PENGUIN BOOKS CITIZENS ‘This is the most marvellous book I have read about the French Revolution in the last fty years… beautifully written, fully illustrated, and throughout enlightened with a great deal of compassion as well as humour’ Richard Cobb, The Times ‘Provocative, occasionally perverse and invariably magni cent… his picture of France in 1793 and 1794 is a tragic masterpiece, never sentimental yet at times almost unbearable in its controlled passion’ Philip Ziegler, Daily Telegraph ‘A master storyteller… Schama’s tale is vivid, dramatic, thought-provoking’ Otto Friedrich, Time ‘Schama has written a stunning book, one that displays to the full his wide-ranging intelligence, marvellous prose style and acute visual sense… what we have here is a rather special way of seeing, a rare ability to coax the past out of its surviving images’ Linda Colley, London Review of Books ‘His prose has a wide gamut of e ects, eloquent, witty and moving, and is always intensely alive There is a freshness in all he does, and above all a kind of ease’ P N Furbank, Sunday Telegraph ‘A work of rare brilliance… that teems with vibrantly drawn portraits of the major participants, from General Lafayette to Robespierre… His narrative never ags… As no other recent historian of the revolution, Schama brings back to life the excitement – and harrowing terror – of an epochal human event’ Jim Miller, Newsweek ABOUT THE AUTHOR Simon Schama is University Professor in Art History and History at Columbia University in New York, and one of the best-known scholars in Britain in any eld He is the prizewinning author of numerous books, including Dead Certainties (Unwarranted Speculations), Landscape and Memory, Rembrandt’s Eyes and three volumes of A History of Britain He is also the writer-presenter of historical and art-historical documentaries for BBC Television He lives outside New York City with his wife and children SIMON SCHAMA Citizens A Chronicle of the French Revolution PENGUIN BOOKS PENGUIN BOOKS Published by the Penguin Group Penguin Books Ltd, 80 Strand, London WC 2R 0RL, England Penguin Group (USA) Inc., 375 Hudson Street, New York, New York 10014, USA Penguin Books Australia Ltd, 250 Camberwell Road, Camberwell, Victoria 3124, Australia Penguin Books Canada Ltd, 10 Alcorn Avenue, Toronto, Ontario, Canada M 4V 3B2 Penguin Books India (P) Ltd, 11 Community Centre, Panchsheel Park, New Delhi – 110 017, India Penguin Group (NZ), cnr Airborne and Rosedale Roads, Albany, Auckland 1310, New Zealand Penguin Books (South Africa) (Pty) Ltd, 24 Sturdee Avenue, Rosebank 2196, South Africa Penguin Books Ltd, Registered Offices: 80 Strand, London WC2R 0RL, England www.penguin.com First published in the USA by Alfred A Knopf, Inc 1989 First published in Great Britain by Viking 1989 Published in Penguin Books 1989 This edition published 2004 Copyright © Simon Schama, 1989 Maps copyright © Jean Paul Tremblay, 1989 All rights reserved The moral right of the author has been asserted Except in the United States of America, this book is sold subject to the condition that it shall not, by way of trade or otherwise, be lent, re-sold, hired out, or otherwise circulated without the publisher’s prior consent in any form of binding or cover other than that in which it is published and without a similar condition including this condition being imposed on the subsequent purchaser EISBN: 9-780-1-4190604-1 FOR JACK PLUMB J’avais rêvéune république que tout le monde eût adorée Je n’ai pu croire que les hommes fussent si féroces et si injustes – CAMILLE DESMOULINS to his wife from prison April 4, 1794 …’Twas in truth an hour Of universal ferment; mildest men Were agitated; and commotions, strife Of passion and opinion fill’d the walls Of peaceful houses with unquiet sounds The soil of common life was at that time Too hot to tread upon; oft said I then, And not then only, “what a mockery this Of history; the past and that to come! Now I feel how I have been deceived, Reading of Nations and their works, in faith, Faith given to vanity and emptiness; Oh! laughter for the Page that would reflect To future times the face of what now is!” – WILLIAM WORDSWORTH The Prelude (1805 text) Book IX 164–77 L’histoire accueille et renouvelle ces gloires déshéritées; elle donne nouvelle vie ces morts, les ressuscite Sa justice associe ainsi ceux qui n’ont pas vécu en même temps, fait réparation plusieurs qui n’avaient paru qu’un moment pour dispartre Ils vivent maintenant avec nous qui nous sentons leurs parents, leurs amis Ainsi se fait une famille, une cité commune entre les vivants et les morts – JULES MICHELET Preface to Histoire du XIXe Siècle, Vol II Contents List of Illustrations Preface PROLOGUE: Powers of Recall – Forty Years Later PART ONE Alterations: The France of Louis XVI New Men I FATHERS AND SONS II HEROES FOR THE TIMES Blue Horizons, Red Ink I LES BEAUX JOURS II OCEANS OF DEBT III MONEY FARMS AND SALT WARS IV LAST BEST HOPES: THE COACHMAN V LAST BEST HOPES: THE BANKER Absolutism Attacked I THE ADVENTURES OF M GUILLAUME II SOVEREIGNTY REDEFINED: THE CHALLENGE OF THE PARLEMENTS III NOBLESSE OBLIGE? The Cultural Construction of a Citizen I COLLECTING AN AUDIENCE II CASTING ROLES: CHILDREN OF NATURE III PROJECTING THE VOICE: THE ECHO OF ANTIQUITY IV SPREADING THE WORD The Costs of Modernity I HOW NEW WAS THE OLD REGIME? II VISIONS OF THE FUTURE PART TWO Expectations Body Politics I UTERINE FURIES AND DYNASTIC OBSTRUCTIONS II CALONNE’S PORTRAIT III NOTABLE EXCEPTIONS Suicides, 1787–1788 I THE REVOLUTION NEXT DOOR II THE LAST GOVERNMENT OF THE OLD REGIME III THE SWAN SONG OF THE PARLEMENTS IV THE DAY OF TILES V END GAMES Grievances, Autumn 1788–Spring 1789 I 1788, NOT 1688 II THE GREAT DIVIDE, AUGUST – DECEMBER 1788 III HUNGER AND ANGER IV DEAD RABBITS, TORN WALLPAPER; MARCH–APRIL 1789 Improvising a Nation I TWO KINDS OF PATRIOT II NOVUS RERUM NASCITUR ORDO, MAY–JUNE 1789 III TABLEAUX VIV ANTS, JUNE 1789 10 Bastille, July 1789 I TWO KINDS OF PALACE II SPECTACLES: THE BATTLE FOR PARIS, JULY 12–13, 1789 III BURIED ALIVE? MYTHS AND REALITIES IN THE BASTILLE IV THE MAN WHO LOVED RATS V THE FOURTEENTH OF JULY 1789 VI THE AFTERLIFE OF THE BASTILLE: PATRIOTE PALLOY AND THE NEW GOSPEL VII PARIS, KING OF THE FRENCH PART THREE Choices 11 Reason and Unreason, July–November 1789 I PHANTOMS, JULY–AUGUST II POWERS OF PERSUASION, JULY–SEPTEMBER III THE QUARREL OF WOMEN, OCTOBER 5–6 12 Acts of Faith, October 1789–July 1790 I LIVING HISTORY II APOSTASY III ACTING CITIZENS Port-Libre prison, 670, 696, 697 Portraits des Hommes Illustres de la France, 27 Post van Neder Rijn, 207 Potier de Novion, 90 Poussin, Nicolas, 143 poverty, criminalization of, 365–6 Prairial, law of, 707–8, 717 Praslin, Duc de, 102, 145 Prộcy, Louis Franỗois Perren, Comte de, 659 Prelude, The (Wordsworth), vii Prémontrés, Eglise de, 401 Presbyterianism, 299 Pressavin, 440 Prieur de La Côte d’Or, 507, 642, 651, 708 Prieur de La Marne, 649, 651 prison massacres, see September massacres privilege, 53, 54–5, 69–70, 270; abolition of, 155, 252–3, 261, 305, 370–72; breach of, 84; Calonne and, 200–201; extension of, 99–100; and impoverished nobility, 104; labor versus, 255 Prix de Rome, 142 Profession du Foi d’un Vicaire Savoyard (Rousseau), 299, 636 Proly, Pierre Jean Berchtold, 682 Promenade (Girardin), 130 Protestant Bank, 72 Protestants, 40, 86, 591; Catholic attacks on, 426; in Convention, 547; dechristianization and, 657; eligibility for o ce of, 424; emancipation of, 156, 213, 215, 245, 248, 414; and federation movement, 428; imprisonment of, 331; marriage ceremonies of, 128; Mirabeau and, 459; and nationalization of Church, 415; Presbyterian, 299; in Provence, 290 Provence, 404; Bastille souvenirs in, 351; Civil Constitution accepted in, 589; émigrés in, 496; Estates of, 289–90; famine in, 256; federation movement in, 428; Malesherbes in, 81; Protestants in, 459; riots in, 291–2; Third Estate of, 263; uprising in, 590, 622 Provence, Louis-Stanislas-Xavier, Comte de, 117, 180, 254, 308, 354, 356, 496 Provisional Executive Council, 530, 531 Prussia, 52, 54, 499, 500, 502, 505; and Dutch unrest, 209; grain imports from, 258; Lafayette and, 736–7; war with, 519, 530, 532, 539–42, 552, 573, 582, 583, 638, 639 Publiciste de la Rộpublique Franỗaise, 634 public opinion: Brissot and, 493; Calonne and, 194, 198–9, 203; Loménie de Brienne and, 236; Mirabeau and, 300–301 Puisaye, Joseph, Comte de, 638 Pupunat, Curé, 418–19 Quakers, 564, 732 Quatremère de Quincy, Antoine Chrysostome, 440, 465–6, 479, 492 Quebec, Battle of, 27 Quebec (ship), 30 Quercy, riots in, 416, 590 Quesnay, Franỗois, 65, 336 Qu’est-ce que le Tiers-Etat? (Sieyès), 255–6 Quimper, Parlement of, 226 Rabaut Saint-Etienne, Jean Paul, 76, 213, 251, 261, 295, 373, 482, 547, 600, 709 Racine, Jean Baptiste, 25, 422, 553 Radier, Jean, 657 Rambouillet, 77, 192 Rastignac family, 102 Rationalists, 244 Raynal, Abbé Guillaume, 145, 291, 412, 417 Reason: festivals of, 5678, 659; rule of, 132 Rebecquy, Franỗois-Trophime, 619 Reflections on Declamation (Hérault), 136 Reformed Church, 213 régéneration, 400 régie, 52, 75, 191 Régnier, Claude Ambrosie, Duc de Massa, 723 Reims, 17; coronation of Charles X at, 7; coronation of Louis XVI at, 39–41, 356; requiem mass for Mirabeau in, 467 Reinach regiment, 320 Reinhard, Marcel, 477 Rembrandt van Rign, 195 Renault, Cécile, 707, 708 Rennes, 236; Parlement of, 93, 135, 227, 228; riots in, 276; third Estate of, 263; uprising in, 621 Republic, 545, 696; army of, 646, 648, 650; Britain and, 581; calendar of, 654, 655, 656; conspiracies against, 707; Corday and, 623; economic crisis in, 601–4, 640–41; enragés on, 606; factionalism and, 607, 608, 609; formal declaration of, 541, 542; Hébertiste view of, 680–81; iconography of, 653–4; and Marat’s funeral, 634; organs of central authority of, 600; retaking of Lyon for, 659, 660; Talleyrand and, 555, 578; taxes of, 720, 721–2; Terror and, 642, 650; and trial of Louis XVI, 551; Vendée insurrection against, 585–99 Restif de Bretonne, Nicolas Edmé, 151, 176, 179 Restoration, 4, 9, 10, 722 Réveillon riots, 277–81, 284, 319, 320, 339 Revolutionary Tribunal, 600, 601, 610, 624, 641, 652, 679, 683, 686, 700, 717, 722; Corday before, 629–30; Danton before, 691–2; Girondins before, 677–8; and law of Prairial, 707–8; Marie-Antoinette before, 673, 674–5; in Marseille, 663; in Meurthe, 664; Robespierristes before, 713 Révolutions de France et de Brabant, Les, 373, 377, 390, 424–5 Révolutions de Paris, 344, 378, 451, 452 Reybaz, Solomon, 462, 464–5 Rey, Marc-Michel, 131 rhetoric: revolutionary, 220, 244–5; spoken, see oratory; of violence, 726 Rhinegrave of Salm, 209 Rhône-et-Loire, Department of, 662 Richardson, Samuel, 126, 179, 361, 492 Richelieu, Jean Armand du Plessis, Cardinal and Duc de, 22, 114, 331 ‘Richerism’, 299, 412 Rights of Man (Paine), 575 Riley, James, 52 Riom, provincial assembly at, 224–5 riots, 273–82, 284–5; after Brienne’s resignation, 238–9; after fall of Bastille, 366–8; and August decrees, 416; during war with Austria, 510–11, 514; game, 273–5; grain, 65, 66, 68, 107, 275–6, 316–17; in Grenoble, 228–38; grocery, 602–4, 607, 613, 641; of July 1789, 326–30; Mirabeau and, 291–2; Reveillon, 277–81, 284, 319, 320; in Vendée, 589; of year III, 718 Riouffe, Honoré, 679, 693 Ripet, Jean, 663 Rivarol, Antoine, 107, 109 Robert, 111 Robert, Franỗois, 480, 521, 546 Robert, Hubert, 331, 702, 714 Robert, Louise, 450, 480 Robespierre, Augustin, 713 Robespierre, Maximilien de, xviii, 127, 377, 382, 409, 462, 477, 482, 487–91, 492, 493, 511, 512, 517–18, 626, 639, 659, 669, 680–91, 717–18, 724; and ‘abdication’ petition, 481; arrest of, 712–13; assassination attempt on, 706; at Lepeletier’s funeral, 568; on capital punishment, 525; on clergy, 495; and Committee of Public Safety, 601; in Constituent Assembly, 424; in Convention, 546, 547, 548, 549, 614, 615, 617; and Danton’s arrest and trial, 690–92, 693; David and, 483; and dechristianization, 658, 659; de Gouges’ attacks on, 676; during war, 510, 543, 603; and economic crisis, 604; education of, 141, 324; in Estates-General, 302; execution of, 713–14, 717; fall of, 708–12; fédérés and, 513; and ight of royal family, 473, 476; Girondins and, 610; Indulgents and, 687–91; and insurrection, 518, 521, 522; in Insurrectionary Commune, 527, 530; and law of Prairial, 707; Le Chapelier refuted by, 487–8, 489–91; Malesherbes and, 555; Mirabeau and, 465; oratory of, 139, 450; on property rights, 641; and public instruction, 700–704, 705, 706; Saint-Just and, 488–9, 551; Terror and, 642, 644, 653; and trial of Louis XVI, 551, 552, 558, 561, 562; war opposed by, 504–5, 506 Robin, Abbé, 36 Rochambeau, Jean-Baptists Donatien de Vimeur, Comte de, 509, 510, 736 Roche, Daniel, 150 Roederer, Pierre Louis, Comte de, 521 Rohan, Louis, Cardinal de, 172–7, 554 Rohring, Captain Léonard, 472 Roland, Eudora, 677 Roland, Manon Philipon, 127, 131, 141, 481, 493, 504, 514, 621, 623, 629, 676, 677, 725 Roland de La Platière, Jean-Marie, 160, 440, 506, 514, 527, 534, 545, 548, 551–2, 604, 610, 615, 677 Rolland, 700 Romainville, Antoine de, 103 Roman Republic, 26, 140–44, 727 Romanticism, 34, 47, 302, 338; ballooning and, 110; of Guibert, 213; hatred of New in, 176; heroes and martyrs and, 465; history and, xv, 5, 7; and hostility toward financiers, 58; identity and, 335; Lafayette and, 21; and levée en masse, 646; of Mercier, 166–7; Mirabeau and, 289; oratory and, 139; in poetry, 483; of Robert, 331; in theater, 422; war and, 503; see also sensibilité Romilly, Samuel, 248, 249, 302, 719 Roncours, Prudent de, 149 Ronsin, Charles Philippe Henri, 139, 656, 667, 680, 687–9, 698 Roosevelt, Franklin, 238 Root-Bernstein, Michele, 113 Rosanbo, Lepeletier de, 696–9 Rosanbo, Louis de, 699 Rosanbo, Marguerite de, 695–6, 697, 699–700 Rossel, C.A., 26 Rossignol, Jean Antoine, 522, 667 Rostan, Joseph-Marie, 663–4 Rothschild family, 241 Rouamps, Pierre-Charles, 707 Rouen: ballooning at, 110; book smuggling in, 149, 151; cahier of, 262; clergy in, 298; crops destroyed in, 256; industrialization in, 161–2; lead mills in, 67; Parlement of, 26, 87, 100, 227, 722; proli c mothers honored in, 444; riots in, 362, 448; Roland de La Platière’s suicide in, 677; trade through, 443; transport to, 158; unemployment in, 258 Rouget de Lisle, Claude Joseph, 507, 508, 518 Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 8, 36, 72, 119, 135, 146, 151, 152, 165, 244, 273, 431, 479, 525, 564, 702, 727, 735; ballooning and, 110, 112; banning of books by, 145; on citizenship, 302, 306; Corday in uenced by, 623; and cult of sensibilité, 126, 128, 129–33; d’Antraigues and, 253; d’Argenson and, 96; de La Tour du Pin in uenced by, 361; on equality, 403; Franklin influenced by, 33; on General Will, 154, 536; Girardin and, 129–31, 441, 577; Girondins and, 559; in Grenoble, 229; honnête homme and, 288, 292; Jacobins in uenced by, 449, 653; Malesherbes and, 82; Marat in uenced by, 625, 626; Marie- Antoinette as reader of, 179, 180; maternal nursing advocated by, 123–4, 125; Mercier and, 166; Mirabeau and, 467; and notions of antiquity, 141, 143, 144; pantheism of, 636; as patriot-hero, 465; patriotic rhetoric and, 246, 250; poissardes and, 393; popular societies in uenced by, 451, 452; on religion, 411–12, 417; rhetoric of virtue of, 233; Robespierre in uenced by, 488, 489, 490, 493; sans-culottes and, 606; Sieyès in uenced by, 376–7; Talleyrand in uenced by, 11; Talma’s portrayal of, 422; Tronchin and, 18, 125; utopian vision of, 164; waxwork of, 323 Rousseau, Thérèse, 130, 131 Rousseau of Trementines, 596 Rousselin, 614 Roussillon, 156–7; coal mining in, 102; émigrés in, 496; in war, 501 Roux, Jacques, 511, 514, 552, 604–5, 606, 634, 639–40, 643 Rovère, Stanislas Joseph Franỗois Xavier, Marquis de, 491 Roy, Abbộ, 284 Royal Academy of Architecture, 338 Royal Academy of Painting, 142, 182, 625 Royal Academy of Science, 625 Royal-Allemands, 326, 510 Royal Bon-Bons, 445 Royal Committee on Agriculture, 264, 294 Royal Falconers, 286 Royal School of Mines, 160 Royau, Abbé, 141 Ruault, Nicolas, 466 Rumel, Franỗois-Jean, 160 Russia, 499, 502; Napoleon in, 11; theater in, 121 Russo-Turkish War, 258 Ruyter, Admiral Michiel de, 208 Sabatier de Cabre, 250 Sade, Alphonse Franỗois, Marquis de, 332, 334, 338–9, 345, 385 Saige, Joseph, 206, 218 Saint-André, Jeanbon, 632, 642, 708 Saint-Bernard prison, 536 Saint-Cloud, 77, 145, 192, 353, 453, 467–8, 481, 557 Saint-Denis chapel, ransacking of, 702 Sainte-Geneviève, Church of, 465–6 Sainte-Madeleine, Convent of, 415 Sainte-Menehould, 471, 541 Sainte-Pélagie prison, 670, 671, 676, 697 Saint-Etienne, 659; Terror in, 652 Saint-Eustache, Church of, 466, 658 Saint-Firmin, Monastery of, 536 Saint-Florent: Terror in, 666; uprising in, 596 Saint-Germain, Claude Louis, Comte de, 192 Saint-Gervais, Church of, 658 Saint-Huruge, Marquis de, 385–6, 420–21, 514 Saint-James, Boudard de, 103, 160 Saint-Jean, Cathedral of, 659 Saint-Jean de la Candeur, 24 Saint-Just, Louis Antoine Léon de, 8, 488–9, 551, 649, 659, 673, 688; arrest of, 712, 713; and Danton’s trial, 691, 693, 698; and economic crisis, 602, 604, 704; Hébertistes and, 680, 682, 690; oratory of, 139; Terror and, 651, 653, 664, 665; Thermidorians and, 709–12; and trial of Girondins, 677; Ventôse decrees of, 689, 710–11, 721 Saint-Lazare, Monastery of, 123, 328 Saint-Louis, Church of, 286, 309, 349 Saint-Martin, Abbey of, 441 Saint-Pierre, Eustache de, 29 Saint-Priest, Franỗois Emmanuel, Comte de, 305, 307–8, 389, 394, 456, 697 Saints, Battle of the, 47–8 Saint-Sauveur, Raymond de, 157 Saint-Sulpice, Seminary of, 17 Salency, ‘Rose Queen’ of, 250–51 Salis-Samade regiment, 318, 327, 339 Salle, Dr., 621, 629 Sallust, 140, 141 Salons, 25, 27, 112–13, 125–7, 128, 142–3, 182, 184–5, 315, 324, 345, 482; of the Republic, 635, 654 Salpêtrière, La, 176, 248, 536, 739, 741 salt tax, 58, 60–61, 265, 266; see also gabelle ‘Sanfedisti’, 588 sans-culottes, xvi, 482, 511–12, 513, 515–16, 535, 545, 576, 611, 612, 613–15, 638; as army o cers, 649; calendar and, 655; Convention denounced by, 639–40; costume of, 703; enragés and, 606; Indulgents and, 689; and Marat’s death, 632; Marie-Antoinette and, 672; Terror and, 643, 644, 667; vandalism by, 702; and Vendée insurrection, 592 Sanson, Charles Henri, 525, 565–6, 567, 569, 679, 693, 694, 713 Santerre, Antoine Joseph, 339, 342, 451, 511, 514, 515, 519, 522, 532; in Convention, 546; and execution of Louis XVI, 565, 566; and imprisonment of royal family, 554; National Guard under, 527, 614 Sapinaud de La Verrie, Charles, 596, 598 Saratoga, Battle of, 509 Sarthe, Department of, 721 Sartine, Gabriel de, 31, 42 Sauce, Jean-Baptiste, 472–3 Saumur: cahier of, 262, 285; uprising in, 599 Savenay, Battle of, 688 Savoy: annexation of, 581; migration from, 365; war in, 542–3 Saxe-Coburg, Friedrich Josias, Duke of, 584, 638, 708 Scaevola, Mucius, 142 Scheffer, Ary, 12 Schmidt, Tobias, 525–6 Schuyler, Philip John, 728 Science du Bonhomme Richard, La (Franklin), 34 Scipio, 142 Scott, Samuel, 319 séance royale, 223, 305–6, 307–11, 312–13, 318 Sécher, Reynald, 594, 669 Second Republic, sections, 513–15, 516–23, 530, 532, 534, 552, 602, 609, 619, 724; of Caen, 622; Convention denounced by, 639–40; Danton and, 645; dechristianization and, 656; enragés and, 605, 606–7; and Festival of the Supreme Being, 704, 705; Girondins and, 612–13; in Lyon, 620; Marat and, 624; and Marat’s funeral, 633; Terror and, 642, 644, 651; Thermidor and, 710, 713; in uprising against Convention, 616, 617; violence of, 608 Séguier, Antoine Louis, 99, 217, 221 Séguier family, 98 Ségur, Louis Philippe, Comte de, 21, 36, 38, 77, 198, 209, 214, 319, 410, 541 seigneurial regime, see feudalism, remnants of Sémonville, Huguet de, 250, 439 Seneca, 142 Senozan, Comtesse de, 699 sensibilité, 22, 24, 30, 126–33, 677, 688, 738; America and, 727, 730; antiquity and, 142, 143; Corday and, 631; oratory and, 134, 137; painting and, 126–8; Robespierre and, 711; Rousseau and, 129–33 Sentille, La, 549 Sentinel of the People, The, 252 September massacres, 527–8, 529–30, 531–9, 545–6, 548, 555, 574, 587, 590, 629, 691, 695, 700, 726, 732, 736 Sergent, 521, 527 Sérilly, 103 Servan-en-Brie, cahier of, 269 Servan, Joseph, 513, 527 Seven Years’ War, xvii, 20, 26, 30, 37, 42, 47, 52, 192, 465, 724 Severus and Cracella (Greuze), 128 Sèvres porcelain, 569 Sèvres, withdrawal of troops to, 353, 355–6 Sèze, Romain de, 558–9, 562 Shakespeare, William, 126 Shelburne, William Petty, Lord, see Lansdowne, Marquess of Sheridan, Richard, 575 Sicard, Abbé Roch Ambroise Cucurron, 528–9, 533, 535 Sidney, Algernon, 96, 702 Siege of Calais, The (Belloy), 27–9 Sieyès, Abbé Emmanuel Joseph, 251, 255–6, 261, 295, 301, 302, 303, 306, 380, 476, 477, 482, 483, 739; Church and, 413; in Club of 1789, 407; on Committee of Public Instruction, 701; in Convention, 547; and Declaration of Rights of Man, 376– 7, 403 Simon, Antoine, 673 Simoneau, Louis, 514 Six Edicts, 69 Six Merchant Guilds, 255 slaves: emancipation of, 489, 492; see also blacks slave trade, campaign against, 248 Slavin, Morris, 617 Smollett, Tobias, 332 smuggling, 60–61, 266; of clandestine literature, 145, 148–9 Soboul, Albert, 617 Social Circle, 402, 486 Social Contract (Rousseau), 93, 132, 146, 376 social integration, process of, 100–102 Société des Amis de la Liberté et Egalité, 587 Sociétédes Amis des Noirs, 248 Sociétédes Femmes Républicaines, 676, 739 Société Gallo-Américaine, 502 sociétés de pensée, 151, 260 Society of Indigents, 450 Society of Thirty, 250–52, 295, 733 Socrates, 142 Solages, Gabriel, Comte de, 8, 345 Solar, Chevalier de, 90–91 Sologne, 156, 264, 269 Sombreuil, Charles-Franỗois Virot, Comte de, 329 Sombreuil, Mme de, 537, 699–700 Sorbonne, 17 Souchu, René, 587 Soufflot, Jacques Germain, 465 Soulès, 383 Sousseval, de, 432 South Sea Company, 51 Spain, 592; Holland and, 37, 580; war with, 3–4, 588, 598 Speer, Albert, 703 Staël, Germaine de, 73, 213–14, 294–5, 342, 498, 576–9, 676, 732, 735, 737 Stendhal (Henri Beyle), 228–9, 231, 232, 239 Stofflet, Jean Nicolas, 595, 596, 668 Stone, Lawrence, 100 Strasbourg: book smuggling in, 149; clergy in, 297; federation movement in, 428; popular societies in, 448; riots in, 366–7, 370; in war, 507 strikes, 710; prohibition of, 442 Suard, Jean-Baptiste-Antoine, 122, 147 Suetonius, 177 Suffren de Saint-Tropez, André, Bailli de, 38, 47, 121, 192 Suger, Abbé, 135 suicide, 239–40; of Girondins, 679, 722 Supreme Being, cult of, 704, 705–6, 708–10, 717, 721 Surveillante, La (ship), 30 Sweden, 502 Swiss guards, 108, 221, 393, 520, 522, 527, 531, 532, 556, 674, 675; at Bastille, 343 Switzerland: Brissot in, 492, 678; de Breteuil in, 469; loans from, 192; Malesherbes’ daughter in, 695; Malesherbes in, 81 tabac, 58, 60 Tableau de Paris (Mercier), 166–7 Tableaux de la Rộvolution Franỗaise, 449 Tacitus, 26, 324 Tackett, Timothy, 591 taille, 54, 55, 58, 85, 201 Tailleur Patriotique, 447 Taking of the Bastille, The (Désaugiers), 433, 435 Talleyrand-Périgord, Charles Maurice, duc de, Prince de Bénévent, 13–14, 20, 120, 140, 153, 184, 244, 289, 366, 372, 408, 478, 614, 737, 739; in 1830 Revolution, 10, 11–13; in America, 728, 731–6; at coronation of Louis XVI, 41; as Bishop of Autun, 295, 298–9; Calonne and, 188–91, 197, 198; Church and, 410–413, 416–17, 418; in Club of 1789, 407; on Committee of Public Instruction, 701; and Declaration of the Rights of Man, 376, 403; in Estates-General, 295, 299; and federation movement, 429, 432–3, 434–5; in London, 498–9, 555, 573–9, 582; Mirabeau and, 410, 456, 459, 462, 463, 464; Narbonne and, 498; ordination of constitutional bishops by, 460; Society of Thirty, 251; Voltaire and, 17–19 Tallien, Jean Lambert, 536, 712, 717, 729 Talma, Franỗois Joseph, 415, 421–3, 454, 479, 626 Talon, Omer, 733 Target, Guy-Jean, 136, 174–5, 213, 244, 250–52, 254, 295; in National Assembly, 398; and trial of Louis XVI, 554–5, 556; waxwork of, 323 Tarn: famine in, 256; riots in, 416, 648 Tasso, 553 taxations populaires, 602 taxes, 52– 3, 57, 74; collection of, 57–8; Constituent Assembly and, 408; exemption from, 54– , 69– 70, 100, 252–3; ‘farming’ of, 58–64; grievances about, 266, 268; Malesherbes on, 84; Mirabeau on, 457; National Assembly and, 303, 304, 371; Necker and, 75; Parlements and, 86–7, 92; physiocrats on, 65; of Republic, 720, 721– 2; séance royale on, 308–9; system of management of, 52; under Calonne, 193, 197, 199–203; under Loménie de Brienne, 211, 219, 221, 222, 224 technology, 160; military, 155 Temple Prison, 528, 538, 541, 549, 552–4, 562, 564, 568 Tenducci, 393 Teniers, David, 195 Tennis Court Oath, 34–5, 144, 306–7, 353, 420, 482, 483, 512, 709 Terray, Abbé Joseph-Marie, 65, 66, 68, 71, 83, 177, 675 Terror, the, 8, 158, 240, 379, 409, 441, 451, 640–46, 650–53, 659–72, 718, 722, 723, 725, 732, 736, 738; Committee of Public Safety in, 601; Danton and, 684–6; dechristianization and, 656–9, 721; economic, 639, 643, 682, 734; Ferrières during, 284; Girondins during, 493; Indulgent campaign to end, 684–90; instructional phase of, 701–6; and law of Prairial, 707–8; Lindet during, 556; local o cials and, 439; in Lyon, 660–64; Malesherbes and, 556, 695–700; and Marat’s death, 628; in Marseille, 663–4; prisons during, 670–71, 691, 697; Target during, 555; Thermidorians and, 708–14, 717; in Vendée, 664, 665–9; women and, 672, 676–7; working institutions of, 637 Testament of M Fortune Richard (Mathon de La Cour), 162–4 theater, 113–23; boulevard, 115–16, 273; Marie-Antoinette and, 180, 181, 185; oratory and, 139, 140; and Paris revolt, 325– 6; politics and, 421–3, 446 Théâtre Beaujolais, 115 Théâtre de la Cité, 635 Théâtre de la Nation, 4223 Thộõtre des Terreaux, 660 Thộõtre-Franỗais, 18, 25, 32, 121, 122, 401, 421, 425, 446, 480 Theism (Ferrières), 285 Thélusson et Cie, 73, 160 Theory of Civil Laws (Linguet), 137 Théot, Catherine, 709 Thermidorians, 708–14, 717 Thièry, Luc-Vincent, 130, 247 Third Estate, 105, 243, 282, 295, 296, 300, 362, 596; at séance royale, 308, 309, 311; cahiers of, 267, 271–3, 285; claim for ascendency of, 301; clergy and, 300, 303, 413; Club of 1789 and, 407; and death of Dauphin, 304; Duport and, 218; grands bailliages and, 236; Great Fear and, 367; in Grenoble, 232; identi ed with the people, 253; Louis XVI and, 293–4; military and, 319; Mirabeau and, 288, 290, 292; National Assembly formed by, 303–4, 305; Necker and, 78, 253, 254, 260, 263, 281, 317; nobility and, 406; of Paris, 277; public ritual and, 287–8; representation of, 250–52, 253–5, 260, 263–5; riots and, 279–81; Young and, 369 Thomassin, Charles-Antoine, 441, 720 Thouars, uprising in, 599 Thouret, Jacques Guillaume, 403, 456, 699–700 Thubert, 593 Thugut, Baron Franz de Paula von, 739 Thuriot de La Rozière, Jacques Alexis, 340–41, 656, 658 Tilly, Charles, 588 Tipu Sahib, Sultan of Mysore, 192, 247, 248 Tissot, Pierre-Franỗois, 187 Titian, 195 tobacco tax, 58, 60 Tocqueville, Alexis de, xv, xvii, 6, 50, 98, 145, 156, 714, 721 Tocqueville, Hervé Clérel de, 696, 697, 714 Tocqueville, Louise de, 696, 714 Tom Jones (Fielding), 96 Tonnelet, 595 To the Provenỗal Nation (Mirabeau), 290 torture, abolition of, 213 Toulon, 50, 650; Bastille souvenirs in, 351–2; British eet in, 644, 704; retaking of, 663, 687–8; riot in, 291; Terror in, 663, 708; uprising in, 619, 620–21, 638, 659 Toulouse, 149, 240; crops destroyed in, 256; municipal officials of, 439; Parlement of, 91, 227; transport to, 158 Tours, 161; flooding of, 257 Tourzel, Louise Elizabeth de, 470, 528 trade, 159; Calonne’s policies on, 193–4; Constituent Assembly and, 442–3; and economic crisis, 258; impact of Revolution on, 719; and Republic, 604; revolutionary rhetoric on, 245 Treasury, 54, 99, 236, 308; of Republic, 602; and tax farms, 59 Treaty of 1756, 502, 505–7 Tresca, Salvatore, 654 Trianon, court actors at, 114, 180 Tricornot, Baron, 366 Tronchet, Franỗois-Denis, 556, 558, 562 Tronchin, Théodore, 18, 125 Tronquart, Nicolas, 665 Troyes: exile of Parlementaires to, 221; federation movement in, 428; militia of, 276 Trudaine des Ormes, 439 True Mother, The, 125 Trumeau, Marie-Jeanne, 279, 280 Tuileries, 4, 96–7, 114, 327, 510, 519, 549, 650; booksellers at, 149; demonstrations at, 515–16; during August insurrection, 522, 541, 613, 659; Festival of the Supreme Being at, 704; guillotine at, 524; King’s guard at, 513, 520; royal family at, 397– 8, 453, 461, 470, 473, 476–7, 494, 514, 556, 557 Tulard, Jean, 720 Turenne, Henri de la Tour d’Auvergne, Vicomte de, 27, 130, 465 Turgot, Anne-Robert Jacques, Baron de l’Aulne, 34, 42, 53, 72, 73, 77, 87, 99, 156, 164, 192, 194, 197, 200, 204, 209, 212, 242, 270, 287; and American Revolution, 36–7; and coronation of Louis XVI, 39–40, 41; nancial reforms of, 65, 66–71; Malesherbes and, 80, 81, 82, 85, 86; Parlements and, 94 Turkey, 502 Turreau, Louis Marie, 591, 668 Tyrannicides, 544 Unigenitus (Papal Bull), 91–2 Utrecht: newspapers from, 146; political unrest in, 206, 208, 209 Vadier, Marc Guillaume, 688, 691, 701, 709, 711, 712 Val-de-Grâce regiment, 515 Valence, regional court at, 236 Valenciennes, 600; fall of, 638; grain riots in, 276; retaking of, 708 Valfons, Charles de, 535 Valley Forge, Lafayette at, 19, 23 Valmy, Battle of, 7, 539–42, 549 Valois kings, 172, 173, 176, 357, 702 Van Rensselaer, Stephen, 731 Vanves: cahier of, 272; chemical industry in, 155–6 Vanzut, 195 Var, Department of, 404, 493, 495 Varennes, flight of royal family to, 472–3, 474, 475, 484, 486, 496, 498, 509, 512, 556, 674 Variétés, 114 Variétés Amusantes, 115, 316 Varlet, Jean, 514, 605, 606, 607, 612, 613, 614, 624 Vashington (Billardon de Sauvigny), 25 Vattel, 665 vaudeville, 446 Vaudreuil, Joseph Hyacinthe ranỗois, Comte de, 180, 181, 300 Vaudreuil, Louis Philippe de Rigaud, Marquis de, 120 Vaux, Maréchal de, 234, 239 venal offices, 55–6, 74–5, 77, 99, 261, 262, 372 Vendée: insurrection in, 585–99, 622, 638, 639, 674; retaking of, 646, 649, 650, 659, 688; Terror in, 664, 665–9, 726, 736 Ventôse decrees, 689, 710, 721 Verdun, 532, 539–40 Vergennes, Charles Gravier, Comte de, 20, 25, 32, 37, 43, 47, 48, 192, 194, 198, 248, 502, 724; and Dutch Patriots, 208–9; Necker and, 73, 76, 77 Vergniaud, Pierre, xviii, 450, 493, 504, 506, 507, 515, 547, 548, 607–9, 610; and Committee of Public Safety, 601; and insurrection against Convention, 615, 617; and trial of Louis XVI, 559–60, 561, 562; trial of, 677 Veri, Abbé Joseph-Alphonse de, 87 Vermond, Abbé Jacques de, 355 Vernet, Horace, Vernet, Mme, 372–3 Versailles, 26–7, 34–5, 44, 45, 179, 314–16, 318, 400, 674; abolition of court at, 357; Assembly of Notables at, 198, 199, 217; booksellers at, 145; Breton Club at, 376, 407, 448; debauchery at, 177; dynastic marriages at, 128; emigration from, 355–6; Estates-General at, 235–6, 260, 285–9, 293–5, 297, 299, 406, 485; fetishized royal body at, 177; Flanders Regiment at, 389–90; our riots at, 68; Franklin at, 33; French ambassador to Hague at, 208, 209; Gallery of Battles at, 9; Hall of Mirrors at, 184–5; hierarchy at, 474; Jeanne de La Motte at, 173; la petite Venise at, 42; Louis XV’s court at, 20; Malesherbes at, 80, 82; map collection at, 703; market women of Paris at, 386–8; menagerie at, 714; military at, 320; Montgolfier balloon at, 106–8; National Guard march on, 394–5, 396, 397; redesigned by Louis XV, 39; ritual at, 310; séance royale at, 305–6, 307; spectacles at, 114; Sultan of Mysore at, 247, 248; Talleyrand at, 188; venal o ces at, 74; women demonstrators at, 390–94 Verteuil de Malleret, M.A., Baron de, 600 Vestier, Antoine, 345 Vestier, Mme, 372–3 Vestris, Mme, 422 veto power, 377, 496, 555, 557 Victoire (ship), 21, 22 Vidéaud de La Tour, 308 Vien, Marie, 372–3 Vieux Cordelier, 685–7 Views on the Administration of the Finance of France (Necker), 197 Vigée, Louis Jean-Baptiste Etienne, 697 Vigée-Lebrun, Elisabeth, 129, 181–3, 184–5, 187, 194, 196, 197, 471, 576 Village Bride (Greuze), 127 Village Soothsayer, The (Rousseau), 128–9, 130, 180 Villarnois, Arthur de, 263 Villeron, cahier of, 269 Villette, Charles, Marquis de, 18 Vincennes, Château de, 289, 336, 337, 347, 467 Vincent, Franỗois Nicolas, 680, 685, 687, 689 vingtiốme tax, 54, 77, 84, 224, 720 violence, xvii, 724–7; capacity for, 513; and Great Fear, 366–7; Jacobins and, 618; legitimacy and, 377–8; newspapers and, 378–9; popular, 526–7; retributive, 660; Robespierre on, 549; sectionnaire, 607; in Vendée uprising, 585– 7, 589, 593; women and, 629; see also Terror Violette, Jean-Denis, 535 Vitet, Dr Louis, 440 ‘Viva Maria’ riots, 588 Vivarais, federation movement in, 428 Vizelle assembly, 234–5 Voidel, 459 Voisins, Gilbert de, 87 Volange, 114 Volney, Constantin Franỗois de chasseboeuf de, 252 Voltaire, 56, 130, 131, 134, 146, 241, 352, 421, 467, 735; Beaumarchais and, 120; d’Argenson and, 96; death of, 478; Lally and, 26; Panckoucke and, 147; on Parlements, 92, 94; as patriot-hero, 465; on religion, 411; remains brought to Paris, 479– 80; Talleyrand and, 17–19; waxwork of, 322, 323 Vosges: anticonscription riots in, 648; cahiers of, 270; clergy in, 418; cotton manufacturing, 159–60; émigrés in, 496; migration from, 365; Third Estate in, 255; weapons manufacture in, 650 Walckiers, 682 Walpole, Horace, 573 Warens, Louise Eléonore de La Tour du Pil, Baronne de, 125, 131 Washington, George, 11, 19–20, 23–6, 27, 32, 35, 224, 297, 375, 579, 732, 738 Waterloo, xv, 7, 11 Watteau, Jean Antoine, 195 Wattignies, Battle of, 681 Watt, James, 193 Weimar, Karl-August, Duke of, 539 Well-Beloved Mother, The (Greuze), 128 Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, Duke of, 13 Wendel, de, dynasty, 103, 719 Wertmuller, Adolf Ulrik, 184 Westermann, Franỗois-Joseph, 520, 522, 639, 641, 666, 667, 692 Westphalia, Treaty of, 580 What No One Has Yet Said (La Haie), 281–2 When Will We Have Bread?, 390 Whigs, 248, 295, 361, 575, 737 White Hat, The (Greuze), 125 White, Hayden, xviii ‘Whyte, Major’, 345 Wicked Son Punished, The (Greuze), 25, 127 Wicked Son, The (Greuze), 127, 531 Wilberforce, William, 248 Wilhelmina, Princess of Orange, 208 Wilkes, John, 512, 625 Wille, Jean-Georges, 128, 637 William the Conqueror, 27 William III, King of England, 243, 364 Williams, David, 402 Williams, Helen Maria, 435 William V, Prince of Orange, 207, 469 Wimpffen, Louis Félix de, 621–3 Witterbach, 697 Witt, Johann de, 208 Woman in the Social and Natural Order (Ferrières), 285 women: in Conciergerie, 671; of Dauphiné, letter to king from, 234; demonstrations by, 386–8, 390–94; in Festival of Unity, 636–7; in grain riots, 276; in insurrection, 518, 522; in levée en masse, 647; in Paris labor market, 271; patriotic contributions by, 372–3; in political clubs, 450–51; political participation of, 725; reconsecration campaigns of, 721; republican, 514; rights of, 424; and Terror, 672, 676–7; as vendors of clandestine books, 149; violence and, 629 Wordsworth, William, vii, 435, 483 Work of Seven Days (Dusaulx), 350–51 Year 2440, The (Mercier), 153–4, 166 York and Albany, Frederick Augustus, Duke of, 638, 678, 682, 711 Yorktown, Battle of, 24, 47, 509 Young, Arthur, 104, 252, 302, 303–4, 307, 315–16, 320, 369–70, 574 Young Friends of the Constitution, 444 Ysabeau, Claude-Alexandre, 729 Zaïre (Voltaire), 352 Zenith of French Liberty (Gillray), 576 Zhou En-lai, xv ... that great general who is born for the salvation of his country and the admiration of the universe? Yes, Sir, that very same campaign of last winter would one of the nest part of the life of Caesar,... interests – the creation of a potent state and the creation of a community of free citizens The ction of the Revolution was to imagine that each might be served without damaging the other and its... lines were the same, the lead players had aged badly The advanced years of many of the principals of the July Revolution of 1830 were an embarrassment “Bliss was it in that dawn to be alive, but