The Evolution of Primates

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White Paper: The Future of Online Communication Section I: The Evolution of Internet Telephony H. Mine, Executive Vice President, Probe Research, Inc. Section II: AT&T’s IP Telephony Initiatives October 1998 Section I: The Evolution of Internet Telephony Hilary Mine Probe Research, Inc. Three Wing Drive, Suite 240 Cedar Knolls, NJ 07927 www.proberesearch.com Tel: 973-285-1500 September 1998 TABLE OF CONTENTS VOICE AND DATA – CONVERGENCE HAS BEEN A LONG TIME COMING .4 EMERGENCE OF THE INTERNET 6 INTERNET TELEPHONY - MARKET EVOLUTION AND DRIVERS .8 HOBBYIST PHASE - IP TELEPHONY AS HAM RADIO SUBSTITUTE 9 TARIFF ARBITRAGE - CALLING CARD REPLACEMENT .9 TARIFF ARBITRAGE - ENTERPRISE TRUNK REPLACEMENT 11 FEATURE PARITY 11 NEW APPLICATIONS .12 Conferencing Applications .12 Call Center Applications 13 IP Messaging 14 IP Call Waiting .14 COST PARITY 14 MARKET AND TECHNOLOGY BARRIERS TO INTERNET TELEPHONY AND THE NEW PUBLIC NETWORK 15 INTEROPERABILITY CHALLENGES 15 QUALITY OF SERVICE .16 COST TO DEPLOY IPT 17 OPERATIONAL SUPPORT SYSTEMS 17 REGULATION - THE VERY REAL THREAT 17 SERVICE MARKET OPPORTUNITIES IN INTERNET TELEPHONY 18 THE VALUE OF EARLY MARKET LEADERSHIP/ TODAY’S INTERNET TELEPHONY SERVICE PROVIDERS .20 AT&T IP TELEPHONY INITIATIVES .23 CONSUMERS .23 CARRIERS .23 BUSINESS CUSTOMERS 24 RESEARCH INITIATIVES .24 AT&T ADVANTAGE .24 SUMMARY 25 Voice and Data – Convergence Has Been A Long Time Coming The promise of a single network carrying both voice and data is as old the first data networks themselves. The fundamental notion that a single network offers economic advantages, both in terms of upfront equipment costs, and with respect to management and administration costs, goes back literally decades. Perhaps the most famous failure of convergence was ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network, or “It Still Does Nothing” as it is colloquially referred to), which is finally The Evolution of Primates The Evolution of Primates Bởi: OpenStaxCollege Order Primates of class Mammalia includes lemurs, tarsiers, monkeys, apes, and humans Non-human primates live primarily in the tropical or subtropical regions of South America, Africa, and Asia They range in size from the mouse lemur at 30 grams (1 ounce) to the mountain gorilla at 200 kilograms (441 pounds) The characteristics and evolution of primates is of particular interest to us as it allows us to understand the evolution of our own species Characteristics of Primates All primate species possess adaptations for climbing trees, as they all descended from tree-dwellers This arboreal heritage of primates has resulted in hands and feet that are adapted for brachiation, or climbing and swinging through trees These adaptations include, but are not limited to: 1) a rotating shoulder joint, 2) a big toe that is widely separated from the other toes and thumbs, which are widely separated from fingers (except humans), which allow for gripping branches, 3) stereoscopic vision, two overlapping fields of vision from the eyes, which allows for the perception of depth and gauging distance Other characteristics of primates are brains that are larger than those of most other mammals, claws that have been modified into flattened nails, typically only one offspring per pregnancy, and a trend toward holding the body upright Order Primates is divided into two groups: prosimians and anthropoids Prosimians include the bush babies of Africa, the lemurs of Madagascar, and the lorises, pottos, and tarsiers of Southeast Asia Anthropoids include monkeys, apes, and humans In general, prosimians tend to be nocturnal (in contrast to diurnal anthropoids) and exhibit a smaller size and smaller brain than anthropoids Evolution of Primates The first primate-like mammals are referred to as proto-primates They were roughly similar to squirrels and tree shrews in size and appearance The existing fossil evidence (mostly from North Africa) is very fragmented These proto-primates remain largely mysterious creatures until more fossil evidence becomes available The oldest known primate-like mammals with a relatively robust fossil record is Plesiadapis (although 1/11 The Evolution of Primates some researchers not agree that Plesiadapis was a proto-primate) Fossils of this primate have been dated to approximately 55 million years ago Plesiadapiforms were proto-primates that had some features of the teeth and skeleton in common with true primates They were found in North America and Europe in the Cenozoic and went extinct by the end of the Eocene The first true primates were found in North America, Europe, Asia, and Africa in the Eocene Epoch These early primates resembled present-day prosimians such as lemurs Evolutionary changes continued in these early primates, with larger brains and eyes, and smaller muzzles being the trend By the end of the Eocene Epoch, many of the early prosimian species went extinct due either to cooler temperatures or competition from the first monkeys Anthropoid monkeys evolved from prosimians during the Oligocene Epoch By 40 million years ago, evidence indicates that monkeys were present in the New World (South America) and the Old World (Africa and Asia) New World monkeys are also called Platyrrhini—a reference to their broad noses ([link]) Old World monkeys are called Catarrhini—a reference to their narrow noses There is still quite a bit of uncertainty about the origins of the New World monkeys At the time the platyrrhines arose, the continents of South American and Africa had drifted apart Therefore, it is thought that monkeys arose in the Old World and reached the New World either by drifting on log rafts or by crossing land bridges Due to this reproductive isolation, New World monkeys and Old World monkeys underwent separate adaptive radiations over millions of years The New World monkeys are all arboreal, whereas Old World monkeys include arboreal and ground-dwelling species The howler monkey is native to Central and South America It makes a call that sounds like a lion roaring (credit: Xavi Talleda) Apes evolved from the catarrhines in Africa midway through the Cenozoic, approximately 25 million years ago Apes are generally larger than monkeys and they not possess a tail All apes are capable of moving through trees, although many species 2/11 The Evolution of Primates spend most their time on the ground Apes are more intelligent than monkeys, and they have relatively larger brains proportionate to body size The apes are divided into two groups The lesser apes comprise the family Hylobatidae, including gibbons and siamangs The great apes include the genera Pan (chimpanzees and bonobos) ([link]a), Gorilla (gorillas), Pongo (orangutans), and Homo (humans) ([link]b) The very arboreal gibbons are smaller than the great apes; they have low sexual dimorphism (that is, the genders are not markedly different in size); and they have relatively ...This document and trademark(s) contained herein are protected by law as indicated in a notice appearing later in this work. 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RAND monographs present major research findings that address the challenges facing the public and private sectors. All RAND mono- graphs undergo rigorous peer review to ensure high standards for research quality and objectivity. Benjamin S. Lambeth THE EVOLUTION OF AIR FORCE–NAVY INTEGRATION IN STRIKE WARFARE Combat Pair Prepared for the United States Air Force Approved for public release; distribution unlimited The RAND Corporation is a nonprofit research organization providing objective analysis and effective solutions that address the challenges facing the public and private sectors around the world. RAND’s publications do not necessarily reflect the opinions of its research clients and sponsors. R ® is a registered trademark. © Copyright 2007 RAND Corporation All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form by any electronic or mechanical means (including photocopying, recording, or information storage and retrieval) without permission in writing from RAND. Published 2007 by the RAND Corporation 1776 Main Street, P.O. Box 2138, Santa Monica, CA 90407-2138 1200 South Hayes Street, Arlington, VA 22202-5050 4570 Fifth Avenue, Suite 600, Pittsburgh, PA 15213-2665 RAND URL: http://www.rand.org To order RAND documents or to obtain additional information, contact Distribution Services: Telephone: (310) 451-7002; Fax: (310) 451-6915; Email: order@rand.org Cover design by Peter Soriano The research described in this report was sponsored by the United States Air Force under Contract FA7014-06-C-0001. Further information may be obtained from the Strategic Planning Division, Directorate of Plans, Hq USAF. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Lambeth, Benjamin S. Combat pair : the evolution of Air Force-Navy integration in strike warfare / Benjamin S. Lambeth. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 978-0-8330-4209-5 (pbk.) 1. Air warfare—United States—History. 2. Unified operations (Military science) 3. United States. Air Force. 4. United States. Navy—Aviation. 5. United States. Marine Corps—Aviation. I. Title. UG633.L258 2007 358.4'24—dc22 2007044048 iii Preface is report was prepared as An intermediate step in the evolution of ATPases – a hybrid F 0 –V 0 rotor in a bacterial Na + F 1 F 0 ATP synthase Michael Fritz 1, *, Adriana L. Klyszejko 2, *, Nina Morgner 3, *, Janet Vonck 4 , Bernd Brutschy 3 , Daniel J. Muller 2 , Thomas Meier 4 and Volker Mu ¨ ller 1 1 Molecular Microbiology & Bioenergetics, Institute of Molecular Biosciences, Johann Wolfgang Goethe University Frankfurt ⁄ Main, Germany 2 BioTechnological Center, University of Technology Dresden, Germany 3 Microkinetic, Clusterchemistry, Mass- and Laserspectroscopy, Institute of Physical and Theoretical Chemistry, Johann Wolfgang Goethe University Frankfurt ⁄ Main, Germany 4 Max-Planck-Institute of Biophysics, Frankfurt, Germany ATP synthases are key elements in bioenergetics [1]. In bacteria, ATP synthesis is catalyzed by F 1 F 0 ATP syn- thase, which uses the electrochemical H + (or in some species Na + ) potential to drive the synthesis of ATP [2]. ATP synthases are rotary machines that work as a pair of coupled motors, a chemically driven motor (F 1 ) and a membrane-embedded, ion gradient-driven motor (F 0 ) [3]. The membrane-embedded motor comprises a stator and a rotor. The stator is formed by subunits a and b 2 , and the rotor is formed from multiple copies of subunit c. They form an oligomeric ring of non- covalently linked subunits, and rotation of the c ring is obligatorily coupled to ion flow across the membrane [4–6]. Subunit c of the F 1 F 0 ATP synthases has a molecular mass of approximately 8 kDa, and folds in the mem- brane like a hairpin, with two transmembrane helices connected by a cytoplasmic loop [7]. Each monomer contains an ion-binding site (H + or Na + ) [8,9]. Recent studies have demonstrated that the c ring stoichiometry in different organisms ranges between 10 and 15 mono- mers (see Discussion). Assuming that each subunit takes up one ion, each c ring revolution induces the synthesis of three molecules of ATP. This gives a Keywords Acetobacterium; acetogen; ATP-synthase; c ring; F 0 -V 0 hybrid rotor Correspondence V. Mu ¨ ller, Molecular Microbiology & Bioenergetics, Institute of Molecular Biosciences, Johann Wolfgang Goethe University, Max-von-Laue-Straße 9, D-60438 Frankfurt, Germany Fax: +49 69 79829306 Tel: +49 69 79829507 E-mail: vmueller@bio.uni-frankfurt.de *These authors contributed equally to this study (Received 18 December 2007, revised 15 February 2008, accepted 22 February 2008) doi:10.1111/j.1742-4658.2008.06354.x The Na + F 1 F 0 ATP synthase operon of the anaerobic, acetogenic bacte- rium Acetobacterium woodii is unique because it encodes two types of c subunits, two identical 8 kDa bacterial F 0 -like c subunits (c 2 and c 3 ), with two transmembrane helices, and a 18 kDa eukaryal V 0 -like (c 1 ) c subunit, with four transmembrane helices but only one binding site. To determine whether both types of rotor subunits are present in the same c ring, we have isolated and studied the composition of the c ring. High- resolution atomic force microscopy of 2D crystals revealed 11 domains, each corresponding to two transmembrane helices. A projection map derived from electron micrographs, calculated to 5 A ˚ resolution, revealed that each c ring contains two concentric, slightly staggered, packed rings, each composed of 11 densities, representing 22 transmembrane helices. The inner and outer diameters of the rings, measured at the density bor- ders, are approximately 17 and 50 A ˚ . Mass determination by laser- induced liquid beam ion desorption [...]... cooperate and address such issues A notable turning point in the history of financial engineering came with three financial calamities: the Asian financial crisis of 1997–1998, followed by the Russian financial crisis, followed by the downfall of Long-Term Capital Management (LTCM) in 1998 All of these events raised fears of a global economic meltdown Also notable at the end of 1998 was the creation of the. .. the financial behemoth, Citigroup, that challenged the separation of banking and insurance under the then-in-effect Glass-Steagall Act THE MASSIVE GROWTH PERIOD (1998 TO 2006) The Asian financial crisis began with the financial collapse of Thailand’s currency, the Thai baht Currencies across Asia slumped at the same time that equity and other asset markets devalued These events, in turn, caused a precipitous... In fact, each of these innovations has supported and reinforced the others In the early 1990s, practitioners and academics alike began to recognize that this spate of innovation was not just a passing fad Rather, something fundamental had changed Indeed, something had, and the new profession known as financial engineering emerged These think-out -of -the box, often technologically and/or quantitatively... Part I of this book (Chapters 1 through 3), provides a history of financial innovation and the commensurate growth of financial engineering as a profession In this same section, various types of financial engineering occupations are discussed, but not to the point of being exhaustive Also in this section, financial engineering curricula and programs are discussed Many of these programs carry a label other... an overview of the survey of financial engineering programs and programs with a financial engineering component (Appendix B) The authors wish to specially thank John F Marshall for his insights, advice, and experience drawn from the publication of numerous past books and articles on many of these topics His input was invaluable to the completion of this book The authors also wish to thank the staff at... service their customers The collapse of Bretton Woods (1971); the oil shocks (1973, 1979, and 1990); a major stock market crash (1987); and dramatic currency moves (notably the Japanese yen, Italian lira, and Mexican peso in the 1990s) made it clear to corporations and financial institutions that active risk management was essential to their financial health and competitiveness Whereas it had been acceptable... significantly during the global financial crisis, but by the latter part of 2009 it was again rising rapidly Because this figure is notionals outstanding, it can be misleading Many prefer to measure the size of the market in terms of gross market value, which is the cost of replacing existing contracts Gross market value is typically a small fraction of the notionals outstanding CHAPTER 6 Constraining Hypotheses on the Evolution of Art and Aesthetic Appreciation* Marcos Nadal, Miquel Capó, Enric Munar, Gisèle Marty, and Camilo José Cela-Conde If it were our purpose in this chapter to say what is actually known about the evolution of human cognition, we could stop at the end of this sentence. (R. C. Lewontin, 1990) Researchers have attempted to explain the evolution of aesthetic appreciation and art for a long time. By the early twentiethth century, and even before the end of the nineteenth century, Darwinian-grounded reasoning had already led to some interesting conclusions. For instance, Clay (1908) argued that the pleasure we take in looking at or listening to beautiful things played an important adaptive role throughout the evolution of our species. According to him, this affective dimension of aesthetic appreciation grew out of the need to assess the suitability of environ - ments. This viewpoint anticipated current models of the origins of aesthetic preference based on the emotional reactions to environments depending on their resources and potential dangers (Kaplan, 1992; Orians, 2001; Orians & Heerwagen, 1992; Smith, 2005). Other early work on “the primitive source of the appreciation of beauty” (Allen, 1880, p. 30), as well as its evolutionary history, was based on sexual selection, also a popular explanation in recent studies (Etcoff, 1999; Miller, 2001): *This research was made possible by research grant PRIB-2004-10057 from the Conselleria d’Economia, Hisenda i Innovació, Govern de les Illes Bolears to the Clinica Rotger, Palma de Mallorca. 103 Man in his earliest human condition, as he first evolved from the undifferen - tiated anthropoidal stage must have possessed certain vague elements of aesthetic feeling: but they can have been exerted or risen into conscious promi - nence only, it would seem, in the relation of primaeval courtship and wedlock. He must have been already endowed with a sense of beauty in form and symmetry (. . .). He must also have been sensible to the beauty of colour and lustre, rendered faintly conscious in the case of flowers, fruits, and feathers, but probably attaining its fullest measure only in the eyes, hair, teeth, lips, and glossy black complexion of his early mates (. . .). In short, the primitive human conception of beauty must, I believe, have been purely anthropinistic— must have gathered mainly around the personality of man or woman; and all its subsequent history must be that of an apanthropinisation (. . .), a gradual regression or concentric widening of aesthetic feeling around this fixed point which remains to the very last its natural centre. (Allen, 1880, pp. 450-451) Richard Lewontin’s (1990) skepticism regarding our knowledge about the evo - lutionary history of cognitive processes stems from its largely speculative nature. The views expressed by Allen (1880) and Clay (1908) on this topic, as well as the later accounts (Etcoff, 1999; Kaplan, 1992; Miller, 2001; Orians, 2001; Orians & Heerwagen, 1992; Smith, 2005), are susceptible to Lewontin’s (1990) criticisms. In paraphrasing this author, we must admit, first, that most hypotheses about the evolution of art and aesthetic appreciation lack a solid grounding in facts, and, for the most part, we have no means to assess their validity. Second, it is extremely difficult to determine that aesthetic appreciation has actually been shaped by natural selection, given that this involves demonstrating that survival ... 3/11 The Evolution of Primates This chart shows the evolution of modern humans Very Early Hominins Three species of very early hominids have made news in the past few years The oldest of these,... noses There is still quite a bit of uncertainty about the origins of the New World monkeys At the time the platyrrhines arose, the continents of South American and Africa had drifted apart Therefore,... proto -primates that had some features of the teeth and skeleton in common with true primates They were found in North America and Europe in the Cenozoic and went extinct by the end of the Eocene The