Dedicated to JULIA CHING, NILS A DAHL, RENÉE GEEN, HARVEY GOLDEY, DONALD JUEL, MORTON KLASS, WILLARD G OXTOBY, BENNETT P SEGAL from whom I learned wisdom about life CONTENTS Acknowledgments Abbreviations Introduction: The Undiscover’d Country PART ONE The Climate of Immortality Egypt Mesopotamia and Canaan The First Temple Period in Israel PART TWO From Climate to the Self Iranian Views of the Afterlife and Ascent to the Heavens Greek and Classical Views of Life After Death and Ascent to the Heavens Second Temple Judaism: The Rise of a Beatific Afterlife in the Bible PART THREE Visions of Resurrection and the Immortality of the Soul Apocalypticism and Millenarianism: The Social Backgrounds to the Martyrdoms in Daniel and Qumran Religiously Interpreted States of Consciousness: Prophecy, Self-Consciousness, and Life After Death Sectarian Life in New Testament Times PART FOUR The Path to Modern Views of the Afterlife 10 Paul’s Vision of the Afterlife 11 The Gospels in Contrast to Paul’s Writings 12 The Pseudepigraphic Literature 13 The Church Fathers and Their Opponents 14 The Early Rabbis 15 Islam and the Afterlife: Muslim, Christian, and Jewish Fundamentalism Afterword: Immortal Longings Notes Bibliography ACKNOWLEDGMENTS In ten years of living with this project, I sought help from many persons, rst in writing the constantly expanding scope of the work, then in condensing the material to a more readable text I want to thank Jim Charlesworth, who suggested I work on this project, and Andrew Corbin for his advice on how to defeat my own obsessiveness and compulsivity to finish the book-he was an invaluable aid at every stage of the book’s creation I especially want to cite Will Oxtoby, who o ered his critique at several important junctures and his practiced eye as an editor My graduate students helped by reading and commenting on the text, especially in the early phases In particular, I would like to thank Adam Gregerman, who served as a research assistant and helped me edit the rst draft Asha Moorthy, Lillian Larsen, Nick Witkowski, Jason Yorgason, and Delman Coates were very helpful in reading through the early drafts of the manuscript and helping me see some of the issues more clearly Innumerable undergraduate students helped me with various aspects of the study, and they are thanked in the appropriate place I would like to thank Darcy Hirsh especially; she served as research assistant and helped me focus my discussion on gender issues When this project was done, it was hard to impose on a friend so much to read this huge manuscript But John Gottsch, André Unger Carol Zaleski, and David Ulansey each o ered to help in extraordinary ways by reading the whole thing through and o ering their expert opinions on the subject and ow of the argument Larry Hurtado read through several New Testament chapters and o ered expert opinion, as well as his critique Ben Sommers did the same with the Hebrew Bible chapters and suggested areas where my graduate studies in Ancient Near Eastern Studies needed to be renovated Although none took my point of view on the manuscript, they helped me make my arguments more cogent, and I am grateful to all of them I would especially like to thank David N Freedman who read the manuscript very carefully and offered extensive suggestions Over the last dozen years I have received several grants that allowed me to spend time on this manuscript I would especially like to thank Barnard College, which supported my research in countless ways over the last decade, and to my students there-both from Columbia and Barnard-who asked fundamental questions and so helped develop the book Teaching graduate courses at Columbia University and participation in the graduate program allowed me to concentrate on the scholarly aspects of the book The Annenberg Institute for Advanced Jewish Studies provided a semester of support and a group of concerned scholars with whom to consult Williams College appointed me a Croghan Scholar that allowed me to try out my ideas in the wider community through lectures and discussions I would also like to thank the Mellon Foundation for a semester grant to pursue Islam and diaspora religion and the ACIS and NITLE for providing a summer seminar with extraordinarily interesting colleagues for the development of a Web site on Islam This helped me resurrect my earlier studies in Arabic and Islam and reach a new level of comfort in dealing with Muslim texts and concepts I would like to acknowledge work published elsewhere in di erent form: “Text Translation as a Prelude for Soul Translation” in Translation and Anthropology (Ed Paula G Rubel and Abraham Rosman, New York: Berg, 2003), Jesus at 2000, and some parts of Paul the Convert A F SEGAL New York, 2003 ABBREVIATIONS Abbreviations in the notes and parenthetically in the text for the books of the Bible; Old and New Testament Apocrypha; Old and New Testament Pseudepigrapha; Dead Sea Scrolls and other texts from the Judean Desert; versions of the Taludic tractates; Targumic texts and other Rabbinic works; and Ancient and Classical Christian writings are those given in the SBL Handbook of Style (Ed Alexander, Kutsko, Ernest, and Decker-Lucke, Hendrickson, 1999) Abbreviations for secondary sources are listed below AB AGJU ANET ANRW Anchor Bible Arbeiten zur Geschichte des antiken Judenthums und des Urchristentums Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament Ed J B Pritchard 3d ed Princeton, 1969 Aufstieg und Niedergang der rómischen Welt: Geschichte und Kultur Roms im Spiegel der neueren Forschung 1972- BJS Brown Judaic Studies CAH Cambridge Ancient History CANE Civilizations of the Ancient Near East Ed J Sasson vols New York, 1995 CBQ Catholic Biblical Quarterly DJD Discoveries in the Judaean Desert EncJud Encyclopedia Judaic 16 vols Jerusalem, 1972 EPRO Etudes preliminaries aux religions orientales dans l’empire romain ER The Encyclopedia of Religion Ed M Eliade 16 vols New York HR History of Religions HTR Harvard Theological Review HUCA Hebrew Union College Annual IDE JAOS The Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible Ed G A Buttrick vols Nashville, 1962 Journal of American Oriental Studies JBL Journal of Biblical Literature JE The Jewish Encyclopedia Ed I Singer 12 vols New York,1925 JJS Journal of Jewish Studies JQR Jewish Quarterly Review JSJ Journal for the Study of Judaism in the Persian, Hellenistic, and Roman Periods JSNT Journal for the Study of the New Testament JSOT Journal for the Study of the Old Testament JSPSup Journal for the Study of the Pseudepigrapha, Supplement Series JSS Journal of Semitic Studies JTS Journal of Theological Studies KTU NHL Die keilalphabetischen Texten aus Ugarit Ed M Dietrich, O Loretz, and J Sanmartin AOAT 24:1 Neukirchen-Vluyn, 1976 Nag Hammadi Library in English Ed J M Robinson 4th rev ed Leiden, 1996 NovT Novum Testamentum NRSV New Revised Standard Version NTS New Testament Studies PGM Papyri graecae magicae: Die griechischen Zauberpapyri Ed K Priesendanz Berlin, 1928 RB Revue Biblique RHR Revue de l’histoire des religions RSV Revised Standard Version SBL Society of Biblical Literature SBLSCS Society of Biblical Literature Septuagint Cognate Studies SRSup Studies in Religion, Supplement TDNT TWNT Theological Dictionary of the New Testament Ed G Kittel and G Friedrich Trans G W Bromiley 10 vols Grand Rapids, 1964-1976 Theologische Wórterbuch zum Neuen Testament Ed G Kittel and G VC Friedrich Stuttgart, 1932-1979 Vigliae christianae VTSup Supplement to Vetus Testamentum WUNT Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament Introduction The Vndiscover’d Country THE DREAD of something after death, The undiscover’d country, from whose bourn No traveller returns, puzzles the will … (Hamlet, Act 3, Scene 1, lines 78-80) Shakespeare, Suicide, and Martyrdom FEW OF US contemplate revenge or suicide as seriously as Hamlet did Yet, Hamlet’s words go far beyond his own predicament They speak eloquently to us about the human situation, which seems as adamantine now as it was in 1602 when the play appeared For good reason, it has become the most famous speech in the English language To mention that the soliloquy begins with the words: “To be or not to be” is to identify it worldwide Hamlet ponders life at its hardest moments But for the dread of death and fear of what may come afterwards, he would end his life, avoiding the troubles he has inherited His decision against suicide, and for revenge, is made reluctantly, in full knowledge of the terrors of death that his ghostly father has intimated for him He now has a supernatural reason to believe the spirit’s message, both about posthumous punishment and about his father’s murderer Hamlet’s solitary revenge has been sharpened to a ne point by the World Trade Center disaster of September 11, 2001, a mass murder evidently also motivated out of revenge and driven by supernatural justi cations Nineteen extremist Muslims, indoctrinated with a caricature of Muslim martyrdom, perpetrated one of the most callous slaughters of innocent civilians in human history, not in spite of divine retribution but convinced that their deed would ensure their resurrection and bring them additional eternal rewards before the Day Of Judgment The horrible waste of more than 2,800 innocent lives was directly driven by notions of sexual felicity after death: A group of virgin, dark-eyed beauties awaited each of the suicidal murderers “You cannot kill large numbers of people without a claim to virtue.”1 Surely such desperate men, intelligent, sophisticated, and coordinated enough to have planned a global outrage, would not be persuaded by such a naive and adolescent vision of heaven? Every signi cant public commentator has stressed that there were more important political, economic, social, and personal motivations for the attack But, in the end, the visions of an afterlife quite different from our own have awakened us to the original meaning for our phrase “holy terror.” In the minds of Israeli settlers, those religiously motivated few among the Israelis who want to live in the land designated for a projected Palestinian state, pious Jews who have died at the hands of Arabs are also martyrs whose special reward will commence in heaven To their loved ones, these Jewish martyrs look down on their surviving families from the heavenly Talmudic academy (the Yeshiva shel Ma’ala), encouraging the pioneers of a new nation to continue to settle and live in the occupied territories While these Jewish views of the afterlife are considerably less sensual than the Muslim ones, the faith of the religious settlers is no less intense Like the Islamic extremists in this respect, the settlers have innovated on traditional views of the afterlife to give meaning to their own political purposes.2 This book will attempt to put these modern tragedies into historical context I had already researched the sociology of the afterlife for a decade when the World Trade Center disaster focused our national attention on jihad The tragedy convinced me that this study of the relationship between heaven and social agendas had an importance beyond the scholarly community This book has become a study of Western Religions Shakespeare called death and the afterlife “the undiscover’d country” from which no one returns, a sensible metaphor to Shakespeare’s own “Age of Discovery,” as the New World, still largely unexplored, was not yet completely mapped Taking my cue from Hamlet, this study will attempt to see the relationship between “being” and “not being,” between “sleeping” and “dreaming perchance,” between the undiscovered land of the afterlife and those who imagine what lies within it This book is not a study of death, how to cope with it, what the process of dying is, nor how we may best accomplish the work of grieving A great many books have recently focused on these ultimate moments of life, and, where relevant, I will rely on their conclusions with a reference What I propose to is sign on for “the long voyage,” just as a ship’s crew did in Shakespeare’s “Age of Discovery,” to penetrate the darkness of death and map the new day of the afterlife as it is depicted in western culture I want to show the connection between visions of the afterlife and the early scriptural communities who produced them I want to study the early, traditional maps of the afterlife that we nd in our foundational Western religious texts and the territory they inscribe in the religious life of the vibrant societies that produced them I want to not only ask what was believed, but to ask why people wanted an afterlife of a particular kind and how those beliefs changed over time It will be a long and arduous trip, mostly through strange, half familiar, and fascinating landscapes We will return with treasure, knowledge, and understanding of beliefs quite di erent from our own, yet reassurance that religious visions are not inexplicably beyond our abilities to mediate or change This book is the logbook of that voyage We can easily answer the question of why Shakespeare used an explorer’s metaphor to describe the afterlife: The discovery of the Americas was the great news of his day But, why did the Egyptians insist on an afterlife in heaven while the body was embalmed in a pyramid on earth? Why did the Babylonians view the dead as living underground in a prison? Why did the Hebrews refuse to talk about the afterlife in First Temple times (1000-586 BCE) and then begin to so in Second Temple times (539 BCE-70 CE)? Why did the Persians envision the afterlife as bodily resurrection while many Greeks narrated the ight of a soul back to heaven? How can a single culture contain di erent and icting views of the afterlife at the same time? Since all these cultures told stories of people who went to heaven, what did people nd when they went there while yet alive, and why was it important to make the journey? These questions are much more complicated and more interesting than understanding the use of a casual metaphor, even by an author as gifted as Shakespeare However, they can be investigated in the same way, through the study of texts and contexts as well as the religions and societies that produced them Intimations of Immortality WE SURELY KNOW instinctively that every religious tradition uses the afterlife to speak of the ultimate reward of the good, just as we instinctively know that stories of “heaven” will describe the most wonderful perfections imaginable in any one time and place, even as stories of “hell” will describe the most terrible and fearful punishments imaginable A book that catalogues the history of surfeit in each culture would be an interesting cultural history in itself, but it would avoid the hard questions Jerry L Walls begins his serious and quite sophisticated inquiry into heaven in Heaven: The Logic of Eternal Studies in Theology 14 Toronto: The Edwin Mellen 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Library of Congress cataloging-in-publication data has been applied for eISBN: 978-0-307-87473-3 Copyright © 2004 by Alan F Segal All rights reserved v3.0 ... Which afterlife they validate? There are many different views of the afterlife available to us as Americans and citizens of the world What History Can Tell Us A BELIEF IN an afterlife is older than... Views of the Afterlife and Ascent to the Heavens Greek and Classical Views of Life After Death and Ascent to the Heavens Second Temple Judaism: The Rise of a Beatific Afterlife in the Bible PART... Translation” in Translation and Anthropology (Ed Paula G Rubel and Abraham Rosman, New York: Berg, 2003), Jesus at 2000, and some parts of Paul the Convert A F SEGAL New York, 2003 ABBREVIATIONS