotrigona tristella Venezuela, 78, 82 natural pot pollen, 166 Neotropical, 136 Nogueirapis minor French Guiana, 91 Nogueirapis mirandula Costa Rica, 116 Nogueirapis Moure, 1953, 7, 20, 93 Nogueirapis silacea, 139 Odontotrigona, Odontotrigona Odontotrigona (Odontotrigona), Oxytrigona, 7, 20, 93 Oxytrigona daemoniaca Costa Rica, 116 Index Oxytrigona mediorufa Guatemala, Mexico, 101, 140 Oxytrigona mellicolor Costa Rica, Venezuela, 78, 116 Oxytrigona obscura French Guiana, 91 Oxytrigona tataira Argentina, 126 Papuatrigona Parapartamona, Parapartamona Partamona (Parapartamona), Paratetrapedia, Paratrigona Colombia, 7, 20, 78 Paratrigona anduzei Venezuela, 78, 81 Paratrigona femoralis French Guiana, 91 Paratrigona glabella Argentina, 126 Paratrigona guatemalensis Guatemala, Mexico, 101, 140 Paratrigona lineata, 575 Paratrigona lophocoryphe Costa Rica, 116 Paratrigona opaca Costa Rica, Mexico, 100, 140 Paratrigona ornaticeps Costa Rica, 116 Paratrigona pannosa French Guiana, Venezuela, 78, 91 Paratrigona peltata Costa Rica, 11 Paratrigona permixta Venezuela, 78, 82 Paratrigona subnuda, 334 Paratrigonoides, 7, 20, 93 Pariotrigona, Partamona Brazil, Colombia, 7, 20 Partamona, Partamona (Partamona), Partamona ailyae Venezuela, 78 Partamona auripennis French Guiana, Venezuela, 78, 91 Partamona batesi, 26, 27 Partamona bilineata Guatemala, Mexico, 101, 140 Partamona chapadicola, 27 Partamona cupira, 274 Partamona epiphytophila Venezuela, 78 Partamona ferreirai French Guiana, Venezuela, 78, 91 Partamona grandipennis Costa Rica, 117 Partamona gregaria, 27 Partamona helleri Argentina, Brazil, 126 Partamona mourei French Guiana, 91 Partamona musarum Costa Rica, 117 Partamona nigrior Venezuela, 78 Partamona orizabaensis Costa Rica, Guatemala, Mexico, 101, 117, 140 Partamona pearsoni French Guiana, Venezuela, 78, 91 Partamona peckolti Colombia, Venezuela, 78 Index Partamona seridoensis, 482 Partamona testacea French Guiana, 91 Partamona vicina French Guiana, Venezuela, 78, 91 Partamona vitae Venezuela, 78 Patera (= Partamona), phylogeny, 14–15 Platytrigona, Plebeia Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Guatemala, Venezuela, 7, 20 Plebeia, Plebeia (Plebeia), Plebeia (Scaura) latitarsis, 91, 102, 274 Plebeia (Scaura) timida, 9, 22 Plebeia catamarcensis Argentina, 126 Plebeia cora Mexico, 140 Plebeia droryana Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, 274 Plebeia emerina, 576 Plebeia franki Costa Rica, 117 Plebeia fraterna Venezuela, 78 Plebeia frontalis Costa Rica, Guatemala, Mexico, 101, 117, 140 Plebeia fulvopilosa Guatemala, Mexico, 101, 141 Plebeia goeldiana Venezuela, 78, 82 Plebeia jatiformis Costa Rica, Guatemala, Mexico, 101, 117, 141 Plebeia kerri Bolivia, 410 Plebeia lucii Brazil, 208 Plebeia llorentei Costa Rica, Guatemala, Mexico, 101, 117, 141 Plebeia manantlensis Mexico, 141 Plebeia melanica Guatemala, Mexico, 101, 141 Plebeia mexica Mexico, 141 Plebeia minima Costa Rica, French Guiana, 91, 117 Plebeia molesta Argentina, 125 Plebeia mosquito French Guiana, 91 Plebeia moureana Guatemala, Mexico, 101, 141 Plebeia nigriceps Argentina, 126 Plebeia parkeri Guatemala, Mexico, 101, 141 Plebeia poecilochroa, 274 Plebeia pulchra Costa Rica, Guatemala, Mexico, 101, 107, 141 Plebeia remota, 576 Plebeia saiqui, 290 Plebeia tica Costa Rica, 117 Plebeia wittmanni Argentina, 126 Plebeiella [= Meliponula (Meliplebeia)], 577 Plebeina, 643 Plebeina hildebrandti Africa, 264 pot-honey and pot-pollen, 287 Proplebeia {extinct}Dominican Republic, Mexico, 20 Proplebeia dominicana {extinct} Dominican Republic, 154, 252 Ptilothrix plumata, 176 Ptilotrigona lurida Brazil, French Guiana, Venezuela, 79, 91 Ptilotrigona, 20, 93 Ptilotrigona [= Trigona (Tetragona)], Ptilotrigona occidentalis Costa Rica, 117 Ptilotrigona pereneae, 22 Sakagamilla Moure, 1989 (= Scaptotrigona), Scaptotrigona Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Paraguay, Venezuela, 7, 20 Scaptotrigona bipunctata, 577 Scaptotrigona depilis Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Venezuela, 91, 410 Scaptotrigona fulvicutis French Guiana, 91 Scaptotrigona hellwegeri Mexico, 141 Scaptotrigona jujuyensis Argentina, 126–131, 515, 516 Scaptotrigona limae Colombia, 385, 386, 389 Scaptotrigona luteipennis Costa Rica, 117 Scaptotrigona mexicana Costa Rica, Guatemala, Mexico, 102, 117, 141, 395 Scaptotrigona ochrotricha Venezuela, 79, 82 Scaptotrigona panamensis Costa Rica, 117 Scaptotrigona pectoralis Costa Rica, Guatemala, Mexico, 102, 117, 141, 395 Scaptotrigona polysticta Moure, 1950 Bolivia, Brazil, 75, 269 Scaptotrigona postica Brazil, 274 Scaptotrigona subobscuripennis Costa Rica, 117 Scaptotrigona tubiba Brazil, 91 Scaptotrigona wheeleri Costa Rica, 100, 117 Scaptotrigona xanthotricha Brazil, 410, 469 Scaura argyrea Costa Rica, Guatemala, Mexico, 102, 117, 141 Scaura latitarsis French Guiana, 91, 103, 274 Scaura longula French Guiana, 91 Scaura Venezuela, 7, 20, 93 Scaura, Plebeia (Scaura), 9, 11, 79 Scaura tenuis French Guiana, 91 Scaura timida, 9, 22 Schwarziana, 7, 20, 93 644 Meliponini (cont.) Schwarziana, Plebeia (Schwarziana), Schwarziana quadripunctata Argentina, 126, 326 Schwarzula coccidophila, 2002, 23, 24 Schwarzula, 7, 20, 93 Schwarzula [= Plebeia (Scaura)], 7, 20, 93 S mexicana, 356 Spanish consumers, 354 species, northern Argentina, 128–130 species, stingless bees, 357 sphecoidea, subterraneous and arboreal habits, 130 Sundatrigona Heterotrigona (Sundatrigona), Tetragona Colombia, 7, 20, 93, 137 Tetragona Trigona (Tetragona), 7, 20, 93, 137 Tetragona beebei French Guiana, 91 Tetragona clavipes Argentina, Brazil, French Guiana, Venezuela, 79, 91 Tetragona dorsalis French Guiana, 91, 103 Tetragona handlirschii French Guiana, 91 Tetragona kaieteurensis French Guiana, 91 Tetragona mayarum [= Tetragona ziegleri] Guatemala, Mexico, 102, 141 Tetragona perangulata Costa Rica, 117 Tetragona savannensis [= Frieseomelitta flavicornis], 90 Tetragona ziegleri Costa Rica, Venezuela, 79, 117 Tetragonilla, Tetragonula (Tetragonilla), Tetragonisca Argentina, Venezuela, 7, 20, 93 Tetragonisca, Trigona (Tetragonisca), 7, 20, 93 Tetragonisca angustula Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Guatemala, French Guiana, Mexico, Panama, Peru, 91, 102, 117, 141, 298, 375, 395 Tetragonisca angustula angustula, 79 Tetragonisca buchwaldi Costa Rica, 117 Tetragonisca fiebrigi Argentina, Bolivia, 410, 469, 478 Tetragonula, Tetragonula, Tetragonula (Tetragonula), Tetragonula biroi Philippines, 526, 531, 533, 535 Tetragonula carbonaria Australia, 45 Tetragonula collina, 155, 179 Tetragonula fuscobalteata, 11 Tetragonula laeviceps, 155 Tetragonula pagdeni, 181 Tetrigona, Index Trichotrigona, 7, 20, 93, 139 Trichotrigona extranea Australia, 94 Trigona Jurine, 1807 Brazil, Malaysia, Venezuela, 7, 20, 93, 136, 137 Trigona Jurine, 1807, Trigona (Trigona), 7, 20, 93, 136, 137 Trigona acapulconis (= Geotrigona acapulconis), 101, 140, 395 Trigona alfkeni, 75 Trigona amalthea Venezuela, 79, 94, 103 Trigona amazonensis Venezuela, 80 Trigona australis, 43 Trigona branneri French Guiana, Venezuela, 80, 91 Trigona carbonaria Australia, 45 Trigona chanchamayoensis Bolivia, 410 Trigona cilipes Costa Rica, French Guiana, Venezuela, 80, 91, 117 Trigona clypearis Australia, 45 Trigona collina Malaysia, 155, 179 Trigona corvina Costa Rica, Guatemala, Mexico, 102, 118, 141 Trigona crassipes French Guiana, 91 Trigona cupira cupira [misidentification, = Partamona orizabaensis], 274 Trigona dallatorreana Brazil, Venezuela, 80 Trigona davenporti Australia, 45 Trigona ferricauda Costa Rica, 118 Trigona fulviventris Costa Rica, Guatemala, Mexico, Venezuela, 80, 118 Trigona fuscipennis Costa Rica, Guatemala, Mexico, Venezuela, 80, 91, 102, 118, 141 Trigona fuscobalteata Thailand, 11, 155, 178 Trigona guianae French Guiana, Venezuela, 80, 91 Trigona hockingsi Australia, 45 Trigona hyalinata Brazil, 75 Trigona hypogea Brazil, Panama, 274 Trigona laeviceps Thailand, 178, 498 Trigona mazucatoi (= Trigona cilipes), 91 Trigona melanocephala Malaysia, 179 Trigona melina Malaysia, 179 Trigona mellipes Australia, 45 Trigona muzoensis, 118 Trigona necrophaga Costa Rica, 118 Trigona nigerrima Costa Rica, Guatemala, Mexico, 102, 141 Trigona nigra, 579 Trigona pallens French Guiana, Venezuela, 80, 92 Trigona permodica French Guiana, 92 Trigona prisca, 14, 579 Index Trigona recursa Brasil, 92, 274 Trigona sapiens Australia, 45 Trigona sesquipedalis French Guiana, 92 Trigona silvestriana Costa Rica, Guatemala, Mexico, 75, 102, 118, 141 Trigona spinipes Argentina, Brazil, 75 Trigona trinidadensis (= Trigona amalthea), 75 Trigona truculenta Venezuela, 80 Trigona venezuelana Venezuela, 80, 82 Trigona williana French Guiana, Venezuela, 80, 92 Trigona (Frieseomelitta) angustula angustula, 79 Trigona (Frieseomelitta) nigra paupera, 76 Trigona (Geotrigona) Geotrigona, 7, 20, 92 Trigona (Heterotrigona) carbonaria Australia, 45 Trigona (Heterotrigona) clypearis Australia, 45 Trigona (Heterotrigona) davenporti Australia, 45 Trigona (Heterotrigona) hockingsi Australia, 45 Trigona (Heterotrigona) mellipes Australia, 45 Trigona (Heterotrigona) sapiens Australia, 45 Trigona (Tetragonisca) angustula, 91, 102, 117, 141, 375, 395 Trigona (Tetragonisca) angustula angustula, 91, 117, 141, 298 Trigona (Tetragonula) laeviceps, 155 Trigona (Trigona) corvina, 102, 118, 141 Trigona (Trigona) hypogea Silvestri, 1902, 274 Trigonella [= Heterotrigona (Sundatrigona)], Trigonisca Argentina, Venezuela, 7, 93 Trigonisca atomaria Costa Rica, 118 Trigonisca azteca Mexico, 141 Trigonisca discolor Costa Rica, 118 Trigonisca dobzhanskyi French Guiana, 92 Trigonisca maya Guatemala, Mexico, 102 Trigonisca mixteca Mexico, 141 Trigonisca pipioli Costa Rica, Guatemala, Mexico, 102, 118, 141 Trigonisca schulthessi Mexico, 101, 116, 141 tropical bee communities, 271 wings, Melipona fasciata and Euglossa cordata, 4, Melissopalynology melittopalynology and, 295 645 pollen and nectar source, 312 pollen types, 403 Melittopalynology bee-pollen studies, 296 and melissopalynology, 295 MEP, 499, 500 Metabolomics chemometric approach, 431 definition, 430 endogenous and exogenous chemical entities, 430–431 H NMR spectra, 431 NMR-based, pot-honey (see also Pot-honey) chloroform solvents, 434 description, 432 DPFGSE sequence, 433 fingerprint, chemometric analysis, 432 H NMR, 432 representative 1H NMR spectrum, M fuscopilosa, 433, 434 softwares, 434 structural information, 432 work flow, 433 PCA and PLS-DA, 431–432 quantitative metabolomics approach, 431 score plots, 431 Metal oxide semiconductors (MOS), 419 Methanol extract of propolis (MEP), 499, 500 Mexican stingless bees Africanized Apis mellifera, tropical lowlands, 298, 300 bee diversity per country, 136, 137 cryptic species, 136 distribution division, 139 Group I, 139, 143 Group II, 143 Group III, 143–144 diversity description, 136, 139 distribution and uses, 139–142 economic and cultural importance, 136, 138 eusocial apine bees, 135 generic and subgeneric classification, 136 honey removal, 298 Mimosa, 306 native and cultivated tropical plants, 135 origin, 144–145 stingless bee genera, 136, 137 traditional uses and indigenous knowledge, 145–147 Microbes, honey, 414 646 Microorganisms Apis mellifera, 153–154 applications, 162–167 bacteria, 154–155, 176–178 bees and microbes, 174–176 description, 153 ethnomedicinal properties, stingless bee, 173 fermentation and biochemical processes, 157–162 fungi, 155–157 honey and pollen, Melipona quinquefasciata, 173, 174 molds, 178–179 mutualistic interaction, yeasts and bee, 181–182 stored pot pollen, 174 yeasts, 155, 180–181 Minerals, 387–389 Molds corbicular pollen, 179 Curvularia, 179 mycological studies, 179 Stemphylium, 178 sympatric species, 179 Morphological traits competitor-community, 202 flower morphology and bee tongues, 204 MOS, 419 Mutualistic interaction, 181–182 N Native stingless bees “Ah mucen kab”, 229 existence and importance, 239 Nectar plants Apis mellifera honey, flavonoid glycosides, 465, 467 flavonoids, 461 honey-making, 461 hydrolytic activity, bee saliva, 465, 466 insect pollinators, 316 life form and, 316–324 and pollen derived flavonoid aglycones, 465 pollen loads and palynological analysis, 316 and pollen sources, 316, 325 rhamnosyl-glucosides, 465 transformation, nectar flavonoids, 472 Neotropical region, Meliponini Amazonian forest, 31, 33 area and biological cladograms, Geotrigona, 30 Index areas of endemism and biogeographical components, Partamona, 30, 31 collecting meat at dead lizard, Trigona hypogea, 21 Cretotrigona prisca, 19 diversification, 28 evolution, 20–21 genera and number, 19–20 hierarchy, 30 Kayapó Indians, 27–29 mutualism, 22–23 nest, 21–29 pantropical distribution, 19 phylogenetic systematics and vicariance biogeography, 29–30 pollen covered with yeast, Ptilotrigona lurida, 22, 24 principal biogeographic elements, 30, 32 resins, 22 Schwarzula coccidophila, 23–24 sequence of events, separation and vicariance, 30–32 storage pots, 21 Nest aggregation, Partamona batesi, 26 architecture, 25–26 entrances, Partamona, 26, 27 Leurotrigona pusilla, 27, 29 Meliponini Arboreal termites, 11 brood cells, 12, 13 cells, 12 cerumen, 10 Dactylurina and Melipona, 12 hollows and cavities, 11 hollow tree trunk, 11–12 involucrum and batumen, 13 mixtures, materials, 10–11 sites, 11 size and shape, 13 structure, 10 Partamona vicina, 26–28 Ptilotrigona lurida, 22, 23 species, 75, 81 Trichotrigona extranea, 24–25 Trigona hypogea, necrophagous bee, 21, 22 Venezuelan stingless bees, 74 Nest cavity meliponines, 327 size, tree hole, 327 Nest sites height partitioning, trees, 327, 332 trees Afrotropical, Indo-Malaya and Neotropical regions, 327–331 647 Index canopy trees, 327 living trees/dead wood, 327 Meliponula bocandei, 325, 326 Meliponula ferruginea, 325, 326 nest cavity and hole, 327 Partamona and Scaura latitarsis, 326 plant families, 327 Networking, Bolivian pot-honey, 415 Nonaromatic organic acids, honeys acetic, 449 Apis mellifera honey spoilage, 447 botanical and geographical origin, 449 capillary electrophoresis, 451–452 chromatographic techniques, 451 composition, stingless bee, 447 consumers, 448 enzymatic assays, 450–451 enzymatic pathways, 448–449 food commodities, 447 gluconic, 448 Gluconobacter spp., 448 honey acidity and antibacterial activity, 449 honey components and parameters, 450 low concentrations, pyruvic, 449 maillard reaction products and enzymes, 449 malic and citric, 448 in pot honey, 452, 453 traditional and Mesoamerican aboriginal medicine, 449–450 Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) method definition, 429 geographical and entomological, 434–442 H NMR-based studies, 429–430 metabolomic analysis, 430–434 pattern recognition, 429 PLS-DA and PCA, 429 quantitative and structural information, 429 radio waves, 430 samples, 430 Nutrition nutritional quality, 160–161 and protection, 153 O Olean-12-ene (b-Amyrene), 535 Ovarian cancer cells antioxidants, 487 cell killing effect, 488 enzymatic hydrolysis, flavone C-glycosides, 488 IC50 values, pot-honeys, 487, 488 MTT reduction assay, 487 sources, anticancer compounds, 488 P Palynology analysis, honey, 288–289 bee pollen, 289–290 bees, 285–286 description, 285 geopropolis, 290–292 pollen grains, 287 vegetation, 286–287 PAMP, 515 Panama apiaries and meliponaries, 298 Lycopodium and Mimosa, 306 Tetragonisca angustula, 298, 299 Paranaense forest, 127 Partial least squares-discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) classification, 1H NMR spectra, 431 data processing, 434 entomological origin, honey samples, 436 fitting and validation results, 422, 424 Melipona pot-honey, 421 physicochemical results, Colombia, 420, 421 score plots, 436, 437 sensor array and physicochemical, 420 Venezuelan pot-honey samples, 436, 438 Pathogens-associated-molecules-patterns (PAMP), 515 PCA, 431, 436, 439, 440 Peru, 298, 299 Pests, Australian stingless bees adult beetles, 60–62 Bembix wasp, 58–60 braconid wasp, 60 cane toad, 62, 63 dead nest, syrphid fly larvae, 58, 59 disease-free, 57 phorid fly Dohrniphora trigonae, 58, 59 predators, 57–58 syrphid fly adult, 58 pH activity and antibacterial activity, 449 citric acid, 448 ionized acids, 450 Pheromones aerial, 195 complete routes, 194 incomplete routes, 194 odor-marking, 195 polarization routes, 194–195 648 Phylogeny ancestral characters, 14–15 Eocene (44 Mya) Baltic amber, 14 fossil record, 14 phylogenetic relationships, 14 Physicochemical analysis, Colombian stingless bee pot-honey See also Pot-honey sugars analysis, 419 water content, 418 Physicochemical characteristics Colombian pot-honey (see also Pot-honey) adulteration and falsification, 384 ash and minerals, 387–388 Colombian stingless bee honey, 390–392 colorimeter, 390 composition, 384, 385 description, 384 genera Melipona and Tetragonisca, 385 HMF contents, 390 levorotary and dextrorotary compounds, 392 M beecheii and M scutellaris, 390 quality standards, 388 regulatory organizations, 388 Schade method, 390 T angustula/non-compositional analysis, 384 water and sugars, 385–387 Guatemalan pot-honey (see also Pot-honey) ash content, 398–399 diastase (a-amylase), 398, 399 free acidity, 397–398 HMF, 398, 399 moisture content, 398 pH values, 397, 398 quality determination, 396 reducing sugars, 396–397 samples, 396 sucrose, 397 PLS-DA, 420–422, 424, 431, 434, 436–438 Pollen analysis counts, consistency and concentration, 304, 305 and field observation Africanized honeybees and Tetragonisca angustula, 311 brood production and swarming, 312 description, 309 list of species, 311 Lycopodium density marker, 311–312 nectar source, 310–311 nocturnal animals, 313 non-nectar species, 312 Index pollen and nectar source, 312 types, honey, 311 honey, 286 larval food, 287 M mandacaia, 288 scientific approach, 285 Tetragonisca angustula, 298, 299 Pollen composition, Guatemalan pot-honey, 403 Pollen fermentation description, 159 haemolymph, 161 hypopharyngeal glands, 161 Melipona seminigra, 162 M quadrifasciata, 160 nutritional quality and pollen grains, 160 prevent spoilage and diseases, 162 Ptilotrigona lurida, 161 stored pot pollen, 161 Streptococcus, Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus, 159 Tetragonisca angustula and Frieseomelitta varia, 159 young workers, Scaptotrigona depilis, 159, 160 Pollen loads M scutellaris, 290 palynological investigation, 286–287 and residual nest pollen, 286 Pollen/nectar flowers, 528 Pollen plants, 316 Pollen species concentration corrected/summed, 308 French Guiana corbicular, 305, 307 Pollen spectra analysis and field observation, 309–313 “bee-botanists”, 296 and bee-botany, 296–297 bee-palynology, 297–302 description, 295 “generalists” bees, 295 melittopalynology and melissopalynology, 295 stingless bees and honeybees applications corbicular pellets, Africanized honeybees, 303 corrected/summed pollen concentration, 308 counted pollen grains, 304 cutoff points, floral resource, 305, 306 floral nectar and pollen sources, 309 French Guiana corbicular pollen, 305, 307 Lycopodium and Mimosa, 306 Mimosa pudica, 304 Index pollen consistency, 303 pollen counts, consistency and concentration, 304, 305 Tetragonisca angustula, 302–303 taxonomy, 295–296 tropical lowland forest, 295, 296 Pollen substitute artificial feeding, 165–166 fermentation, 159–162 M fasciculata, 166 Pollination, Australian stingless bee industry advantageous, 57 blueberry, 57 commercial crops, 55 description, 55 macadamia, 56 Prunus dulcis, 56 Trigona carbonaria, 56 Varroa destructor, 55 Polyphenols bioactivity, Melipona honey, 477, 478 and flavonoids, antioxidant activity, 477 Pot-honey aroma families, 352 Austroplebeia australis, 543, 545 botanical and geographic origin Astronium, 341 Coffea arabica, 338, 343 coffee-growing areas, 344 Euphorbia hirta, 344 Heliocarpus americanus, 338 honey types, 341, 342 monofloral samples, 341 multivariate analysis, 344 Muntingia calabura, 344 palynological composition, 341 palynological spectrum, 338 pollen types, 338, 339 Tetragonisca angustula, 338–341, 343 Toxicodendron striatum, 343 description, 337 descriptive sensory evaluation, 357, 358 descriptive sensory studies, 357 extraction by pressure/suction, 352–354 Frieseomelitta sp., 76, 90, 119, 288, 385, 386, 391, 482, 489 Frieseomelitta sp aff varia, 288 Frieseomelitta nigra, 288, 435, 487, 488 Geotrigona acapulconis, 101, 104, 107, 108, 140, 144, 371, 395–398, 402–405 Guatemalan bees antibacterial properties, 400–401 Apis mellifera, 385–386 description, 385 649 honey attributes, 403–406 nutritional characteristics, 399–400 physicochemical, 396–399 pollen composition, 403 sanitary quality, 404 sensory characteristics, 401–402 traditional log hives, 385 honey collection and pollen frequency classes, 337–338 Melipona, 289, 435, 439, 482, 487, 489 Melipona asilvai, 543, 549 Melipona beecheii, 41, 101, 106–109, 113, 114, 116, 119, 121, 138, 140, 143, 145–147, 191, 205–207, 221–223, 229–239, 255, 270, 278, 356, 370, 390, 395–400, 402, 404–406, 435, 436, 477, 478, 487, 488, 507–511, 543, 544, 549 Melipona brachychaeta, 410–412, 414, 435, 469 Melipona compressipes, 76, 83, 90, 194, 273, 274, 288, 289, 363, 368, 385, 386, 389–391, 418, 420–422, 530–531, 542, 544, 549, 550, 552 Melipona costaricensis, 543, 544 Melipona eburnea, 370, 385–387, 391, 418, 420–422 Melipona fasciata, 544 Melipona fasciata guerreroensis, 435 Melipona fasciculata, 435, 439, 440, 471, 488, 543, 549, 553 Melipona favosa, 77, 82, 83, 90, 94, 195, 225, 288, 355, 363–371, 385, 386, 389, 391, 399, 418, 420–422, 425, 435, 436, 443, 448, 451–453, 469, 470, 476, 487, 488, 525–526, 530, 531, 533–535, 550 Melipona aff fuscopilosa, 436, 441, 442 Melipona flavolineata, 543, 549 Melipona fuscopilosa, 433, 435 Melipona grandis, 370, 410–412, 414, 435, 469, 526, 531, 535 Melipona mandacaia, 288, 543, 549, 553 Melipona melanopleura, 544 Melipona mondury, 553 Melipona panamica, 544 Melipona quadrifasciata, 434, 441, 443, 471, 545, 549, 553 Melipona quadrifasciata anthidioides, 543 Melipona quadrifasciata quadrifasciata, 543 Melipona rufiventris, 471,488, 543 Melipona rufiventris paraensis, 288 650 Pot-honey (cont.) Melipona scutellaris, 288, 435, 471, 482, 487, 488, 543, 549, 553 Melipona seminigra merrillae, 288 Melipona solani, 101, 107, 108, 140, 143, 147, 356, 370, 396–398, 400–402, 435, 439, 477, 478, 487, 488 Melipona aff yucatanica, 101, 104, 107, 108, 116, 140, 143, 145, 398 Melipona sp., 77, 106, 128, 163, 211, 212, 224, 276, 371, 385, 386, 389, 391, 418, 421, 435, 487 Melipona subnitida, 435, 439, 440, 471, 482, 487, 488, 543, 549 Melipona trinitatis, 288 Meliponines chemical and microbial composition, 411–414 networking to market, 415 packaging, commercial distribution, 409–410 sensory approaches, 414 species of stingless bees, 410–411 stingless beekeepers, 410 Meliponini, 9–13, 19–33 Nannotrigona perilampoides, 75, 77, 83, 101, 107, 108, 116, 119, 121, 140, 143, 144, 146, 396, 398 Nannotrigona testaceicornis, 126, 129, 208, 274, 292, 385–387 Nannotrigona sp., 78, 115, 210, 385, 386, 389, 391 nonaromatic organic acids, 452, 453 Paratrigona sp., 385, 386, 391 Partamona peckolti, 78, 82, 83, 385, 386 Partamona seridoensis, 482 Partamona sp., 108, 385–387 Plebeia sp., 79, 91, 108, 128, 129, 139, 182, 209, 288, 385, 386, 391, 396, 398, 399, 435 and pot pollen, 188 price, 549 production, 543 Scaptotrigona, 436, 482, 487, 489, 435, 543, 544, 549, 553 Scaptotrigona aff depilis, 288 Scaptotrigona depilis, 43, 79, 91, 156, 160, 161, 164–166, 208, 211, 225, 288, 410–412, 435, 469, 526, 530, 531, 534, 535 Scaptotrigona hellwegeri, 435, 487, 488 Scaptotrigona jujuyensis, 515, 516 Scaptotrigona limae, 385, 386, 389 Scaptotrigona mexicana, 102, 107–109, Index 117, 138, 141, 146, 196, 209, 211, 355–357, 392, 395–398, 400, 402, 403, 405, 414, 435, 441, 488, 544 Scaptotrigona polysticta, 75, 79, 182, 355, 356, 370, 410–412, 414, 435, 469, 487, 488, 526, 531, 544 Scaptotrigona near xanthotricha, 410–412 Scaptotrigona sp., 79, 91, 164, 288, 385, 386, 389, 391, 435, 469, 482, 487, 542, 549 Scaptotrigona sp aff xanthotricha, 435, 469 Scaura latitarsis, 288 sensory characteristics, 351–352 stingless-bees isorhamnetin and kaempferol derivatives, 471 Melipona favosa honey, Venezuela, 468, 469 nectar and honey samples, 468, 470–471 representative flavonoid glycosides, 467, 468 Tetragonula carbonaria honey, Australia, 468, 469 triglycosides, 471 Sugarbag honey, 37, 55 Tetragona clavipes, 435, 436, 441, 443 Tetragona sp., 91, 121, 385, 386, 389, 391, 418, 421, 436 Tetragonisca, 435 Tetragonisca angustula, 11, 79, 91, 102, 103, 106–109, 114, 115, 117, 119–121, 129, 130, 141, 159, 162, 177, 178, 180, 196, 212, 244, 273, 274, 287–289, 292, 298, 299, 301–306, 308, 309, 311, 312, 325, 337–345, 354, 355, 368, 370, 371, 375–380, 383–387, 389–391, 395–398, 400, 401, 403–406, 412, 435, 468, 470, 475, 482, 507–511, 525, 529, 530, 534, 543, 545, 546, 548, 549, 553 Tetragonisca fiebrigi, 127, 129–131, 370, 409–412, 414, 435, 469, 478, 515 Tetragonula, 435,482,489 Tetragonula carbonaria, 435, 436, 448, 487, 488, 543, 544, 545 Tetragonula laeviceps, 155, 495–502 ‘Trigona’ (s.l.) = Tetragonula, 439 Trigona carbonaria, 452, 453 Trigona crassipes, 21 Trigona hypogea, 21, 159 Trigona necrophaga, 21 Index Pot pollen Candida, 161 characteristics, pot honey, 188 conservation, 161 decisions, 196 Melipona quadrifasciata, 180 Melipona rufiventris, 180 Melipona seminigra, 162, 288 Melipona scutellaris, 290 meliponines, 159 palynological analysis, honeys, 130 Plebeia saiqui, 290 and pot-honey, Meliponini, 287 Ptilotrigona lurida, 22, 24, 161, 180 Scaptotrigona depilis, 164 Tetragonisca angustula, 180 Tetragonisca rufiventris, 180 Trigona dallatorreana, 161 Ptilotrigona lurida, pollen covered with yeast, 22, 24 Precision, 195 Principal component analysis (PCA) Brazilian honey samples, 440 chemometric approach, 431 clustering technique, 431 H NMR spectra, 431 PC1 and PC2 scores, 436, 439 Production and management, stingless bees Australia wax, 223 “cera de Campeche”, 222 honey and brood, 221 individual bees’nests, 221 Mayan codices, 222 Melipona beecheii, 221–222 Production and marketing, pot-honey See also Pot-honey acidity, floral aromas and earthy notes, 541 Africanized bees, 541 animal husbandry, 551 in Brazilian States, 552–554 consumption, 551 cooperative marketing, 551–552 meliponicultural “grazing”, 551 Meliponine honey, 543–550 processing and storage, 552 “socially fair”, 542 and stingless bee species, 542–543 supplementation, nectar and pollen, 551 waste and toxic antibiotics, 541–542 Propolis See also Chemical analysis, propolis, 377, 525–535 adaptive immune response, 519 Apis mellifera, 527,535 Frieseomelitta varia, 292,530,534 651 Frieseomelitta silvestri, 534 innate immune response bullfrogs, 517 commercial laying hens, 516 cytokines, 516 flavonoids and phenolic substances, 516 honey bee products, 516 ROI and NO, 516 Lestrimellita cf limao, 292 Melipona sp., 530 Melipona compressipes, 530, 531 Melipona favosa, 525, 530–533, 535 Melipona grandis, 526, 531, 532 Melipona obrbygnii, 529 Melipona quadrifasciata, 292, 529 Melipona quadrifasciata anthidioides, 530, 531 Nannotrigona, 530 Nannotrigona testaceicornis, 292 Nannotrigona tristella, 530 Paratrigona anduzei, 530 Scaptotrigona, 530, 534 Scaptotrigona depilis, 526, 530–532, 534 Scaptotrigona polysticta, 526, 531, 532 Tetragona clavipes, 530 Tetragonisca, 530 Tetragonisca angustula, 292, 529, 530 Tetragonula biroi, 526, 531–535 Tetragonula carbonaria, 531, 534 Trigona recursa, 292 Provisioning and ovipositing process (POP), 41 R Reactive-oxygen intermediate (ROI), 516 Recruitment mechanisms ability and precision, 203 and communication, 190–195 efficiency, 202 food, stingless bees, 189–190 internal information, 195 mechanisms, 208 velocity, 210 Resins collection, honey and stingless bees See also Pot-honey cerumen, 527 definition, 526 deterrent vs herbivorous insects, 526 dipterocarps family, 528 flowering plants, 528 foraging workers, 527–528 geopropolis, 527 nest construction and defense purposes, 526 social immunity, 527 Resource constancy, 302 652 ROI, 516 Royal jelly adaptive immune response, 519 biological activity, pot-honey, 517 description, 517 Rustic hives, 128–130 S “Saburá”, 159, 160 Scaptotrigona aff xanthotricha, 410, 411 S depilis, 410, 411 S mexicana, 414 S polysticta, 410, 411 Scaptotrigona mexicana bees description, 405 floral resources, 403, 406 pollen composition, 405 Seed dispersal, Australian stingless bees bee vectors/mellitochory, 63 C torelliana, 62–65 resin, 65 Trigona (s.l.), 64–65 Sensory attributes, Melipona favosa honey, 367–368 Sensory characteristics, Guatemalan pot-honey See also Pot-honey descriptors, 401 fermentation process, 401 stingless bees honey, 401, 402 Sensory evaluation characteristics, pot-honey, 351–352 consumer acceptance, 349 description, 349 free-choice profile (FCP), 351, 352, 357 human senses, 349 panel selection, 350 psychological processes, 350 qualitative and quantitative methods, honey, 350 qualitative studies, 350 Signals, 194–195 Social facilitation description, 193 experience and learning, 193 and pheromone deposition, 193 social insects, 193 South and Central America European Conquerors, 220–221 pot-honey, 225 Species occurrence, 90–93 Stingless bees advantages, 376 bee-keepers, 345 Index bee keeping, Costa Rica description, 114 honey and wax, 114 indigenous people, 114 map location, 114, 115 medicine and ongoing investigations, 120, 122 meliponiculture, 122 T angustula, 114, 115 T nannotrigona, 115 bee pollination, agriculture, 278 biology, body size and flight range, 277 Bolivian species marketing purposes, 411 nest entrances, 410, 411 relative annual yield, products, 410, 411 scientific and common names, 410 colonies, commercial honey, 375 composition, T angustula and A mellifera honey, 380 Costa Rican ethnopharmacology, 508 description, disturbance and habitat fragmentation, 275–277 food, 461, 465, 467 food location communication, 187–197 foraging, 274–275 fossils, 14 history and transitions, 223–224 hollow tree trunk, 11–12 honey and wax, 220–221 hunting, 220 local bee communities, 276 medicinal properties, honey, 508 meliponiculture, 375 Mesoamerican region, 507 microorganisms, 153–168, 173–182 nesting, 272–273 nests, 325–332 and potential flight ranges, 273, 274 pot-honey, 225 and pot-honey production country of origin and native, 542, 543 description, 542 production and management, 221–223 propolis alcohol-free product, 535 Bolivian ethanol extract, Scaptotrigona, 534–535 compounds, aliphatic acids, 533 extraction and preparation, 532 flavonoids, 535 GC-MS analysis, 532–533 653 Index and geographical origin, 531 Meliponini types, 533, 534 octadecanoic acid, 534 terpenic compounds, 534 Venezuela, Philippines and Bolivia, 531, 532 simulation model, 278 taxonomy and distribution analysis, 103 classification system, 100 collection sites, 104 Mesoamerican, 103 native bee collection, 100–103 occurrence localities, 103, 104 Paratrigona guatemalensis, 103–104 Plebeia pulchra, 103–104 tribes Apini and Meliponini, 100 Tetragonisca angustula, 11, 79, 91, 102, 103, 106–109, 114, 115, 117, 119–121, 129, 130, 141, 159, 162, 177, 178, 180, 196, 212, 244, 273, 274, 287–289, 292, 298, 299, 301–306, 308, 309, 311, 312, 325, 337–345, 354, 355, 368, 370, 371, 375–380, 383–387, 389–391, 395–398, 400, 401, 403–406, 412, 475, 507–511, 525, 529, 530, 534, 543, 545, 546, 548, 549, 553 T Taxonomy, 261–266 T-cell receptor (TCR), 518 Tetragonisca, 298–299, 303, 305, 345, 375–380, 403, 406 Tetragonisca angustula angustula, 298 and Apis mellifera, 303 beekeeping and meliponiculture, 376 commercial honey, 375 environmental diversity, 376 honey and quality parameters, 377–378 honey composition, 376–377 meliponiculture, 375 physicochemical properties, 379–380 types, beekeeping, 375 description, 406 floral resources, 403, 406 pollen counts, consistency and concentration, 304, 305 tropical lowlands, 298, 299 Tetragonisca fiebrigi Bolivian stingless bees, 410 nest entrances, 410, 411 treatment, ocular diseases, 409 Tetragonula laeviceps antimicrobial peptides, honey, 501–502 antiproliferative activity, 496 bioactivity, 497–501 composition, honey and propolis, 496–497 description, 495 natural medicines, 495 stingless bee products, 502 Trigona (s.l.) classification, 45 identification, 44–45 natural distribution, 45 nest architecture, colony population, and brood structure, 46–47 V Venezuelan pot-honey, 436, 438 See also Pot-honey Venezuelan stingless bees agro-ecosystems, 298 biogeography, 83–84 Camargo collection—RPSP, 74 cutoff points, 305 data source, 74–75 description, 73 diversity and distribution, 75–82 honey and propolis analyses, 74 honey-bee samples, 301 propolis collection, 74 seasonal pollen, 312 Vernacular names alimentary customs, 128 creole population, 128 habits and characteristics, species, 125 Virgin honey, 232 W Water and sugars, Colombian pot-honey See also Pot-honey contents, stingless bee honey, 385, 386 fructose-glucose ratios, 387 indirect refractometric methodology, 387 mean glucose contents, 387 quality parameters, 385 Water extract of propolis (WEP), 497, 499, 500 Wild honey, 265 654 Y Yeasts and bees, 181–182 Melipona quinquefasciata, 180, 181 microbiota, pollen, 180 pot honey spoilage, 181 Ptilotrigona lurida, 180 Starmerella meliponinorum, 180 T angustula, M quadrifasciata and Frieseomelitta varia, 180 Zygosaccharomyces machadoi, 180–181 Index Yeasts mutualistic interaction, 181–182 Yucatan “cera de Campeche”, 222 “rational hives”, 223 Yungas northwestern mountain, 127 slender wedge, 127 ... the tropics, from the nomadic hunters and gatherers of northern Australia to the mighty Mayan empire of Central America But modern commercial exploitation of this product has been hampered partially... Nates-Parra, César Pérez, James Nieh, Auro Nomizo, Livia Persano Oddo, Silvia RM Pedro, Gabor Peter, Claus Rasmussen, Martyn Robinson, David W Roubik, Gianni Sacchetti, María Teresa Sancho Ortiz,... on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or