Social emergence in international relations

SOCIAL EMERGENCE IN INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Institutional Dynamics in East Asia Maren Wagner Social Emergence in International Relations Maren Wagner Social Emergence in International Relations Institutional Dynamics in East Asia Maren Wagner GIGA German Institute of Global and Area Studies Hamburg, Germany ISBN 978-3-319-33550-6 ISBN 978-3-319-33551-3 DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-33551-3 (eBook) Library of Congress Control Number: 2016946225 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2016 This work is subject to copyright All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made Cover illustration: © Maria Kazanova / Alamy Stock Vector Printed on acid-free paper This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by Springer Nature The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG Switzerland ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The idea for this book evolved out of my research interest in institutional dynamics in East Asia—a region characterized by a fascinating and ever-growing meshwork of regional institutions, entities that contribute to integrative processes and that affect regional policies I have always wondered how such regional institutions emerge and acquire the distinct characteristics that give them their own unique nature Looking at existing scholarly works, I found these issues to be mostly unresolved and indeed contested in the field of International Relations (IR) I thus felt the need to reconsider the emergence of regional institutions in such a way as to incorporate into IR thinking the complex interplay between such emergent entities in the international system, and furthermore to clarify how emergence works and how we can potentially trace it This book would not have been possible without the assistance and support of the various individuals and institutions that have facilitated and encouraged its creation First, I want to thank both the GIGA German Institute of Global and Area Studies and the University of Hamburg for their financial support, which not only allowed me to hone my research at several international workshops, conferences, and during a research stay in Singapore but also to finish this book Second, I want to specifically thank Dirk Nabers, University of Kiel, and Patrick Köllner, GIGA Institute of Asian Studies, for allowing me the space to develop my arguments and for always being open to my requests and thoughts At the GIGA, I also want to thank all those colleagues who commented on my research at its different stages, and who shared their perspectives on and discussed the various issues related to current developments in world politics v vi ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Many thanks especially to Nicola Nymalm and David Shim for reading parts of this work and for providing me with helpful feedback For his excellent proofreading I thank James Powell—any remaining mistakes are my own Third, I want to mention the kind hospitality of the Konrad Adenauer Foundation (KAS) and its staff in Singapore, who took me in as a visiting research fellow and thus provided me with a well-suited base for my research in the region I am also grateful to all those academics, diplomats, and other experts in Indonesia, Malaysia, and Singapore who shared with me their insights into institutional dynamics and developments in East Asia Furthermore, I want to acknowledge the useful observations provided especially by Amitav Acharya, Patrick T. Jackson, Jonathan Joseph, Xia Liping, and Milja Kurki at the different stages of this work’s creation The most important encouragement to keep going with this work came, ultimately, from my own family: My parents continue to be proof of what is most important in life, and their love and understanding have always been of great support to me My husband, Volker, is not only my greatest supporter, but also my greatest critic—thank you for your enduring faith in me and for always keeping my spirits up I dedicate this book to them, and in particular to my father—he was always the most loveable and good-natured person in my life, and someone that I now miss every day CONTENTS Part I The Issue of Institutional Emergence in East Asia: An Introduction A Critical Realist Approach to the Study of World Politics 25 Emergence and Complexity in the International System: Developing a Social Ontology of International Relations 79 Emergence and the Complexity of Social Practices: The Role of Discourse in Social Emergence Part II The Case of Institutional Emergence in East Asia: Analyzing Regional Institutions as Emergent Entities 143 185 187 vii viii CONTENTS Examining the Role of Discourse in Institutional Emergence in East Asia: ASEAN Plus Three and  the East Asia Summit 205 The Relevance of Social Emergence in World Politics: Conclusion and Outlook 269 Index 287 ABBREVIATIONS AMRO APEC APT ASEAN ASEM CAQDAS CDA CEPEA CMI CMIM EAEC EAS EASG EAVG FTA(s) IO IR MoEAI MoFAJ MoFAPRC PMoI TAC ASEAN Plus Three Macroeconomic Research Office Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation ASEAN Plus Three Association of Southeast Asian Nations Asia-Europe Meeting Computer-Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis Software Critical Discourse Analysis Comprehensive Economic Partnership in East Asia Chiang Mai Initiative Chiang Mai Initiative Multilateralization East Asian Economic Caucus East Asia Summit East Asia Study Group East Asia Vision Group Free Trade Agreement(s) International Organization International Relations Ministry of External Affairs, India Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China Prime Minister of India Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in Southeast Asia ix LIST Table 3.1 Table 3.2 Table 3.3 Table 5.1 Table 6.1 Table 6.2 Table 6.3 Table 6.4 Table 6.5 OF TABLES Emergent properties of regional institutions Emergent properties of regional institutions and corresponding powers Illustration of abduction Three dimensions of analyzing institutional discourse Word frequencies of complete corpus (top 20) Word frequencies of APT and the EAS by comparison (top 20) Code co-occurrences: aims and challenges Code co-occurrences: scope and aims/challenges Code co-occurrences: ASEAN centrality 121 122 127 200 218 219 223 237 254 xi 280 M WAGNER benefits” (Yoshimatsu 2012, 407) Another consequence of this work, then, will hopefully be that more studies hereafter follow that base their research on institutional dynamics, regional developments, and the other complex phenomena that we can observe in world politics, on the basis of more comprehensive conceptualizations of their underlying structures and relations To conclude this part, a short note on the “critical” aspect of critical realism (mainly associated with its emancipatory potential) should also be given—especially because it was left out of the discussion here I would like to connect this issue to the question of in what ways critical realist research can—and indeed should—be relevant to policy In my view, the analysis conducted here is policy relevant as it shows how discourse manifests itself in the processes of social emergence that result in new forms of order and in corresponding actions Following other critical realists, I support the argument that “understanding the mechanisms that give rise to particular forms of behavior makes realist research particularly relevant to policy application” (Ackroyd 2004, 159) This connects to what I mentioned above with regard to advocating for a complexity perspective; of course we cannot predict future events, but what can be done is giving policy recommendations based on the examination of past ones (see Lehmann 2012, 409) Concerning this, it is all the more relevant to visualize—or better, to reformulate—what the actual benefits of uncertainty and unpredictability can be Thus, as critical realist scholars, we not (and should not) strive to offer concrete advice about action to be taken; what we is, rather, to “provide practitioners with knowledge of structures, their mechanisms and tendencies that practitioners can apply to their specific contexts” (Ackroyd and Karlsson 2014, 37) 7.3 POSSIBLE DISAGREEMENTS AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVES While the argumentation above has highlighted the various contributions of the critical realist approach advanced here while also clearly outlining the benefits of the conceptualization of social emergence in the international system, I am aware that there are several issues that might provoke disagreement—as well as demand further investigation Rather than one unified concept of emergence, there are a variety of contrary positions and thoughts in the social sciences based on different ontological commitments Given that the issue of emergence in social systems remains THE RELEVANCE OF SOCIAL EMERGENCE IN WORLD POLITICS 281 a controversial one, it is thus more than likely that a number of arguments presented here will be disagreed with To close this book, I would thus like to take the opportunity to provide some responses to these possible disagreements as well as to outline perspectives for future research First, some emergentist theorists might reject the form of strong emergence advanced here by mentioning that only an entity like the human mind can be said to be emergent in a strong sense As I have argued, the properties of social emergent entities can however not be reduced to invariant characteristics that exist irrespective of context and, consequently, they can be conceived of as a form of strong emergence What is more, as mentioned, by stressing the relational organization of emergent entities, a strong version of emergence allows us to consider the downward causation argument in a more careful way In my view, it is this very challenge to relate the philosophical debate on emergence to the social sciences that is actually most beneficial to the understanding and studying of social phenomena as emergent On a more general note, other emergentist theorists might raise the complaint that this book did not address relevant issues in the emergence debate in sufficient detail To this I can only respond by simply emphasizing again that I never had as my aim or intention the resolution of all open issues in the emergence debate, which, in any case, would probably be an all but impossible feat Second, IR scholars might argue that this study draws on too many insights from other disciplines so that, on the one hand, its focus on studying world politics becomes indistinct and, on the other, discussion of the various issues remains too vague Though I am able to empathize with these arguments from a classical IR perspective, they are comparatively easily rejected Regarding the former, in this work I aimed for a novel perspective on institutional dynamics and emergence specifically in East Asia This means that I focused not only on an issue highly relevant to world politics, but also provided an approach addressing how we can study one of the core objects of international relations Concerning the latter, it goes without saying that it is neither possible nor indeed desirable to discuss each and every aspect of the addressed insights in detail—precisely because of the necessity of drawing on a wide variety of distinct theoretical frameworks if an innovative contribution to IR is to be made While this might indeed be one of the main drawbacks of working in an interdisciplinary manner, I feel that the merits of bringing distinct perspectives into dialogue with each other far outweighs any possible disadvantages thereof On a personal note, accomplishing this 282 M WAGNER work added to my own view that IR is not so much a discipline as an interdisciplinary field—one that should mesh different schools of thought so as to better study problems, phenomena, and events in international politics The latter are so broad and diverse in nature that we can benefit greatly in IR from the insights, approaches, and concepts of other disciplines Needless to say, those that we choose to incorporate should always be derived from and attuned to the particular phenomena of world politics that we are interested in (and the corresponding research focus) Another objection, one most likely to be posed by institutionalists, might be that this book offers only semantic rephrasings of institutional changes or transformations in East Asia This argument is quite easily rejected; while emergence does indeed include such change or transformation in terms of modifying features, it also emphasizes the creative aspect of the formation of different forms of order in the international system Emergence thus accounts for actors in the international system being intentional and purposive individuals, ones who have visions to develop innovative forms of cooperation—something that is mostly neglected in traditional IR institutionalist perspectives Some IR scholars, likely positivist ones, might furthermore contest the explanatory power of critical realist research with regard to the problem of identifying unobservable causal mechanisms In response, I would have them consider that this is not a problem that is only specific to critical realist research but also for all research in general that is concerned with explaining the social world (see also, Edwards et al 2014) Third, it is more than likely that poststructuralists will object to the understanding of discourse that is advanced here They would presumably argue that there are no different moments of social practice; rather, that discourse is social practice On a related note, they may object to the differentiation that has been made here between discursive and nondiscursive features They would, equally, probably reject ascribing causal significance to discourse by dismissing that issue as an unnecessary theoretical argument and stressing the political consequences of engaging in any form of causal analysis While I would, first, encourage them to reread my dialogue with poststructuralism, I would, second, also nudge them gently toward engaging in this dialogue—especially given that we have actually much more in common than we disagree upon As a more direct response to the abovementioned disagreements, I have admitted that the boundary between the discursive and the non-discursive is not a clear one—especially in terms of concrete analysis With regard to THE RELEVANCE OF SOCIAL EMERGENCE IN WORLD POLITICS 283 social practice in world politics, I have differentiated between discourse and diplomacy as two distinct moments of social practice While diplomacy to a significant extent includes, of course, discursive features, other non-discursive elements—in the form of centralized procedures or control mechanisms—influence diplomatic practice just as greatly As such, both of the aforementioned moments ultimately make a difference Based on critical realism, the discursive can be understood as “ideally real” and the non-discursive as “socially real”; this is a distinction that I found very useful in this context as a way to account for the interplay plus the irreducibility of both dimensions And, as already mentioned, poststructuralists also make causal claims in arguing that discourse has some kind of effect, so why not address this efficacy at least in some respect? Fourth, discourse analysts might generally criticize the analysis conducted here for being either not broad enough or not specific and detailed enough While I certainly agree that the analysis could of course be extended or deepened, this was not the singular focus of this study First and foremost, the CDA here served as a means by which to analyze how discourse figures in the emergent properties of regional institutions and how it contributes to the (re)producing of relations This was done in order to relate the abstract conceptualization of social emergence to one concrete case Nevertheless, there is indeed much room left for further investigation, which I now further address in the following 7.3.1 Possibilities for Further Research The conceptualization of social emergence in the international system advanced here, as well as its critical realist grounding, responds to a number of important questions that IR scholars have not previously considered to any satisfactory degree At the same time, they open up more questions, both theoretical and empirical, for future research on social emergence in the international system In closing, I would thus like to reflect on some possibilities for further future exploration of these key topics First, it would be interesting to apply the framework advanced here to other regions’ institutional arrangements and related institution-building processes Given that this work focused specifically on regional institutions in East Asia, considering other world regions and their emergent architecture would be conducive to further developing our understanding of emergence in world politics In this regard, making a comparison between the emergence processes of institutions in different world regions might 284 M WAGNER also generate additional insights into how emergence works Addressing these issues would also imply testing the applicability of the institutional emergent properties and powers proposed here, and thus assessing to what extent they are a suitable way to describe and study distinct institutions in other regions Second, it would be important to account for the explanatory potential of this novel approach to emergence with regard to further entities of the international system besides regional institutions It might be asked, for example: In what way could we study states as emergent entities of the international system? Are there any differences between governmental and nongovernmental emergent phenomena? Do all emergent entities of the international system possess purposive and organizational emergent properties and powers, or are there any further, different, and varying features that we need to conceptualize? These are just a few of the issues that need to be resolved if we are to enhance our knowledge of emergent phenomena and processes in the international system Beyond these concerns, there are several other aspects that could be focused on in studying social emergence in world politics To give a few examples, it would be interesting to elaborate on the role of individual actors in social emergence, thereby considering aspects of leadership or entrepreneurship The interplay, meanwhile, of exogenous and endogenous factors in emergent processes could be another informative angle to take, as well as possible synergies between the international and other overlapping systems Tackling such issues would not only add to our theorization of emergence in the international system, but, where applicable, would also help to generate additional research guidelines for how to best analyze concrete emergent phenomena Third, with regard to the East Asian case, there is a need to follow up on the intriguing matter of an “East Asian identity” and its associated reciprocal effects on the emergent architecture and order in the region Though the issue of identity has been mostly (intentionally) left out of this work and only touched upon in the analysis, it is nevertheless closely connected to the research of social emergence in general However, further considerations of whether an East Asian identity exists—or, alternatively, whether it might at some point emerge—would necessarily involve asking questions related to the public sphere in the region The analysis here focused on the elite discourse and consequently omits reflection on public opinion Exploring dimensions of an East Asian identity that is only—if THE RELEVANCE OF SOCIAL EMERGENCE IN WORLD POLITICS 285 at all—shared by political elites would accordingly not make much sense Any discourse analysis that aims to focus in more detail on the emergence of a distinct East Asian identity, then, would first have to examine whether there is even an East Asian public sphere and, if so, how it is integrated into such processes (see Fairclough 2010) In this context, it would be interesting to investigate the obstacles to the emergence of such a public sphere in East Asia In addition, there are several other possibilities for deepening or broadening discourse analysis so as to clarify how discourse contributes to social emergence To take the East Asian case again as an example, the data corpus could be enlarged to include more regional institutions or other member states Alongside considering the institutional discourse, it would be interesting to also analyze the media one on institutional dynamics in the region Such extensions could then be compared with each other in order to answer questions of recontextualization, specify the identified nodal discourses, or detect possible differences between the latter and other central discourses Furthermore, besides deepening the analysis of identity issues, another focus could be on leadership or entrepreneurship to point out further facets of hegemony Such analyses would not only contribute to the gaining of further insights into discourse as one of the main mechanisms at work in social emergence, but also to tapping into the full potential of a critical realist-informed CDA With regard to the latter, I would like to stress again that much more empirical work needs to be done to clarify the interplay of discursive and non-discursive features therein The abovementioned issues specify only a few of the many possible empirical questions opened up for investigation, and theoretical points of contact for further clarification and future research While this study presents an opening toward how we can understand and study social emergence in the international system, there still remains much to be done It is my hope that further empirical research can, on the one hand, make use of and benefit from applying the approach advanced here and, on the other, also add further impetus to IR being regarded as—and indeed becoming—an interdisciplinary field With this, our understanding of both social emergence and the complex interplay of emergent entities in the international system could be even further advanced, thereby ensuring we obtain a much more comprehensive picture of the dynamics of world politics 286 M WAGNER REFERENCES Ackroyd, Stephen 2004 Methodology for Management and Organization Studies Some Implications of Critical Realism In Critical Realist Applications in Organisation and Management Studies, edited by Steve Fleetwood and Stephen Ackroyd, 137–163 London, New York: Routledge Ackroyd, Stephen, and Jan Ch Karlsson 2014 Critical Realism, Research Techniques, and Research Design In Studying Organizations Using Critical Realism, eds Paul K.  Edwards, Joe O’Mahoney, and Steve Vincent, 21–45 Oxford: Oxford University Press Edwards, Paul K., Steve Vincent, and Joe O’Mahoney, eds 2014 Concluding Comments In Studying Organizations Using Critical Realism, 318–326 Oxford: Oxford University Press Emmers, Ralf, Joseph Chinyong Liow, and See Seng Tan 2010 The East Asian Summit and the Regional Security Architecture Maryland Series in Contemporary Asian Studies 3(202) Fairclough, Norman 2010 Critical Discourse Analysis The Critical Study of Language, 2nd edn Longman Applied Linguistics Harlow: Longman Greve, Jens, and Annette Schnabel, eds 2011 Einleitung In Emergenz, 7–33 Berlin: Suhrkamp Lehmann, Kai E 2012 Unfinished Transformation: The Three Phases of Complexity’s Emergence into International Relations and Foreign Policy Cooperation and Conflict 47(3): 404–413 doi:10.1177/0010836712454274 Rozman, Gilbert 2012 East Asian Regionalism In Routledge Handbook of Asian Regionalism, eds Mark Beeson and Richard Stubbs, 22–32 London, New York: Routledge Yoshimatsu, Hidetaka 2012 ASEAN and Evolving Power Relations in East Asia: Strategies and Constraints Contemporary Politics 18(4): 400–415 INDEX A abduction, 56, 126 abstraction, 39, 46–47 and reduction, 47 Acharya, Amitav, 10 and Johnston, Alastair Iain, 114–116 Ackroyd, Stephen, 34, 120 agent-based models, 131 agents, 101, 145 Archer, Margaret, 64, 106 ASEAN Plus Three (APT), 5, 8, 187–190, 193, 203, 230, 234, 247, 272 Asian financial crisis, 7, 9, 58, 187 Asian way, 6, 230, 237 Asia-Pacific, 189, 223–225, 244 region, 226 Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), 5, 249 centrality, 187, 190, 191, 215, 231, 250–254, 257, 259 community, 251, 263 B Banta, Benjamin, 157–159 Bhaskar, Roy, 26, 31–32, 40, 42, 45, 50, 56–57, 63, 65, 69, 148, 150, 153–155, 158 Bousquet, Antoine, 88, 89 British emergentism, 94 Broad, C.D., 94, 105 Bunge, Mario, 68, 124 C Cai, Kevin, 188, 189 Camroux, David, 190, 191 Carter, Bob, 68, 101, 146 case studies, 187 causal analysis, 39, 52–23 causal efficacy, 105, 152, 157 causality critical realist understanding of, 40–41, 51 Humean theory of, 40 causal powers, 42, 52, 54 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2016 M Wagner, Social Emergence in International Relations, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-33551-3 287 288 INDEX causation, 40, 45 downward, 104–106, 109–110, 114 and natural necessity, 40, 52 Cederman, Lars-Erik, 88, 131 centralization, 115, 237–238, 241, 250 Chiang Mai Initiative (CMI), 8, 188 Chiang Mai Initiative Multilateralization (CMIM), 188 China, 189, 194, 224, 228–229, 233, 237, 243–244, 246, 252, 256 Chouliaraki, Lilie, 144, 147, 161 Chye, Tan Seng, 191 coding, 197 Collier, Andrew, 42–44, 50, 149 complexity, 85 differentiated, 86 general view on, 86 restricted view on, 86 typology of, 86 complexity theory, 82, 85–86, 269 and the idea of emergence, 87–89 in International Relations, 85, 89 main features of, 88 computational modeling See agentbased models conceptual abstractions See abstraction conceptualization, 39, 46 and abstraction, 39 and theory, 59 context-dependence, 130, 176 control, 115, 237, 240 critical discourse analysis (CDA), 151–152, 159, 161–162, 186, 195–198, 203, 271 critical realist-informed, 192–193, 196, 203, 257, 263, 272, 283; five stages of, 196, 198; three main research elements of, 195, 197, 203 main features of, 163–164 research issues of, 164, 167, 197–198 three dimensions of, 162–163, 173 critical naturalism, 27, 30 critical realism, 26, 35, 148 and concrete research, 60–61 emancipatory potential of, 278 in International Relations, 27, 67–68, 82–83 key concepts of, 39 methodological implications of, 54–55, 58 as a philosophy of science, 26, 31–32, 38 critical realist approach, 14–16, 267, 275–276 Cudworth, Erika, 86, 90 Curtis, Simon, 88, 89 D Danermark, Berth, 44, 52, 55, 57–59, 61, 126 data corpus, 193–194 demarcation problem, 29 dialectical relationship, 152, 161, 162, 164 discourse, 144, 163, 203 aim/goal, 205, 214–218, 220, 222–223, 234, 238, 247–248 challenge/problem, 205, 218, 220, 234, 241 community building, 203, 205, 222–223, 226, 250, 254, 258 complementarity, 203, 250, 253–255, 257, 259 and context, 152, 160 and critical realism, 145 dialogue with, 153 institutional, 172, 193, 195, 203, 209, 226, 258 as a mechanism, 156, 158, 171, 193, 242, 257, 263, 271, 276 nodal, 165, 197, 203, 210, 222–223, 226, 254, 257, 262, 272 INDEX openness, 203, 226–229, 232–233, 236–237, 241–242, 244, 259 order of, 163, 195, 205, 209, 246, 262, 273 performative potential of, 151, 157 realist understanding of, 148–150, 152, 157 relationship between institutions and, 168–170 as social practice, 143–147, 152, 161 discursive practice, 143, 147, 156, 222, 239, 258, 273 distinction between discursive-non/ extra-discursive, 149–150, 154–155, 159, 161 distinction between emergent wholerelational organization, 114, 120 distinction between structureinstitution, 113–114 double hermeneutic, 35 dualism, 36–38 analytical, 38, 64, 146 Cartesian, 38, 51 mind–world, 36–37 Durkheim, Emile, 62 E East Asia(n), 3, 185, 223–224, 260, 268, 272 case, 5, 17, 282 community, 210, 223, 243, 260, 262–263, 273 community building, 9, 190, 228, 262; competing visions of, 223–224, 260 identity, 9, 262, 282 institution building in, 8, 192, 277 region, 5, 226, 244 regional integration in, 187, 273 East Asian Study Group (EASG), 189 289 East Asian Vision Group (EAVG), 189 East Asia Summit (EAS), 5, 9, 190–193, 203, 231, 234, 248, 272 enlargement, 191, 232 Elder-Vass, Dave, 45, 80, 108, 112, 151 emergence, 4, 14, 42–44, 83, 92, 262, 267 and change, 15 and complexity, 81–82 debate, 276, 279 diachronic and synchronic, 94, 96–97, 128 epistemological and ontological, 97 history of the concept of, 93–94 and International Relations, 4, 269, 275, 281 paradox, 97 as a research issue of CDA, 164, 167 in social systems, 98–103, 269 and stratification, 43 strong form of, 92, 97–98, 104–105, 109, 128, 270, 276 weak and strong, 94, 96 emergent entities, 44–45, 91, 110 emergent properties, 37, 91, 93, 108 criteria of, 95 organizational, 121, 127, 226, 228, 230, 233, 237, 241, 242, 250, 257, 259, 270 and powers, 112, 268 purposive, 121, 127, 213, 218, 226, 257, 258, 270 Emmers, Ralf, 191, 192 epiphenomenalism, 105, 117 epistemic fallacy, 32, 42 epistemological relativism, 34 essentialism, 153, 154 evaluation, 211–213, 220, 246 explanatory reduction, 109 290 INDEX F Fairclough, Norman, 143–145, 147, 151–152, 161, 163–164, 167, 172, 196, 197, 206, 211 Jessop, Bob, 149, 151, 152 Sayer, Andrew, 149, 151, 152 and Wodak, Ruth, 160 feedback, 88, 120, 122 Fleetwood, Steve, 41, 113, 149, 154, 159 flexibility, 115–116, 228, 241 Foucault, Michel, 150, 151 free trade agreements (FTAs), 189 G generalization, 56 genre(s), 163 chain, 194, 207 of governance, 206–209 Giddens, Anthony, 48, 49 Gill, Bates, 7, Goldspink, Christopher, 101, 146 Green, Michael J., 7, H Halliday, Michael, 160 Hardy, Cynthia, 150, 151 Harris, Stuart, Harrison, Neil, 87 Hartig-Perschke, Rasco, 95, 108 Hay, Colin, 68, 84, 103 Hedström, Peter, 124 hegemony, 164, 166, 172, 197, 222, 224, 242, 244, 258, 260 narrative, 263, 273 hierarchy, 43, 100 of composition, 43, 66 Higgott, Richard, Hobden, Stephen, 86, 90 Hoyningen-Huene, Paul, 95 I ideology, 152, 197 imaginary, 166, 223–225, 244, 260–261, 273 India, 194, 229, 232, 237, 240, 252 institutional design, 114–115, 230 as emergent properties, 114–115, 118, 120–121, 127 features of, 115 limits to, 117 as a process, 117, 119 rational approach to, 115–116 as a variable, 115–117 institutional dynamics, 3, 5, 126, 263, 267–268, 278 institutional emergence, 80, 123, 193, 257, 263, 272, 277 institutionalism, 7, 11, 280 discursive, 169–170 historical, 119 interdisciplinarity, 80, 271, 276 interdiscursivity, 166, 197 international, the, 83 as a system, 85 intertextuality, 166, 197 irreducibility, 95, 104 and downward causation, 104, 106–107 and interactions, 104–105 two variants of, 96, 105 J Jackson, Patrick T., 36–37 Japan, 189, 194, 224–225, 228, 231–232, 241, 244–246, 249, 253, 255, 260 Jervis, Robert, 85 Jessop, Bob, 84, 156, 172 Jørgensen, Marianne, 146 Joseph, Jonathan, 83 and Roberts, Michael, 152 judgmental rationalism, 34 INDEX K Kavalski, Emilian, 89 Kay, Robert, 101, 146 Keohane, Robert, 11 Kim, Jaegwon, 106 knowledge, 29, 34, 68 dimensions of, 32–35 intransitive objects of, 34–35, 155, 158 and phenomenalism, 36 production of, 30, 46 and transfactualism, 36 transitive objects of, 33, 155, 158 and truth, 34 Koivisto, Marjo, 84 Koremenos, Barbara, 114–116 Kurki, Milja, 41, 53, 69, 123, 148 L Laclau, Ernesto, 155 and Mouffe, Chantal, 154 language, 125, 130–131, 143–146, 271 Lawson, Tony, 53, 66, 102, 108, 114, 120 layer problem, 43, 66 Leon, David, 83, 107, 110 M Maccarini, Andrea, 107, 125 Mayntz, Renate, 104, 109 meaning, 130, 148 production of, 146, 222, 258 struggle over, 147, 166 mechanism(s), 40, 123, 157 causal, 112 of emergence, 122–126 generative, 41, 45, 52 relational, 124–125, 128 social, 123–124 membership, 115, 230–233, 250 291 metatheory, 27, 28, 54 methodological individualism, 51, 106 Milliken, Jennifer, 145, 146 modality, 211–212, 219, 246, 256 model for explanatory research, 61 modes of inference, 56 moments of practice, 161–162 monism, 36–37 mind–world, 36–37 physical/material, 95 Morgan, Conway Lloyd, 93 morphogenetic approach, 64 multiple realizability, 106–107 mutual understanding, 247–249 N Nabers, Dirk, New, Caroline, 68, 101 nonlinearity, 88, 130, 176 nonreductive individualism, 106–107 novelty, 95 O O’Mahoney, Joe, 111–112, 126 ontological reduction, 109 ontology, 29–32, 275 difference between philosophical and scientific, 31 emergent, 37–38, 44, 82, 89, 269, 276 philosophical, 28, 31, 32, 36 regional, 31 scientific, 31, 79 operationalization, 165, 244, 262, 273 organization, 65–66, 91, 171 and downward causation, 108 and hierarchy, 65–66 of the international system, 90 and management studies, 118–119, 168–169, 171 relational, 108–110, 128, 226, 269 292 INDEX P Patomäki, Heikki, 68, 83 Peters, B. Guy, 119 Phillips, Louise, 146 philosophy of science, 27, 29 in International Relations, 28, 35–36, 277 Pierson, Paul, 117 play of difference, 149 policy areas, 234–236 the political, 103 Porpora, Douglas, 48 poststructuralism, 145, 148, 154, 155, 280, 281 dialogue with, 153–156 power, 102, 147, 152 Pratten, Stephen, 97, 110 Q qualitative data analysis software, 196 R real entities, 41 ideally, 41, 149, 159 socially, 41, 111, 149, 159 realism, 26 empirical, 32, 33, 45 empty, 154 ontological, 32 scientific, 27 transcendental, 27, 32 reality, 32 and stratification, 44 three dimensions of, 33, 42, 150 underlying, 32–33 reasons, 53 recontextualization, 165–166, 173, 199, 210, 225, 244, 246, 251, 255, 259–263, 273 reductionism, 38, 107, 109, 152 Reed, Michael, 64 reflexivity, 102, 130, 131, 143, 176 regional cooperation, 5, 8, 9, 187–190 regional institutions, 3, 10, 25, 79, 127, 267 as emergent entities, 5, 91–92, 110, 111, 172, 176, 268, 270, 275 and emergent powers, 112, 121–122, 218 emergent properties of, 111, 120–121, 176, 267–268, 270 and mechanisms, 112–113, 122 as partly discursive objects, 170–173 regionalism, 7, 191 in East Asia, 5–7, 187–188, 274 in world politics, 3, 25 reification, 51 relations, 49, 129 of equivalence, 216, 223, 233–234, 239, 244, 247 formal and substantial, 49, 90 great power, 243–246 interinstitutional/intraregional, 253–257 internal and external, 49–50, 90, 113 intrainstitutional, 247–253, 257 and positions and practices, 50, 65, 147 power, 103, 147, 242, 257, 260 social, 242, 259 retroduction, 33, 56–58, 127 Rozman, Gilbert, 9, 192 S Sawyer, R. Keith, 94–95, 99, 106–107, 146 Sayer, Andrew, 44, 46, 49, 58, 148, 149, 153, 156, 157 Schmidt, Vivien, 170 science, 29 critical realist understanding of, 30 positivist model of, 35 INDEX scope of issues, 115, 234–235, 237, 250 Sealey, Alison, 146 self-organization, 88, 91, 113–114, 129, 174, 268, 271 semantic relations, 216, 219–221, 227, 229, 236, 238, 242, 247 semiosis See discourse signification process, 148–149 Sino–Japanese rivalry, 194, 243–246, 259 social emergence, 7, 17, 98, 128, 143, 269, 282 characteristics of, 102, 128, 130, 271 conceptualization of, 174, 176, 257, 268, 276 and discourse, 131, 144, 146, 158 social interaction, 125, 126, 129, 131, 143, 261, 270, 271 social ontology of international relations, 80, 81, 93, 126, 269 social practice(s), 125–126, 128–129, 143, 246, 258 diplomacy as, 125, 270 networks of, 147–148, 261 sociolinguistics, 146 Soesastro, Hadi, 190, 192 Stephan, Achim, 95, 96, 99, 105 strategic-relational approach, 84 strategy, 166, 173, 224, 244 stratification, 37, 42, 44 structural analysis, 39, 47, 50, 54, 90 structure and agency, 38, 50, 62–64, 66, 106 transformational model of, 63 structure(s), 47 concepts of social, 48 duality of, 48 as relations, 65 and structuratum, 50–51 293 Stubbs, Richard, style(s), 163, 210 and identification, 210–211, 213 institutional, 210–213 Suganami, Hidemi, 37, 42 supervenience, 95 Swedberg, Richard, 124 synchronic determinacy, 95 systemic properties, 95 system(s), 46, 87 closed, 45 complex adaptive, 87 differentiation between closed and open, 45–46 international, 68, 82–83, 89–90, 92, 100–101, 110, 269, 282 nested, 87 open, 45, 88 social, 48 thinking, 85 system–unit distinction, 83–84 T tendencies, 41, 52–53 Terada, Takashi, 8, 10, 188, 189 text(s), 147, 163, 173, 193 analysis of, 197 textual features, 197, 210–211 texturing, 166, 220, 222–223, 228, 232–236, 238, 250, 251, 254, 255, 258 theory, 58–59 general, 59 and method, 58 Tilly, Charles, 124 transcendental arguments, 57 See also retroduction U unpredictability, 96, 119 294 INDEX V van Dijk, Teun A., 160, 193 Vincent, Steve, 111, 112, 126 W Waltz, Kenneth, 85 Wan, Poe Yu-ze, 109 Webber, Douglas, Weber, Max, 62 Wendt, Alexander, 67, 120 Wight, Colin, 28, 33, 35, 63, 68, 84 Willmott, Robert, 38 Wodak, Ruth, 161, 166 Y Yoshimatsu, Hidetaka, 193 .. .Social Emergence in International Relations Maren Wagner Social Emergence in International Relations Institutional Dynamics in East Asia Maren Wagner GIGA German Institute of Global... Ontology of International Relations 79 Emergence and the Complexity of Social Practices: The Role of Discourse in Social Emergence Part II The Case of Institutional Emergence in East Asia: Analyzing... of acting and interacting in the international system in terms of social practices, and pays particular attention to discourse by conceptualizing it as a core mechanism at work in social emergence