The evolution of consciousness

Bjørn Grinde The Evolution of Consciousness Implications for Mental Health and Quality of Life The Evolution of Consciousness Bjørn Grinde The Evolution of Consciousness Implications for Mental Health and Quality of Life 123 Bjørn Grinde Division of Mental and Physical Health Norwegian Institute of Public Health Oslo Norway This book is a translated and enhanced edition in English language: The Evolution of Consciousness: Implications for Mental Health and Quality of Life by Bjørn Grinde The book was originally published in Norwegian language: Bevissthet Forstå hjernen og få et bedre liv by Bjørn Grinde, © 2014 Spartacus forlag All Rights Reserved This translation has been published with the financial support of NORLA ISBN 978-3-319-43683-8 DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-43685-2 ISBN 978-3-319-43685-2 (eBook) Library of Congress Control Number: 2016947203 © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 This work is subject to copyright All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made Photos and illustrations are from the author unless otherwise stated Printed on acid-free paper This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG Switzerland Acknowledgments I would like to thank my Norwegian publisher, Spartacus Forlag, for allowing me to freely pursue a text in English related to a book I published with them I also wish to thank Hendrikje Tuerlings in Springer for believing in the project Some people deserve special thanks for taking time to a critical reading of various versions of the text They include Dagfinn Føllesdal, Lowan Stewart, Michel Cabanac, and my son Steinar Grinde v Contents A Conscious Life Why consciousness is a topic that should occupy the mind of conscious people Key concepts are introduced and the phenomenon briefly described Conscious and Unconscious Processes Should We Aim for Reason or Happiness? 10 The Brain—Your Personal Necktop Computer The chapter provides an introduction for those who are unfamiliar with the inside of their head I find it helpful to compare brains with computers The Anatomy of the Most Complex Object Neuron Style Talking The Concept of Brain Modules Brain Versus Computer 19 The Evolution of Nervous Systems The process of evolution gives us the principles required to make sense of life on Earth The development of nerve cells was one of the biggest breakthroughs; yet, in the beginning nothing suggested where this innovation would lead Why Nervous Systems? Further Improvements On Bees and Octopuses What Is Intelligent Behaviour? 43 Conscious Brains The first signs of consciousness probably appeared some 300 million years ago It was a risky venture, so why did evolution choose this path? Surprisingly, refinements eventually gave rise to a species with the capacity to answer the question A Common Currency 63 19 23 29 36 44 48 53 59 63 vii viii Contents Hence Consciousness When Did It All Start? Signs of Consciousness in Animals When Is It Needed? Has It Been a Success? How We Became What We Are The Human Case I Think, Therefore I Am? 68 75 79 87 90 92 96 100 The Neurobiological Correlate Scientists struggle to understand how nerve cells create conscious experiences, but we have a model The model suggests which parts of the brain are involved and what goes on there Cortex and Thalamus Integrated Information What We Can Do Without We Learn When Something Goes Wrong The Bigger the Better? The Hardest Problem 105 States and Disorders of Consciousness There are many facets to a conscious life Besides the gradual transition from full attention to sleep and anaesthesia, several factors affect what sort of experiences the brain serves you Sleep Anaesthesia Life History Maladies Affecting the Mind Wilfully Altered States 139 Quality of Life Understanding consciousness offers valuable insight into what happiness is about The text consequently provides an approach for improving life Hedonia and Eudaimonia The Mood Modules On or Off Mental Disorders Darwinian Happiness 159 106 117 119 126 132 134 140 146 148 151 156 159 162 172 176 177 Environmental Concerns 181 The brain is designed to develop in interaction with external stimuli, which means we are shaped by the environment in which we live The question is therefore how to provide conditions that have a positive effect on the human mind? Childhood and Life Situation 182 Contents ix The Damage Due to Discords 188 The Achilles Heel 193 199 199 204 212 217 223 230 233 233 238 245 Mental Exercise In addition to creating a suitable environment, it is possible to exercise the brain to the effect of tuning up pleasures and turning off pains This requires a proper training routine Use Your Head The Psychological Challenge Meditative Techniques Technical Tools Habits—For Good and Bad A Model of the Mind 10 In the Future How can we exploit our knowledge of the human brain in order to further improve quality of life? The Main Challenge Next Generation Gym A Final Word About the Author Bjørn Grinde received his education in natural sciences, psychology, and anthropology from the University of Oslo, ending with a Dr Scient (1981) and a Dr Philos (1984) in biology He is presently the chief scientist at the Division of Mental and Physical Health, Norwegian Institute of Public Health Previously, he has served as a scientist and professor at leading universities in Norway, the USA, and Japan A primary focus of his research has been to understand the process of evolution, particularly how it has formed the human brain and our capacity to enjoy life He has written several books, including Darwinian Happiness (The Darwin Press, 2002; 2nd Edition, 2012); God—A Scientific Update (The Darwin Press, 2011); The Biology of Happiness (Springer Verlag, 2012); and Improving the Human Zoo (The Darwin Press, 2015) Together with Professor David Sloan Wilson at Binghamton University, NY, he is engaged in research aimed at practical ways to improve people’s quality of life xi Introduction With this book, I shall present a model for how the evolutionary process led to consciousness, as well as what is known about how the brain accomplishes this feat Besides offering a description of what human life is about, the text is meant to help people deal with their brains That is, you can sway the brain in the direction of offering more positive experiences and thereby improve your quality of life Chapter presents the human brain and discusses why we ought to study this product of evolution Chapter describes the anatomy of the brain and how nerve cells (or neurons) operate It is useful to have at least some knowledge of this organ and to master the relevant terminology; but if you should find the chapter heavy reading, it is possible to grasp the more important aspects of later chapters even with limited knowledge of the brain In Chapter 3, I describe evolutionary history— more specifically, the history of the nervous system It started some 600 million years ago and led to some fantastic products, the most interesting being brains with the capacity for awareness As suggested in Chapter 4, this innovation occurred only once on Earth The human version of a nervous system is arguably the most advanced product ever created by the process of evolution I occasionally use expressions such as “evolution desires” or “the genes want you to.” I should warn that these are just convenient shorthand for saying something about what sort of tendencies are embedded in the genes—I not suggest that the process of evolution, or the genes, has any willpower After trying to describe a scenario for why evolution ended up with a conscious human brain, I discuss how this piece of tissue generates awareness (Chapter 5) “How the water of the brain is turned into the wine of consciousness.” Identifying the neurobiological correlate of consciousness implies indicating which parts of the brain are involved and what sort of activity is required In the following Chapter 6, I discuss the various forms of experiences the brain is capable of offering Consciousness is not one particular condition, but an adventure that takes many forms Besides, the brain regularly decides to turn it, or rather you, off The insight you will hopefully have acquired by studying these first six chapters provides the basis for taking steps to improve life—to make it happier In Chapter 7, xiii 232 Mental Exercise While biological success is generally measured as biomass, success for the human species should rather be measured in terms of happiness Will we be able to improve conditions, or are we sending industrialized society down the drain? In the 9/11 memorial at Manhattan (photo) the water disappears into a big, square hole Chapter 10 In the Future Abstract There are reasons to assume that science will progress considerably in its quest to understand the brain Along with that achievement, there will be novel ways to exercise various brain modules, as well as more options for creating an environment that caters to the nature of being human If we are able to measure a particular brain function, for example the activity related to anxiety or depression, it will be possible to employ efficient training strategies based on neurofeedback A female journalist once asked Louis Armstrong what jazz is about Armstrong replied, “Lady, if you have to ask, you’ll never know.” In his book How the Mind Works Steven Pinker wonders whether we really have any better answer to the question of what consciousness is Pinker has a point In a way both jazz and consciousness are about experiencing something Your spontaneous recognition of both phenomena may offer a kind of understanding that is difficult to render in words Yet, in the case of consciousness I believe science has something to tell that is both describable and informative The model I present provides at least more substance than what Armstrong offered This model also provides a basis for reflections on the following question: Will we ever learn how to deal with the human mind? The Main Challenge For the last 100,000 years humans have prospered, which means that our ancestors did well in finding ways to survive The point is documented by how the present stock of hominins swept out of Africa and conquered the rest of the globe Population growth, which means biological success, was presumably a main driving factor behind the migration The success suggests that life was reasonably good—at least compared with most other species of mammals It means that the Stone Age was probably not that bad, as long as the tribe was located in an area where food came easy, and with sufficient space to avoid conflicts with neighbouring tribes © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 B Grinde, The Evolution of Consciousness, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-43685-2_10 233 234 10 In the Future Up until some 10,000 years ago people lived pretty much the way evolution adapted us to live They subsisted as hunters and gatherers, and held together in tribes of perhaps 20–40 members Then we left this “Garden of Eden” to create our own gardens Agriculture was the first step away from the life our genes expects It offered the opportunity to settle in large communities where people gradually learned to specialize in various tasks Eventually the transformation led on to the development of cities, science and industry Our capacity for language, and particularly a written language, boosted human cultural evolution The whole world changed The advances have given us a lot to cherish, but the benefits came at a price: Pollution threatens to destroy the planet, and present way of life has regrettable consequences in the form of what is referred to as the diseases of civilization Apparently the early forms of farming meant more work and poorer health than life as hunters and gatherers The evidence for this statement comes from analyses of skeletons preserved from that time, as well as from observation of present indigenous populations.1 In other words, dependency on agriculture was no ingenious innovation, but more likely a necessity brought on by climate change and overpopulation At least some present hunters and gatherers, such as the Hadza of Tanzania, can survive on a few hours of “work” per day Most likely they not even consider the task of obtaining food as work, but rather something they enjoy doing Although indigenous people are typically pushed into marginal areas, apparently they have more time for leisure than the wage-worker Hopefully we will be able to develop a new and better Garden of Eden A society that retains all the benefits of the industrial revolution without devastating the Earth; and at the same time provides the population with living conditions that caters to our genetic constitution Moreover, the future Garden of Eden should give all people the chance of a good life We are not there yet Today’s world is no paradise—at least not if one takes the living conditions of the poor into account—but there is no reason to give up Human intellect and insight offer hope that we will find a way We are good at technology, and technology is important The future requires a wide range of advanced technical solutions; but producing mobile phones and building bridges are the easy tasks This is not where the shoe pinches Present technology is perhaps sufficient to solve environmental problems, and at the same time to create plenty of both food and material goods That is, if we manage to limit the human population, and if we manage to make people across the Earth cooperate for the common good These two tasks are considerably more difficult to fulfil than assignments associated with engineering In other words, the main challenge lies in moderating human mentality Evolution gave us version 1.0 of humans By means of cultural processes we moved to version 2.0; which has a lot of positive aspects to it, not the least in terms of the ingenuity reflected in health care and gadgets This version also include a propensity for reading and writing; functions that are too new to have been installed Eaton SB An evolutionary perspective enhances understanding of human nutritional requirements Journal of Nutrition 126 (1996) 1732–1740 The Main Challenge 235 by biological evolution, but rather appeared by what may be referred to as “neuronal recycling”.2 This is a process whereby existing nerve circuitry can be reshaped, within the confines of brain design, to cater to novel tasks Unfortunately the 2.0 version contains some bugs—reflected in the susceptibility for mental agony and aggression Consequently we should try to move on to version 3.0 The arguably most important change is to shape a culture that caters to contentment and compassion What we are up against, and thus need to understand, is the human brain In the rich part of the world quality of life is good, although perhaps not optimal Elsewhere people struggle for their daily food, but their lives may be more in tune with our genetic constitution (Children in Cambodia) You may have heard the statement, “history repeats itself” Wars and conflicts emerge almost as regularly as autumn frost and spring thaw Human innate Dehaene S, Cohen L Cultural recycling of cortical maps Neuron 56 (2007) 384–398 See also, Changizi M Harnessed (2011, BenBella Books) 236 10 In the Future tendencies for aggression (and compassion) shaped historical events a thousand years ago, and will continue to influence events in the next thousand years Consequently knowledge of our inherent nature means we can make predictions about the future The same knowledge also makes it possible to influence the future Evolution happens slowly, so for most practical purposes innate characteristics are not changing Fortunately, inherent tendencies not dictate human behaviour If we find out how to affect the mentality in a positive direction—for example, away from selfish inclinations and toward compassion and cooperation—then perhaps not all aspects of history will repeat themselves equally often Arguably the most important aim is to make people happy Happy people tend to be good citizens They are more willing to contribute to the community; and when they do, they should be even happier, because caring for others and participating in social life offer a lot of rewards Moreover, feeling good does not require any consumption Happiness is a particularly sustainable commodity We should help people understand the opportunities inherent in our brains; that is, how feelings are generated If people learn how to best manage their minds, the result may not only be happier inhabitants, but also a more sustainable world Perhaps the more potent option rests with establishing a way of life that avoids discords, but it may prove easier to push people toward exercising their brains In the next section I shall therefore explore the prospects for developing improved training strategies Narcissus saw his mirror image and decided he was better than everybody else This seems to be a typical human attitude (Here in a portrayal by John Waterhouse from 1903) The Main Challenge 237 Our inherent narcissism When the rules of genetics were revealed, even top scientists took it for granted that humans had more genes than any other species Our unique and outstanding characteristics obviously required a more complex construct compared to any odd plant or animal The first disappointment arrived with measurements of genome size A human cell carries no more DNA than other mammals, and a lot less than most sharks Amphibians may have ten times the amount of genetic material, and even they are beaten by several species of plants Eventually one took comfort in the notion that measuring quality in terms of the amount of DNA is not meaningful, one should rather look at the number of protein-coding genes After all, it is the proteins that turn us into what we are Evolution may expand the DNA by, for example, infecting the genome with selfish DNA, but that is unlikely to improve the quality of the species Early estimates of the number of human genes were on the order of 100,000; which seemed plausible as typical bacteria contain 3000 genes and unicellular yeast roughly 6000 Eventually we obtained more exact knowledge, which caused the human number to drop to 21,000 True, we can still raise over heads above simple animals such as the nematodes (C elegans has 19,735), but we have no more genes than any other mammal; and in fact less than half of what rice can boost of The observation should not come as a surprise Evolution spent nearly four billion years moving from the first cells to the present flora and fauna It has taken time, but then the result is, at least in my eyes, immensely impressive In comparison it took only a few million years to bring forth human brainpower Considering the time spent, the latter feat cannot involve dramatic changes Life itself, not to mention multicellular organisms with nervous systems, constitutes the big strides of evolutionary ingenuity; our intellect is just a minor adjustment Birds can fly, dogs follow a scent, and we have a dose of reason embedded in the skull; but these properties are only marginal improvements to an already advanced body I like what the evolutionary process has given us, and we are the only species able to truly appreciate what we have Nevertheless, my thoughts go to the Narcissus According to Greek mythology he was a handsome man, so handsome that when he saw himself in the reflection of a pond, he became infatuated with the face—to the extent that he ended up drowning in the water I recognize us We tend to consider our own species as an entity hovering above any other mortal and mediocre beings Perhaps we should endeavour a slightly less pompous and arrogant attitude—before we share the fate of Narcissus 238 10 In the Future Next Generation Gym Over the coming decades I believe we shall see a lot of progress as to training strategies for improving the mind The progress should relate to the following three aspects: One, a deeper understanding of the neurobiology of the modules we wish to improve; two, technical advancements as to measuring activity in these modules and thus provide neurofeedback signals; and three, schemes (including meditation techniques and pharmaceuticals) aimed at making the brain more malleable to change I believe the most significant contribution in the field of mental enhancement will be to improve the options for training by neurofeedback The following discussion points to an assortment of options that are presently being investigated Exploiting the inherent plasticity of the brain by means of deliberate exercises has the potential of moving us on to the “human version 3.0” One option is to use functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) equipment, rather than EEG, for the sake of providing feedback The fMRI points out which parts of the brain are more active than others As a proxy, the machine measures the use of oxygen; metabolically active brain regions obtain more blood and thereby more oxygen Neurons that fire frequently presumably consume more oxygen, and more firings suggest that the relevant nerve circuits serve a key role in the tasks the brain is currently undertaking The primary use of fMRI has been to decipher the role of various parts of the brain The result is obtained by asking the subject to perform a certain task (typically a purely mental task), and then measuring variations in brain activity Based on this knowledge it is possible to use fMRI measurements in neurofeedback protocols The main advantage is that fMRI covers all the brain, not just the surface of the cortex as in the case of EEG For example, the cingulate cortex serves a key function in controlling pain Professor Sean Mackey gave patients with chronic pain feedback in the form of an image of a flame that grew or declined in line with the activity in this part of the cortex.3 They were asked to search for a strategy that dampens the “flame” In patients that managed to reduce the flame, the pain went down concomitantly; their exercise strengthened the off switch A similar use of fMRI-based neurofeedback has yielded promising results in the treatment of depression and anxiety.4 If you have a signal to focus on, it seems possible to train most brain functions A core question is therefore whether it is possible to measure the activity of relevant Chapin H, Mackey S A transparent, trainable brain Scientific American Mind, March/April (2013) 50–57 Linden DEJ Neurofeedback and networks of depression Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience 16 (2014) 103–112 Next Generation Gym 239 modules The key to improvement rests with the relevance of the neurofeedback offered One interesting observation in this respect is the track record of fMRI measurements in mind reading!5 The procedure starts by asking a person to think about different objects—such as a house, a car or an animal—and then measure the pattern of brain activation associated with the different thoughts A computer program is subsequently able to recognize the different patterns, and thus tell which thought (within the menu included in the first phase) the subject entertain The strategy has limited value as to reading the mind of a stranger, as it is tuned to recognize only previously recorded thoughts The important point for the present discussion is that minor variations in conscious content, such as thinking about a house as opposed to a car, have a measurable neurological correlate This observation suggests that we should be able to find similar correlates to the functions we wish to exercise—including those causing mental agony In addition, the results emphasize an important point: All thoughts, experiences and feelings have a neurological correlate So far brain scanning requires bulky and expensive equipment, and is thus not suitable for frequent mental exercises Eventually it may be possible to transfer neurofeedback protocols to more mobile devices Rather than just measuring activity for the purpose of neurofeedback, a tempting strategy is to use our knowledge of the brain to actually direct the processes taking place Rather than spending hours struggling with exercises, suitable technology may allow us to activate the desired nerve circuits by external stimulation Frequent activation should strengthen the module, but this is a pure bonus if we were able to control everything with some sort of gadget One such strategy is to stick electrodes directly into the brain These can be used to activate specific circuits—including those related to rewards and punishment The strategy has been used as an experimental treatment of chronic pain and depression—apparently with reasonable success—but potential complications, as well as the costs of the procedure, restrict the use.6 EEG is based on external electrodes that record brain activity It is possible to reverse the situation and use similar electrodes placed outside the skull to deliver electrical impulses This is safer, and more easy to administer, compared with internal electrodes; but regrettably less efficient The impulses can only affect a small part of the cortex, and this may not be where the activity one wish to target takes place Evers K, Sigman M Possibilities and limits of mind-reading: A neurophilosophical perspective Consciousness and Cognition 22 (2013) 887–897 Holtzheimer PE et al Subcallosal cingulate deep brain stimulation for treatment-resistant unipolar and bipolar depression JAMA Psychiatry 69 (2012) 150–158 240 10 In the Future A related strategy uses powerful magnets instead of electrodes I mentioned this technology (transcranial magnetic stimulation) in connection with measuring the potential for consciousness in brain-damaged patients The magnets provide “shock” in the form of a brief pulse of magnetic field The field perturbs the transmission of nerve signals One advantage of magnetic stimulation is that you can, to some extent, focus the impact on deeper regions of the brain Whether using electrical or magnetic stimuli, it is presumably necessary with repeated treatment in order to cause long-term alterations and thus a therapeutic effect The brain researcher David Yeomans has achieved promising results in patients with chronic pain.7 The magnetic field focused on pretty much the same area (the anterior part of the cingulate cortex) as used in connection with fMRI-based neurofeedback By providing daily doses for one month, the analgesic effect persisted for another month The result offers proof of principle in that it is possible to cause somewhat lasting changes in desired nerve circuits A more radical approach is to deal with mental patients the way we help an amputee—to construct a prosthesis Already there are input prosthetic devices, such as cochlear and retinal implants meant to restore sensory systems responsible for respectively hearing and vision We also have output devices in the form of artificial limbs controlled by brain activity In the future, perhaps we will have “brain bypass equipment”, designed to gather and process sensory information for then to launch an appropriate response.8 Rather than bypassing the brain, it may be feasible to “reprogram” key modules As proof of principle, in animals scientists have managed to establish a “memory” of something the particular animal never actually experienced.9 The trick is to activate the necessary nerve circuits—somewhat like Neo in The Matrix As a rule of thumb, if you serve the brain enough information, it will try to translate it into something useful Thus even if the brain circuits you hit not really correspond to the exact circuits that normally would deliver the desired memory, or thought, the brain will tend to translate the activation into meaningful information Hallucinogenic substances not specify strange experiences, but the brain tries to find some meaning in the chaotic firing of nerve circuits that results Some day it may be possible to harness ways of activating the brain, whether by chemicals or electronically, so as to cause desired experiences For the next decades you should probably rely on your own fantasy and capacity for daydreaming to be the dispenser of pleasure Tzabazis A, Aparici CM, Rowbotham MC, Schneider MB, Etkin A, Yeomans DC Shaped magnetic field pulses by multi-coil repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) differentially modulate anterior cingulate cortex responses and pain in volunteers and fibromyalgia patients Molecular Pain (2013) 33–41 Adee S The memory fix NewScientist, June (2014) 32–37 Underwood E Researchers aim for an electrical memory prosthesis Science 345 (2014) 6194– 6195 Next Generation Gym 241 The mind is malleable; you forge your own reality You can conjure up castles and princes, or whatever else that pleases you There is one more option that ought to be mentioned Whether the strategy for change is classified as exercise, or is based on other forms of impact, it is possible to make the brain more malleable to modifications Apparently this can be achieved by means of chemicals D-cycloserine, for example, affects neurons in a way that increases neuroplasticity.10 Alternatively it can be achieved by electrical stimulation of the vagus nerve, as activity in this nerve triggers the release of chemicals that increase the brain’s ability to reconfigure itself.11 The future therapeutic choice for mental improvement may be a combination of exercises aimed at particular modules, combined with a treatment that renders the brain more open for change 10 Norberg MM, Krystal JH, Tolin DF A meta-analysis of D-cycloserine and the facilitation of fear extinction and exposure therapy Biological Psychiatry 63 (2008) 1118–1126 11 Hays S, Rennaker RL, Kilgard MP Targeting plasticity with vagus nerve stimulation to treat neurological disease Progress in Brain Research 207 (2013) 275–299 242 10 In the Future Mental exercises are today primarily about options that not require technical aids These are simple, cheap, and reasonably safe, but the future will most likely bring alternatives that are equally safe and more potent Perhaps commercial centres, or “gyms”, designed to train the brain will appear I envision bright neon signs reading “Happiness Spinning” or “Thought Gymnastics”, but we need considerable research before we can deliver the required methods and machinery In the meantime I have developed an app available for iPhone, Happiness Exercises, intended to train the brain in the direction of increased mental well-being It offers various workouts based on meditative techniques in combination with word and visualisation aimed at the mood modules The exercises are meant more as examples of a way of training, the practitioner is advised to adapt the phrasing in order to fit personal issues What about future versions of the human species? I have argued for moving on toward a version 3.0 of humans The change requires instructions, life style changes, and brain exercises—but these strategies can be incorporated in the educational and health care institutions we already have established All we need to is to modify the contents delivered by these establishments I not argue for a sort of “Big Brother brainwashing”, or forceful implementation of change; I simply believe it is possible to improve the formative environment by moderating present culture How about the genetic constitution of humans? Will it change, and are we in a position to impact on the genes of the next generations? The process of evolution never stops Evolution is simply a question of who is getting how many children If one person, or one population, produces a large number of progeny, these genes will constitute a larger fraction of the genes of the next generation The species, human or others, is defined by the gene pool; that is, the combined genes of all the individuals Changes in the gene pool reflect the direction evolution is taking It means that if people genetically disposed for anxiety or asthma has more than the average number of children, these disorders will increase in prevalence The statement covers more or less any condition This poses a challenge Evolution is based on two principles: One, mutations cause variations in genes; and two, selection favours individuals with the best genes Mutations are random, which means they usually are either harmful or have minimal impact Undesirable mutations are supposed to be weeded out by selection; but in the absence of a normal selective pressure, the population turns gradually less fit The present health care system implies that selection does not operate as it did in the Stone Age More specifically, there is likely to be less pruning to counteract the expected increase in genes disposing for disorders Next Generation Gym 243 Evolution moves relatively slowly It may take thousands of years before the inherent health status of the population changes drastically; then again problems could become tangible within a few generations We are only beginning to understand how fast genetic changes can take root in the population.12 It is not only the genes affecting health that change, behavioural tendencies are also influenced by heredity Genes not determine particular qualities, but changes in the human gene pool are still expected to alter how the average person behaves Will future populations be more or less aggressive? Will they be kinder or meaner—wiser or dumber? We not know The answer depends to some extent on whether genial or aggressive people, intelligent or foolish people, give birth to more infants Theoretically it is possible to orchestrate the process of evolution There are two options: Either we breed for desired properties, a process we have been at for thousand of years in regard to animals of husbandry; or we use gene technology to introduce desired genetic changes However, both options are not practical on a large scale, and they are politically highly disagreeable To conclude, the important issue is how to make the most of our inherent nature as it stands today The 3.0 version is likely to carry somewhat the same genes as we do, we cannot expect genetic change to rescue us I shall close the subject of brain exercise by discussing two key issues Which functions can be trained? The answer seems to be “most”—the brain is indeed malleable From your conscious corner of the brain it is possible to even hack into facets of the nervous system that are expected to be solidly rooted in the unconscious, such as control of heart rate and pupil size Apparently the neurological connections springing out of from those engaged in consciousness reach pretty much all over the (relevant part of) the brain If you can affect “distant” nerve circuits, such as those responsible for the size of pupils, you can also learn to manipulate them It is easier to train features that are tangible in the sense that a change can be recognized immediately In the future, the more important point is whether we find a way to measure relevant activity and thus present neurofeedback signals Feedback offers the mental equivalent of weights for lifting Then again, it is difficult to repair nervous systems with serious faults by exercising the mind Epilepsy and other neurological disorders constitute examples; but certain psychiatric conditions, including schizophrenia, have also proven hard to treat by mental strategies 12 Pennisi E Tracking how humans evolve in real time Science 352 (2016) 876–877 244 10 In the Future A related question is what modules we ought to focus on? Happiness is the ultimate purpose according to the philosophy of the present text, which means the attention ought to be directed at the mood modules However, in order to improve quality of life it may be wise to entertain indirect options Exercise aimed at compassion is an obvious choice; so are strategies directed at improving focus (mindfulness) or reducing stress (basic meditation) How you know if the training works? It is difficult to set up optimal training regimes for sport Brain modules are even more complicated, because it is hard to find the right nerve circuits, but also because there are no obvious measures of progress For example, if you wish to improve happiness, few people are able to specify how the daily mood was a month or a year ago My immediate response to the problem is that you should try to sense whether there is progress This type of self-reporting as to the effect of training obviously opens for a placebo effect—if you believe it helps, it will help Then again, a placebo effect can be as useful as a “real” effect In fact, placebo is an important factor in most present treatment regimes for mental problems.13 As I mentioned in Chapter 1, Richard Davidson tries to find neurological correlates of positive feelings So far it is unclear how well these work; and even if they provide a relevant score, the required brain scanners are impractical for everyday use For many people it may be possible to note progress by observing personal behaviour: Do you have problems sleeping due to worries? Do you easily get angry when others are not behaving the way you think they should? When you get home from work, you need a drink and then sink down on the couch with the TV flashing? These behaviours are indicative of a low mood score A short temper suggests stress, and being in constant need of reward eliciting stimuli suggests discontent It is a good sign if you, or the people around you, sense that these tendencies gradually diminish Another possibility is to use questionnaires designed to measure happiness and whether you are troubled by mental issues such as anxiety and depression A well known pioneer of positive psychology, Martin Seligman, has collected a number of such questionnaires on the Internet.14 They are freely available if you sign up, and you can take them as often as you want They are obviously easy to “cheat”; if you desire a positive result, it is not difficult to guess what the response should be A related topic is how much you can expect to achieve Some Buddhists claim that if you follow their regime for meditative training, you will eventually gain full control of the mind It may take some decades, but once there, you can choose to live in eternal delight, and opt out of any pain! My 13 Jubb J, Bensing JM The sweetest pill to swallow: How patient neurobiology can be harnessed to maximize placebo effects Neuroscience Biobehavioral Reviews 37 (2013) 2709–2720 14 Try: https://www.authentichappiness.sas.upenn.edu/ Next Generation Gym 245 thoughts go to manufacturers of detergents with “blue power beads” that “remove all dirt” Then again, I feel confident that both meditation and detergents serve a function It is theoretically possible to obtain a reasonably solid grip on most modules that deliver content to the mind, but it requires considerable training A Final Word I am sure the top runners today are faster than anyone in the Stone Age We have developed training strategies that push the human body to the utmost limits The success stories of sport depend on thorough knowledge on how to improve muscle strength, coordinate movement, and build endurance Science has not come that far in the case of mood module improvements, yet we have the knowledge required to help people enhance their quality of life We know a lot about what consciousness is about, and how to manipulate the experiences the brain serves I am not sure if we really are any happier today than in the Stone Age; but I am confident that if we manage to apply our knowledge, future generations will be If we choose happiness as the compass for society, as suggested by the fourth king of Bhutan,15 we should not only get more content inhabitants, but also people more willing to work for the common good The authorities in my country are eager to push physical exercise as a way to prevent disease, perhaps they should be even more eager to push mental exercise If so the notion of a brain gym might not be that far away In the future the whole educational system may be considered as a mental gym where the children’s brains are shaped, perhaps focusing on happiness, empathy, and emotional control.16 Traditional scholastic subjects are unlikely to disappear; but knowledge can be handled by computers, which means that insight is more important than memorizing facts In my mind, the top priority should be to comprehend the human brain 15 Check: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gross_National_Happiness Wickelgren I The education of character Scientific American Mind, September/October (2012) 49–58 16 246 10 In the Future It is difficult to look into the future We can only see indistinct silhouettes of what lies ahead Understanding the human brain helps us predict, and to some extent shape, our prospects ... Earth’s fauna, rather than the details of the contribution of various nerve cells Sometimes when we try to peek through the window of the human mind, we get things wrong The theory of evolution helps... refers to the part of the conscious experience brought on by the senses It can mean either an element of a larger picture, or the entire scope of what the senses offer at a given moment The former... 19 The Evolution of Nervous Systems The process of evolution gives us the principles required to make sense of life on Earth The development of nerve cells was one of