Click here to view a larger image Eumenes the Greek with Alexander’s widow and son (Illustration credit col.1) THIS IS A BORZOI BOOK PUBLISHED BY ALFRED A KNOPF Copyright © 2011 by James Romm All rights reserved Published in the United States by Alfred A Knopf, a division of Random House, Inc., New York, and in Canada by Random House of Canada Limited, Toronto www.aaknopf.com Knopf, Borzoi Books, and the colophon are registered trademarks of Random House, Inc Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Romm, James S Ghost on the throne: the death of Alexander the Great and the war for crown and empire / by James Romm p cm Includes bibliographical references and index eISBN: 978-0-307-70150-3 Greece—History—Macedonian Hegemony, 323–281 B.C Macedonia—History—Diadochi, 323–276 B.C Alexander, the Great, 356–323 B.C.—Death and burial I Title DF235.4 R66 2011 938’.08—dc22 2011008657 Front-of-jacket photograph by Tanya Marcuse | Jacket design by Jason Booher v3.1 For my mom and stepfather, Sydney and Victor Reed The death of Demosthenes on Calauria and of Hyperides near Cleonae made the Athenians feel almost a passion and a longing for the days of Alexander and Philip Just so, when Antigonus had died, and those who followed in his place had begun to in ict outrages and pains on the people, a farmer was seen digging up the ground in Phrygia Someone asked him what he was doing With a groan, he replied: “I am looking for Antigonus.” —Plutarch Phocion 29.1 Contents Cover Title Page Map Copyright Epigraph List of Illustrations Preface Note on Pronunciations Acknowledgments INTRODUCTION: The Opening of the Tombs Bodyguards and Companions The Testing of Perdiccas The Athenians’ Last Stand (I) Resistance, Rebellion, Reconquest The Athenians’ Last Stand (II) A Death on the Nile The Fortunes of Eumenes The War Comes Home Duels to the Death 10 The Closing of the Tombs Epilogue Notes Bibliography Index Other Books by This Author Illustrations col.1 Rhoxane and Eumenes (oil painting by Varotari, early seventeenth century) Getty Images itr.1 Alexander’s Companions Andronikos, Vergina: The Royal Tombs, Athens, 1984 17th Ephorate of Antiquities © Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Tourism, Archaeological Receipts Fund itr.2 The facade of Tomb Andronikos, Vergina: The Royal Tombs, Athens, 1984 17th Ephorate of Antiquities © Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Tourism, Archaeological Receipts Fund 1.1 The ancient city of Babylon, digitally reconstructed Curt-Engelhorn-Stiftung für die Reiss-Engelhorn-Museen/FaberCourtial 1.2 Babylon’s Ishtar Gate Bildarchiv Preussischer Kulturbesitz/Art Resource, NY 1.3 Macedonian infantrymen Tsibidou-Avloniti, The Macedonian Tombs at Phoinikas and Ayios Athanasios in the Area of Thessaloniki, Athens, 2005, Plate 31 16th Ephorate of Antiquities © Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Tourism, Archaeological Receipts Fund 1.4 A Babylonian clay tablet recording the death of Alexander, June 11, 323 B.C © Trustees of the British Museum 2.1 A medallion struck by Alexander depicting an Indian archer Courtesy Frank Holt 2.2 Positions assigned to the leading generals by the Babylon settlement Beehive Mapping 3.1 The speaker’s platform of the Pnyx, Athens Wikimedia Commons/A D White Architectural Photographs, Cornell University Library 3.2 Movements of forces, first phase of the Hellenic War Beehive Mapping 4.1 Southern Afghanistan, the kind of landscape that drove many Greeks to flee the East Wikimedia Commons/U.S Army 5.1 Demosthenes, as depicted in a Roman copy of the commemorative statue by Polyeuctus Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, Copenhagen 6.1 Alexander’s funeral cart Courtesy Stella Miller-Collett 6.2 The basic unit of the Macedonian phalanx akg-images/Peter Connolly 8.1 A rock carving found outside a tomb, southern Turkey Courtesy Andrew Stewart 8.2 Athens and its harbor Piraeus Beehive Mapping 8.3 A funerary monument, Athens Courtesy Olga Palagia 9.1 The only known depiction of elephant warfare from Alexander’s time Courtesy Frank Holt 9.2 Movements of Antigonus and Eumenes leading up to the battle of Paraetacene Beehive Mapping 10.1 An artist’s rendering of Tomb 2, Aegae Andronikos, Vergina: The Royal Tombs, Athens, 1984 17th Ephorate of Antiquities © Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Tourism, Archaeological Receipts Fund 10.2 The silver hydria containing the remains of Alexander IV Andronikos, Vergina: The Royal Tombs, Athens, 1984 17th Ephorate of Antiquities © Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Tourism, Archaeological Receipts Fund epl.1 Alexander as depicted on Ptolemy’s coinage, 321 B.C The Museum of Fine Arts, Boston Preface The Macedonian Empire was one of the world’s largest but, without doubt, its most ephemeral It attained its greatest extent in 325 B.C with Alexander the Great’s invasion of the Indus valley (today eastern Pakistan), at the end of a ten-year campaign of conquest in Europe, Asia, and North Africa But it began to collapse in 323 following Alexander’s sudden and unforeseen death It existed in a full and relatively stable form for only two years The story of Alexander’s conquests is known to many readers, but the dramatic and consequential sequel to that story is much less well-known It is a tale of loss that begins with the greatest loss of all, the death of the king who gave the empire its center “He died just when men most longed for him,” writes Arrian, one of the ancient historians who dealt with this era, implying both that Alexander’s talents were needed to keep the empire together and that the king had become an object of adoration, even worship, in the last years of his life The era that followed came to be de ned by the absence of one towering individual, just as the previous era had been de ned by his presence It was as though the sun had disappeared from the solar system; planets and moons began spinning crazily in new directions, often crashing into each other with terrifying force The brightest celestial bodies in this new, sunless cosmos were Alexander’s top military o cers, who were also in some cases his closest friends Modern historians often refer to them as “the Successors” (or “Diadochs,” a Greek word meaning virtually the same thing) But that term is anachronistic for the rst seven years after Alexander’s death, when none of these men tried to succeed the king; they vied for his power but not his throne During the entire span I cover in this book, there were living Argeads (members of the Macedonian royal family) who alone had the right to occupy that throne Hence I refer to those often termed Successors simply as Alexander’s generals; they were contestants for military rather than royal supremacy Many of them would eventually occupy thrones, but only after 308 B.C., when it became clear that the Argead era was well and truly over The icts of these generals took place across a huge swath of Alexander’s empire, often with clashes occurring simultaneously on two or even three continents I have used snapshot-like frames, starting in the third chapter, to organize disparate but interconnected events, each headed by a rubric to remind readers of the place, time, and principal characters involved It should be noted that the dates I have used in the rubrics are contested and may di er by a year from those found elsewhere Historians are divided over two rival schemes, the so-called high and low chronologies; the dates I have given here belong to the high chronology, endorsed most recently by Brian Bosworth in his masterful study The Legacy of Alexander It is Bosworth’s authority that has decided this matter for me, since I think both schemes have sound arguments and valid evidence behind them, as does a recently proposed hybrid that blends elements of the two New England Journal of Medicine Nicaea, 4.1, 4.2, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 6.4, 6.5, 10.1 Nicanor (Aristotle’s adopted son), 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 5.1, 10.1, 10.2 Nicanor (Cassander’s aide), 8.1, 8.2, 8.3, 8.4, 8.5, 9.1, 9.2, 9.3 Nicomachus, 3.1, 5.1 Nile River, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 7.1, 9.1 Nora, fortress of, 7.1, 8.1, 8.2, 10.1, 10.2, 10.3 Odyssey (Homer) Olympias, prf.1, 7.1, 7.2, 8.1, 9.1, 10.1, 10.2 Adea’s feud with, 9.1, 9.2, 10.1, 10.2, 10.3, 10.4 Antipater’s feud with, 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 7.1, 8.1, 8.2, 9.1, 9.2, 10.1, 10.2 Athens’ relations with Cassander’s defeat of, 9.1, 10.1, 10.2, 10.3, 10.4, 10.5 death of, 10.1, 10.2, 10.3 Eumenes’ relationship with, 7.1, 8.1, 8.2, 8.3, 8.4, 9.1, 9.2, 9.3, 9.4, 10.1, 10.2 Leonnatus’ offer of marriage to Cleopatra, 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 6.1 Perdiccas’ relationship with, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3 Philip III executed by, 9.1, 10.1, 10.2, 10.3 Polyperchon’s alliance with, 8.1, 9.1, 9.2, 9.3, 9.4, 10.1, 10.2 royal lineage of Olynthus, 3.1, 3.2 Opis, Macedonian army rebellion at, 1.1, 2.1, 10.1, 10.2, 10.3, 10.4 Orcynia, battle of, 7.1, 9.1 Oxydracae, 4.1, 4.2, 10.1 Paraetacene, battle of, 9.1, 9.2, 10.1, 10.2, 10.3 Parysatis, 1.1, 2.1, 4.1, 10.1 Pasitigris River Peithon, 6.1, 7.1, 7.2, 9.1 Antigonus’ alliance with, 9.1, 9.2 Eumenes’ conflict with, 9.1, 9.2, 9.3 military force of Perdiccas’ conflict with, 4.1, 4.2, 6.1, 7.1, 10.1 as Philip III’s regent, 7.1, 7.2 Pella, 1.1, 3.1, 5.1, 6.1, 7.1, 7.2, 10.1 Leonnatus’ return to Peloponnese, 3.1, 8.1, 9.1, 9.2, 9.3, 9.4 see also Sparta; Taenaron Perdiccan faction Adea’s contact with Antigonus’ pursuit of, 7.1, 8.1, 8.2 Eumenes’ rejection by, 7.1, 7.2, 10.1 sympathizers to war against, 7.1, 7.2 Perdiccas, 1.1, 1.2, 7.1, 7.2, 8.1, 10.1, 10.2 Alexander’s burial arrangements by, 2.1, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3 Alexander’s last plans quashed by, 2.1, 2.2, 10.1 Alexander’s transfer of authority to, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5, 2.6, 4.1, 7.1, 10.1 Antigonus’ defiance of, 4.1, 4.2, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3 Antipater’s conflict with, 2.1, 6.1, 6.2 Antipater’s marriage agreement with, 4.1, 4.2, 5.1, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 6.4, 6.5, 6.6, 10.1 Arab campaign assignment of birthdate of Cleopatra’s bid to marry, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 6.4, 6.5, 6.6, 6.7, 7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 10.1 Craterus’ conflict with, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 4.1, 6.1 death of, 6.1, 7.1, 7.2, 8.1, 9.1, 9.2, 9.3, 9.4, 10.1 Demades’ communication with, 6.1, 7.1, 8.1, 8.2 Eumenes’ support of, 5.1, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 6.4, 6.5, 7.1, 7.2, 10.1, 10.2 imperial power distribution by, 2.1, 2.2, 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 5.1, 6.1, 6.2, 7.1, 10.1, 10.2, 10.3 joint monarchy accepted by Leonnatus’ conflict with, 2.1, 5.1, 5.2, 6.1 Macedonian army support sought by, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3 military achievements of, 1.1, 2.1, 2.2 military council called by, 2.1, 10.1 military strength of, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 6.4, 6.5, 6.6, 10.1 mutineers’ punishment by, 2.1, 9.1 mutiny against, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 4.1 Olympias’ relationship with, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3 Peithon’s conflict with, 4.1, 4.2, 6.1, 7.1, 10.1 Persian princess murder plot of, 2.1, 4.1 Philip III’s marriage opposed by propaganda against Ptolemy’s conflict with, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5, 4.1, 4.2, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 6.4, 7.1, 7.2, 10.1 regency board appointment of, 2.1, 2.2 war against, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 7.1, 8.1 Persepolis palace burned at Persian treasure at Persis, Persians Alexander mourned by Alexander’s defeat of, 1.1, 1.2, 2.1, 3.1, 4.1, 7.1, 10.1, 10.2, 10.3 Alexander’s emulation of, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 2.1, 2.2, 4.1 Alexander’s marriages to, 1.1, 2.1, 2.2, 4.1, 6.1 Alexander’s relations with, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4 communication system of, 1.1, 4.1 empire of Greek war with Hellespont bridge of, 5.1, 10.1 Macedonian attitudes toward, 1.1, 1.2, 2.1 naval power of Peucestas’ rule in, 9.1, 9.2, 9.3, 10.1 Philip II’s planned attack on see also Darius; Parysatis; Sisygambis; Stateira; Xerxes Peucestas, 1.1, 1.2, 9.1 banquet of, 9.1, 10.1 Eumenes’ alliance with, 9.1, 9.2, 9.3, 9.4, 9.5, 10.1, 10.2 Eumenes’ deception of Eumenes deserted by, 10.1, 10.2, 10.3, 10.4, 10.5 Phila, 4.1, 4.2, 5.1, 6.1, 6.2, 7.1, 10.1, 10.2, 10.3 Philip II (father of Alexander the Great), 1.1, 2.1, 2.2, 4.1, 9.1 Adea’s relation to, 6.1, 6.2 Aegae sculpture of Aristotle’s relationship with, 3.1, 3.2, 10.1 Athenian battles against, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 10.1 court of, itr.1, 1.1, 6.1, 6.2, 10.1 death of, 1.1, 1.2, 5.1, 10.1, 10.2 Eumenes’ service to, 1.1, 10.1 Greeks’ charter with, 3.1, 3.2 imperial expansion by marriages of, 5.1, 5.2, 6.1, 9.1, 10.1 military innovations by, 1.1, 1.2 succession to reign of, 1.1, 3.1, 6.1 tomb of (presumed), 6.1, 10.1, 10.2, 10.3, 10.4, 10.5, 10.6 Philip III, 2.1, 2.2, 7.1, 7.2, 8.1, 8.2, 9.1 accession of Adea’s marriage to, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 6.4, 7.1, 7.2, 8.1, 9.1, 9.2 Cassander’s control of Olympias’ execution of, 9.1, 10.1, 10.2, 10.3 Perdiccas’ control of, 2.1, 2.2, 6.1, 6.2 Perdiccas’ recognition of Polyperchon’s control of, 8.1, 8.2, 8.3, 8.4, 8.5 possible tomb of, itr.1, 10.1, 10.2, 10.3 see also Arrhidaeus; Macedonian empire, joint monarchs of Philotas (Alexander’s officer), 2.1, 10.1 Philotas (Antigonus’ agent), 9.1, 9.2 Phocion, prf.1, 8.1, 8.2 as Antipater’s collaborator, 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 6.1, 7.1, 8.1, 8.2, 8.3, 8.4, 8.5, 8.6, 8.7, 8.8, 8.9, 10.1 downfall of, 8.1, 8.2, 8.3, 8.4, 9.1, 10.1 Hellenic War opposed by, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 8.1 in Hellenic War surrender negotiations in Macedonian civil war Macedonian power accepted by, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6, 8.1 Theban revolt opposed by, 3.1, 3.2 Phocus, 8.1, 10.1 Phoenicia, Phoenicians, 5.1, 9.1, 9.2, 9.3, 9.4 Photius, prf.1–xv, 2.1, 7.1, 10.1, 10.2 Phrygia, 2.1, 4.1, 4.2 Eumenes’ plundering of Piraeus, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 8.1 Macedonian garrison at, 5.1, 8.1, 8.2, 8.3, 8.4, 8.5, 8.6, 8.7, 8.8, 9.1, 9.2 Pisidia, 4.1, 6.1, 6.2, 7.1, 8.1, 10.1 Plato, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 8.1 Plutarch, prf.1, 1.1, 1.2, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 5.1, 5.2, 6.1, 7.1, 8.1, 8.2, 8.3, 8.4, 8.5, 8.6, 10.1, 10.2, 10.3, 10.4, 10.5, 10.6, 10.7, 10.8, 10.9, 10.10, 10.11, 10.12, 10.13, 10.14, 10.15, 10.16, 10.17, 10.18, 10.19, 10.20, 10.21, 10.22, 10.23, 10.24, 10.25, 10.26, 10.27, 10.28, 10.29, 10.30, 10.31, 10.32 poison, suspected in Alexander’s death, 1.1, 5.1, 7.1, 8.1, 9.1, 10.1, 10.2 Polemon, 7.1, 7.2, 8.1 Polyaenus, prf.1, 10.1, 10.2, 10.3, 10.4, 10.5, 10.6, 10.7, 10.8, 10.9, 10.10 Polyeuctus, 5.1, 5.2 Polyperchon, 6.1, 7.1, 8.1, 8.2, 8.3, 10.1, 10.2 Antigonus’ alliance with Antigonus’ conflict with, 8.1, 8.2 Athenian strategy of, 8.1, 8.2, 8.3, 8.4 Cassander’s rebellion against, 8.1, 8.2, 8.3, 8.4, 8.5, 8.6, 8.7, 8.8, 8.9, 9.1, 9.2, 9.3, 9.4, 9.5, 9.6, 9.7, 10.1 Eumenes’ alliance with, 8.1, 8.2, 8.3, 9.1, 9.2, 9.3, 9.4, 9.5, 9.6, 10.1, 10.2, 10.3 Greek campaign of, 8.1, 8.2, 9.1, 9.2, 10.1 Heracles’ murder by military force of Olympias’ alliance with, 8.1, 9.1, 9.2, 9.3, 9.4, 10.1, 10.2 Phocion’s appeal to, 8.1, 8.2, 8.3 Porus, 4.1, 6.1, 9.1, 9.2 Ptolemy, prf.1, 1.1, 1.2, 7.1, 7.2, 8.1, 10.1, 10.2, 10.3, 10.4 Alexander’s corpse seized by, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 6.4, 7.1, 7.2, 10.1, 10.2, 10.3 Antipater’s alliance with, 6.1, 7.1 Antipater’s marriage agreement with, 4.1, 4.2, 5.1, 6.1, 7.1, 7.2 birthdate of Cassander’s alliance with, 8.1, 9.1 Cleopatra’s marriage agreement with coined money of, 4.1, 10.1, 10.2 Egyptian rule of, 2.1, 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 4.4, 6.1, 6.2, 7.1, 7.2, 10.1 empire-building by, 4.1, 6.1, 7.1, 9.1, 9.2, 10.1 mistress and wives of, 1.1, 4.1, 7.1, 7.2 Peithon’s command supported by Perdiccas’ conflict with, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5, 4.1, 4.2, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 7.1 Perdiccas’ defeat of, 6.1, 7.1, 10.1 regency board proposed by Ptolemy II, 7.1, 10.1 Pydna, siege of, 9.1, 10.1, 10.2 Pythian Games, 3.1, 10.1 Pythias (Aristotle’s daughter), 3.1, 5.1, 5.2 Pythias (Aristotle’s wife), 3.1, 3.2, 5.1, 5.2 Rhoxane, 1.1, 4.1, 6.1, 8.1, 9.1, 9.2, 10.1, 10.2, 10.3, 10.4 death of Perdiccas’ murder plot with, 2.1, 4.1 pregnancy of, 1.1, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4 Royal Journals, 7.1, 10.1; see also Ephemerides Samos, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 8.1, 10.1 Seleucus, prf.1, 2.1, 6.1, 6.2, 7.1, 9.1, 10.1, 10.2 Antigonus’ alliance with Eumenes’ conflict with, 9.1, 9.2 Sibyrtius, 9.1, 10.1 Silver Shields, 1.1, 1.2, 4.1, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 7.4, 9.1, 10.1, 10.2, 10.3, 10.4, 10.5 Antigonus’ attack on disbanding of Eumenes betrayed by Eumenes’ command of, 8.1, 8.2, 8.3, 9.1, 9.2, 9.3, 9.4, 9.5, 9.6, 9.7, 9.8, 9.9, 10.1, 10.2, 10.3 Eumenes’ final address to, 10.1, 10.2, 10.3 at Gabene, 10.1, 10.2 see also Antigenes; Hypaspists; Tentamus Sisygambis, 4.1, 10.1 Socrates, 3.1, 3.2, 8.1, 10.1 Sogdiana, 4.1, 4.2, 9.1, 10.1 Alexander’s campaign in Sosigenes, 9.1, 9.2 Sparta, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 5.1, 5.2, 8.1, 10.1, 10.2 Stateira, 1.1, 2.1, 4.1, 10.1 Stratocles Susa Alexander’s death reported in mass wedding ceremony at, 1.1, 1.2, 2.1, 4.1, 4.2, 10.1 royal treasury at, 1.1, 9.1, 9.2 Taenaron, 3.1, 4.1 Termessus Teutamus, 8.1, 8.2, 8.3, 9.1, 9.2, 10.1, 10.2, 10.3 Thais, 4.1, 7.1 Thebes, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 5.1, 7.1 Alexander’s destruction of, 3.1, 3.2, 6.1, 10.1 Theophrastus, 3.1, 7.1, 10.1, 10.2 Thermopylae Thessalians, 3.1, 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 5.4 Thessalonice Thibron Thrace, Thracians, 5.1, 8.1, 9.1, 10.1 Lysimachus’ assignment to, 2.1, 9.1 Trogus, Pompeius, prf.1, 2.1, 4.1, 7.1, 10.1 Vergina, Greece Macedonian burial site at, itr.1, 6.1, 10.1 Tomb at, 10.1, 10.2 Tomb at, itr.1, itr.2, itr.3, 10.1, 10.2, 10.3 Tomb at, itr.1, 10.1 see also Aegae Who’s Who in the Age of Alexander the Great (Heckel), prf.1, prf.2, 10.1, 10.2 women Argead, 6.1, 6.2, 7.1 dynastic importance of in government murders of as warriors, 6.1, 6.2, 8.1, 9.1 see also Adea; Cleopatra; Cynnane; Olympias; Rhoxane Xennias Xenocrates, 5.1, 5.2 Xerxes, 3.1, 5.1 Zariaspa, 4.1, 4.2 ALSO BY JAMES ROMM The Landmark Arrian: The Campaigns of Alexander (editor) Herodotus The Edges of the Earth in Ancient Thought Click here to return to the text Click here to return to the text Click here to return to the text Click here to return to the text Click here to return to the text Click here to return to the text ... to sound it will be saying the name as the Greeks did The issue of syllabic stress sometimes causes stress for readers A good rule to follow is that in four-syllable names—Antigonus, Leosthenes,... brightest celestial bodies in this new, sunless cosmos were Alexander s top military o cers, who were also in some cases his closest friends Modern historians often refer to them as the Successors”... Perdiccas The Athenians’ Last Stand (I) Resistance, Rebellion, Reconquest The Athenians’ Last Stand (II) A Death on the Nile The Fortunes of Eumenes The War Comes Home Duels to the Death 10 The Closing