A study on metaphors in english advertising slogans for food and beverage

THESIS A STUDY ON METAPHORS IN ENGLISH ADVERTISING SLOGANS FOR FOOD AND BEVERAGE NGHIÊN CỨU ẨN DỤ TRONG CÁC KHẨU HIỆU QUẢNG CÁO TIẾNG ANH VỀ THỰC PHẨM VÀ ĐỒ UỐNG LƯU THỊ PHƯƠNG THẢO

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING

HANOI OPEN UNIVERSITY

(NGHIÊN CỨU ẨN DỤ TRONG CÁC KHẨU HIỆU QUẢNG CÁO

TIẾNG ANH VỀ THỰC PHẨM VÀ ĐỒ UỐNG)

LƯU THỊ PHƯƠNG THẢO

Hanoi, 2016

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING

HANOI OPEN UNIVERSITY

M.A THESIS

A STUDY ON METAPHORS IN ENGLISH ADVERTISING SLOGANS FOR FOOD AND

BEVERAGE

(NGHIÊN CỨU ẨN DỤ TRONG CÁC KHẨU HIỆU QUẢNG CÁO

TIẾNG ANH VỀ THỰC PHẨM VÀ ĐỒ UỐNG)

LƯU THỊ PHƯƠNG THẢO

Field: English Language Code: 60220201

Supervisor: Dr Tran Thi Thu Hien

CERTIFICATE OF ORIGINALITY

I, the undersigned, hereby certify my authority of the study project report entitled “A study on metaphors in English advertising slogans for food and beverage” submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master in English Language Except where the reference is indicated, no other person‟s work has been used without due acknowledgement in the text of the thesis

Hanoi, 2016

Luu Thi Phuong Thao

Approved by SUPERVISOR

Date:………

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First and foremost, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Doctor Tran Thi Thu Hien, my supervisor, who has constantly supported my study, and whose patience, motivation, enthusiasm, and immense knowledge have helped me in all the time of study and writing of this thesis and inspired

me greatly through my growth as an academic studyer

My sincere thanks go to all lecturers and the staff of the Department of Post Graduate Studies at Hanoi Open University for their useful materials, guidance and enthusiasm during my study at the institution

Last but not least, I am greatly indebted to my family, my friends for the help, consideration and encouragement they have devoted to the fulfillment of

my study

ABSTRACT

Metaphors are not only found in everyday use of language, but also in advertisements The use of metaphorical expressions, specifically conceptual metaphors in advertising slogans is very common because they can attract attention and they can give positive inferences for the advertisement messages The metaphorical expressions can not be interpreted literally, but they must be inferred because they give new meanings to the expressions The understanding of metaphorical expressions can be drawn by mapping the features of source domain on the target domain By the mixture of qualitative and descriptive method and based on this condition, this study investigates metaphorical expressions used in advertising slogans for foods and beverage products through the answer of these questions:

1) What are the most common types of metaphor used in food and beverage advertising slogans?

2) What are the target and source domain of the metaphorical expressions used in food and beverage advertising slogans?

3) What are the implications for teaching and learning English as foreign language as well as in advertising field?

Since then the study can help to understand more about metaphor and its uses in advertising slogans, identify the importance and characteristics of metaphorical expressions in food and beverage advertising slogans Meanwhile, it can improve knowledge of metaphor in advertisements, translation and communication in general

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS Sample:

CMT: Conceptual metaphor theory

TV: Television

Ad: Advertising

LIST OF TABLES AND PICTURES TABLE

Table 1: The frequency of each sub- types of Conceptual metaphor in food and

beverage advertising slogans 37

Table 2: The general percentage of use of each sub- types of Conceptual metaphor in the whole forty slogans of food and beverage 38

Table 3: The analysis of target domain, source domain and metaphor concepts in 24 slogans 41

PICTURE Picture 1: Slogan for Leggo‟s New Deli Fresh 41

Picture 2: Slogan for Taco Bell 42

Picture 3: Slogan for Coke 44

Picture 4: Slogan “Open happiness” (Coca-cola) 46

Picture 5: Slogan “Real taste Uplifting freshment” (Coca-cola) 47

Picture 6: Slogan for South Cape Fine Foods Haloumi in Brine Advertisements 48

Picture 7: Slogan for Mrs Dash Advertisement 50

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ii

ABSTRACT iii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS iv

LIST OF TABLES AND PICTURES v

TABLE OF CONTENTS vi

Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION 1

Chapter 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 6

2.1 Review of previous studies 6

2.2 Review of theoretical background 8

2.2.1 Theoretical framework 11

2.2.2 Theoretical background 12

2.2.2.1 Metaphor 13

2.2.2.2 Advertising slogan 23

2.2.2.3 The exploitation of metaphors in advertising slogans 30

2.3 Summary 31

Chapter 3: METHODOLOGY 32

3.1 Study-governing orientations 32

3.1.1 Research questions 32

3.1.2 Research setting 32

3.1.3 Research approach(es) 33

3.1.4 Principles/criteria for intended data collection and data analysis 33

3.2 Study methods 34

3.2.1 Major methods vs supporting methods 34

3.2.2 Data collection techniques 34

3.2.3 Data analysis techniques 35

Chapter 4: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION 37

4.1 The most common types of metaphor used in advertising slogans for food and beverage 37

4.2 Metaphorical slogans by target domain and source domain 38

4.2.1 Product is an entity 41

4.2.2 Life is an entity 43

4.2.3 Emotion is an entity 45

4.2.4 Product is a person 47

4.2.5 Days are products 51

4.2.6 Characteristics are locations 52

4.3 Further implications for teaching, learning and advertising concerning the use of metaphorical expressions 53

4.3.1 For teaching and learning foreign language 53

4.3.2 For advertising 54

4.4 Summary 54

Chapter 5: CONCLUSION 55

5.1 Recapitulation 55

5.2 Concluding remarks (on each of the thesis objectives) 56

5.2.1 Concluding remarks (on the first objectives) 56

5.2.2 Concluding remarks (on the second objectives) 56

5.2.3 Concluding remarks (on the third objectives) 57

5.3 Limitations of the current study 57

5.4 Recommendations/Suggestions for a further study 58

5.4.1 Recommendations 58

5.4.2 Suggestions for a further study 58

REFERENCES 59

APPENDIX 61

Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Rationale for the study

Metaphors are very common in people‟s daily life; whether people realize

it or not, they actually have used metaphors to understand something since metaphors are characterized as “understanding and experiencing one kind of things in terms of another” and metaphors are “primarily a matter of thought and action and only derivatively a matter of language” Metaphor has been concerned by many linguists because it is an outstanding linguistic phenomenon in language For many different purposes, metaphor is used in many fields to find out its real nature in communication In fact, more and more people have used metaphor effectively

Metaphor is very closely related to human‟s everyday life, so it is not surprising that “a contemporary advertising contains many metaphors” (Forceville, 1996: 67) And at present, metaphor has become one of the most popular devices for advertising The advertisers always like to use metaphor

in their advertisements because metaphor refers to language use that explains something other than what it literally means through the comparison two things to make a connection between them A well chosen metaphor will greatly prompt people‟s desire to buy a certain product Using metaphor in advertising satisfies customers‟ curiosity and excitement but sometimes causes many difficulties to understand

Because advertising slogans can attract customers‟ attention and give

source domain on the target domain, companies have used slogans in their advertisements for years Slogan is not just a tag line that advertisers create but play a strategic game, in the long run, good slogans play with customer‟s mind making it believe yours is a reliable product Therefore, major corporations and business have used catchy phrases to tell the world what makes their product special or different Slogans really work best to display the real perspective for any business, this way it can attract the targeted audience easily and can also connect with them emotionally

Moreover, among many types of advertisements, food and beverage advertisements are the most popular ones in many kinds of media that communicates potentially powerful consumption cues Thank to these advertisements, customers can compare and gain a great deal of information concerning the healthy food and drink to be consumed

With the hope to make more contribution to these discussions, “A study

on metaphors in English advertising slogans for food and beverage”

investigates the way advertisers use metaphors to actively involve consumers and provides knowledge about metaphor, at the same time helps us have better language understanding of advertising slogans

1.2 Aims of the study

The study aims to explore types of metaphors used in English advertising slogans for food and beverage based on Lakoff and Johnson‟s theory (1980) Therefore, a classification of metaphors is presented, and then is applied in the study of a collection of 40 advertising slogans from English-speaking countries or global brands To find out the answer for the research questions proposed, the study specifically aims at:

- Provide the most common types of metaphor used in food and beverage advertising slogans

- Clarify the target and source domain of the metaphorical expressions used in food and beverage advertising slogans

- Suggest some implications for teaching and learning English as foreign language as well as in advertising field

1.3 Objectives of the study

There are three primary objectives of this study:

(i) To provide the most common types of metaphor used in food and beverage advertising slogans

(ii) To clarify the target and source domain of metaphorical expressions used in food and beverage advertising slogans

(iii) To suggest some implications for teaching and learning English

as foreign language as well as in advertising field

1.4 Scope of the study

(i) Academic scope:

The study focuses on metaphors in English advertising slogans for food and beverage In order to fulfill these objectives and answer the research questions, a literature review should be conducted to help identify the common types of metaphor, its use in advertising slogans and implications for other fields It means all researches on types of language style used for product advertising and other attempts to work with advertising terms of other studies

(ii) Social scope:

40 food and beverage advertising slogans are collected from all sources including TV, internet, radio, pictorials, newspapers, magazines of all types

Among them, there are slogans from Coca-Cola, Mc Donald‟s and Burger King, and some are from other famous food and beverage brands

1.5 Significance of the study

(i) Theoretical significance

By exploring the uses of metaphors in food and beverage advertising slogans, the study provides certain information and understanding of conceptual metaphor used in advertising field Findings from the study can be useful for the better use of metaphor in advertisements as well as in cross-cultural communication

(ii) Practical significance

Through this study, teachers can use metaphor for classroom discussions and exercises then encourages students to identify and compare with the way words are used in their own first language At the same time it can provide suggestions for advertisers and marketers‟professional knowledge

in using metaphor in designing advertising slogans

1.6 Structural organization of the study

The study consists of five main chapters as follows: Introduction, Literature Review, Methodology, Findings and Discussions and Conclusion.

Chapter 1 – Introduction: Gives brief information about the study such as rationale, aims and objectives, scope, significance and structure of the study Chapter 2 – Literature Review: Provides a brief history of metaphor in literature from different philosophical perspectives Makes discussion on more relevant issues for the purposes of this study and presents a basis for understanding the foundation of the current study on metaphor in advertising Chapter 3 – Methodology: Defines and presents the methodology of the study Determination of the samples will also be explained Methods

examined will be those for collection and analysis of the data utilized throughout the study.

Chapter 4 – Findings and discussions: Investigates different metaphorical linguistic expressions in food and beverage advertising slogans from different sources, diferent aspects then finds answers to three research questions

Chapter 5 – Conclusions and Implications: Summaries the major findings resulted from the investigation At the same time, presents the limitations of the study and provides some suggestions for further study in the future as well

Chapter 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Review of previous studies

Metaphors are used in most aspects of life: communication, literature and other fields so becomes an useful way to understand the world as well as express our ideas about everything In fact, according to Lakoff and Johnson (1980:3), “metaphor is pervasive in everyday life, not just in language but in thought and action” Metaphors are pervasive in our expressions because they are systematic, the language we use to talk about metaphors are metaphorical concepts

Galperin (1981), stated that “the term „metaphor‟, as the etymology of the word reveals, means transference of some quality from one object to another From the times of ancient Greek and Roman rhetoric, the term has been known to denote the transference of meaning from one word to another It is still widely used to designate the process in which a word acquires a derivative meaning.”

The understanding of metaphor has been of great interest to scholars in linguistics, philosophy, anthropology, and psychology (Nelson & Hitchon, 1999) Aristotle described metaphor as “giving names to previously nameless things” and he wrote that “the greatest thing by far is to be a master of metaphor” (Aristotle, trans 1952, p 662; as cited in Leary, 1995, p 268) Although he used metaphors, including: “The harmony of colors is like the harmony of sounds” (Aristotle, translated 1952; as cited in Nelson & Hitchon,

1995, p 347)

Contemporary theorists affirm “the impossibility of doing without metaphors” (Berlin, 1981; as cited in Leary, 1995, p 268): “Without parallels and analogies between one sphere and another of thought and action, whether conscious or not, the unity of our experience or experience itself would not be possible All language and thought processes are, in this sense, necessarily

„metaphorical‟” (p 158; as cited in Leary, 1995, p 268)

Metaphors have a fundamental role in language and thinking as they provide a framework for organizing information about the world and for making sense of experiences (Kaplan, 1990) Lakoff and Johnson (1980) argue that they are part of the human conceptual system to account for how concepts are (1) grounded, (2) structured, (3) related, and (4) defined (p 106), thus enable categorization and schema development Similarly, Peppers (1942) suggests that root metaphors determine our worldview by providing meaningful categories for people to group together perceptions and experiences (Siltanen, 1981)

Metaphors have a key role in creative thinking that is particularly important in public and commercial communication Here, Bowers and Osborn (1966), Fearing (1963), and Reinsch (1971) found that metaphors increase the persuasive power of speeches (as cited in Siltanen, 1981) These scholars contend that metaphors change people‟s attitudes more “because metaphors appeal to the senses, enliven the discourse, and make it easier to attend to the arguments of the message” (Bowers & Osborn, p 147; as cited

in Siltanen, p 69) Kaplan (1990) asserts that truly creative metaphors combine a large number of ideas that are considered disparate, while Fiske (1982) suggests the most powerful metaphors are those in which differences between elements are emphasized and similarities downplayed

In advertising, Hitchon (1991) found that metaphors in headlines were more persuasive than in the more factual body copy across various products Nelson and Hitchon (1995, 1999) studied synesthetic claims in advertising with mixed results Synesthesia is a type of metaphor that describes one sense

by using words that normally describe another, such as calling bright colors loud and dark colors cool These cross-sensory metaphors were found more persuasive for products in which product-sensory transfers can only be imagined and not literally applied (Nelson & Hitchon, 1999)

2.2 Review of theoretical background

According to Max Black (1962), metaphor is as a tool to restructure cognitions He describes what metaphor is, its key components, and how they work together to create a new concept altogether different from what the two subjects mean independent of one another Metaphor is described based on the interaction theory to explain how concepts are restructured through the interplay of the associated meanings of both subjects within the metaphorical phrase He explains the interaction of the associated commonplaces between the two variables that creates and restructures our concepts of not only the primary subject, but the secondary subject as well He also notes that the interaction of the primary and secondary subject is three-fold: some of the secondary subject‟s properties are elicited, a parallel implication complex is then constructed for the primary subject, and parallel changes are reciprocally induced for the secondary subject (Black 1979: 28-29) Both the primary and secondary subjects predicate their properties upon the other, thus creating a whole new meaning for the metaphor than the two words possessed separately The two subjects must have a clearly understood meaning within the speech community in order for these meanings to be “readily and freely evoked” when used in a metaphor (Black 1962, 40) Otherwise, the metaphor will not be

understood correctly, for it is dependent on a cultural context, full of understood and accepted beliefs (Black 1962, 40) Therefore, metaphor used is understood within a given speech community and within a particular culture According to Kittay (1989:13-14), the theory of metaphor functions to

“provide a perspective from which to gain an understanding of which is metaphorically portrayed” Kittay further explains, “metaphor provides the linguistic realization for the cognitive activity by which a language speaker makes use of one linguistically articulated domain to gain an understanding of another experiential or conceptual domain, and similarly, by which a hearer grasps such an understanding” (Kittay, 14) This is the same as Black‟s thesis,

so we understand one subject in terms of what the secondary subject brings to the metaphor

Similarly, Indurkhya (1991), one of the theorists who have tried to develop a theoretical model views metaphor as a reconceptualization of the primary subject, a complete change in paradigm This is also a cognitive view

of metaphor, implying that much cognition is required in understanding the interaction of the primary and secondary subjects within a metaphor

Lakoff and Johnson view metaphor as a systematic conceptualization of certain domains of experience in terms of other domains of experience (Lakoff & Johnson, 139) In their theory,“The essence of metaphor is understanding one kind of thing in terms of another” (Lakoff & Johnson: 5) relies upon the cognitive components focusing on human thought processes Their theory of metaphorical systematicity shows that “metaphorical entailments can characterize a coherent system of metaphorical concepts and

a corresponding coherent system of metaphorical expressions for those concepts” (Lakoff & Johnson, 9)

From the same cognitive theoretical perspective, Kaplan says “a metaphor

is a combination of two ideas presented in relationship to one another such that one idea is used to organize or conceptualize the other” (Kaplan, 198)

He explains that the meaning of the metaphor results from this relationship between the two ideas He further explains that there are two additional conditions required for metaphorical meaning: Firstly, some features of the two ideas are shared between them and secondly the attempt to map one idea onto the other must violate linguistic norms or beliefs to the extent that a measure of tension is created So there is both a condition of similarity (shared features) and a sense of incongruity (tension) which determines the effectiveness and appeal of the metaphor Kaplan identifies two conditions that must be met for the image or phrase to be considered metaphorical

“There must be at least some features of the two ideas that are shared between them and the attempt to map one idea on to the other must violate linguistic norms or beliefs about the world to the extent that a measure of tension is created by the combination” (Kaplan, 198) Different from Black‟s cognitive perspective, Kaplan‟s definition seeks to clarify his terminology Kaplan‟s

“Conceptual Analysis of Form and Content in Visual Metaphors” establishes three ways of classifying metaphors: by metaphor form, type of tension, and

by metaphorical content (Kaplan, 202-206)

MacCormac asserts that “When we speak of metaphor as a knowledge process, we include in that knowledge process the cognitive activity of the mind, the activities of the brain on which the mind depends for its operations, and the interaction of the mind with its environment” (MacCormac, 127) MacCormac‟s view of metaphor is similar to other linguistic perspectives in which metaphor is seen as changing the way we conceptualize the meaning of the two elements MacCormac defines this in greater detail: “Metaphors

appear as linguistic devices in surface language, but the intentional ability to produce a semantic anomaly that suggests a new meaning originates in a cognitive process The human mind combines concepts that are not normally associated to form new concepts This cognitive activity operates consciously and unconsciously” (MacCormac, 127) The „semantic anomaly‟ that MacCormac refers to is what Black would call the tension between the two terms, or what Whittock would call a „category mistake.‟ Max Black‟s basic premises are still the foundation for MacCormac‟s writings as he seeks to describe metaphor in three explanatory levels MacCormac explores linguistic surface meaning, a deeper level of linguistic explanation, and the deepest level of cognitive activity relevant to metaphor (MacCormac, 127)

Clifford Geertz affirms that what makes metaphor work is that it is

„wrong‟ and asserts one thing that is something else (Geertz, 1973) “The power of metaphor derives precisely from the interplay between the discordant meanings it symbolically coerces into a unitary conceptual framework and from the degree to which that coercion is successful in overcoming the psychic resistance such semantic tension inevitably generates

in anyone in a position to perceive it” (Geertz, 211) Again, this is based on Black‟s definition of metaphor that restructures our cognitions through the tension of the pairing of two opposing elements

2.2.1 Theoretical framework

The topic of metaphor is chosen in this study because metaphor is found

in advertisements (Cook,2001) and is unique In fact, it is also an ordinary language since metaphor is “pervasive in everyday life, not just in language but in thought and action” (Lakoff and Johnson, 1996, p.3)

Metaphor refers to creative language use by connecting two resembled things to result in a different meaning Metaphorical expressions form new meanings because they cannot be interpreted literally and they are thought provoking In relation to individual words, metaphor is “a basic process in the formation of words and word meanings” (Knowles and Moon, 2006, p 4) Forceville (1996, 2008) mentions that a metaphorical statement has two distinct subjects: target and source domains Lakoff and Johnson (1980) and Forceville (2008, p 464) state that “verbal metaphors of various syntactic forms are manifestations of a conceptual metaphor that can be captured in a paradigmatic A is B format” Though there are two main types of metaphor, namely conceptual and nonverbal metaphors, this study is limited on the discussion of conceptual metaphors because these conceptual metaphors use language for the target and source domains so that they are generally used in advertisements which often make use of words to gain attention

2.2.2 Theoretical background

Lakoff and Johnson in “Metaphors We Live By” (1980) have also suggested that they are problems not only in language but also in the human conceptual system Metaphors are much more powerful instruments in the eyes of Lakoff and Johnson Metaphors have entailments that organize our experience, uniquely express that experience, and create necessary realities Lakoff and Johnson attacked the two commonly accepted theories of metaphor The abstraction theory that there exists one neutral and abstract concept that underlies both the literal and metaphorical use of word failed on six counts The abstraction doesn't apply throughout, in height, emotion, future, etc Cognitive linguistics takes a conceptual approach to linguistic

analysis They consider linguistic knowledge as knowledge of meaning and form as being basically of conceptual structure (Croft & Cruse 2004)

Before the publication of the great work, metaphor was viewed by most people as an extraordinary form of language rather than a form of language used in everyday life It was understood to mostly appear in poetry and literary works for the sake of decoration and beautification It was considered

as a language phenomenon alone However, in the work of Lakoff and Johnson, metaphor is seen as a conceptual process that people use to understand and categorize the world around them It exists everywhere and plays an important role in our daily life It exists not only in language but in thought and action as well (Lakoff & Johnson 2003:4)

2.2.2.1 Metaphor

a) Definition of metaphor

A metaphor is described as a figure of speech that makes

a comparison between two things that are basically dissimilar In other words,

it describes one thing in terms of another It is comparative, and thus goes beyond a mere descriptive adjective A metaphor describes one object

as being or having the characteristics of a second object Unlike a simile,

a metaphor does not use connective words such aslike, as, or resembles in making the comparison

Metaphors play “a fundamental role in thinking, behavior, and aesthetic phenomena, as well as language use” (Kaplan, 197) Metaphors have become

a common means of expression from dance and art to poetry and literature To revisit an earlier quote, Forceville discusses conventional metaphors that are

“so embedded in language that their metaphoricity is often no longer recognized as such” (Forceville, 26) So this common use of metaphors is a

way we reorganize our thoughts and meanings, juxtaposing two elements in such a way as to create new meaning for the recipient of our communication

In the cognitive linguistic view, metaphor is defined as understanding one conceptual domain in terms of another conceptual domain The conceptual domain from which we draw metaphorical expressions is to understand another conceptual domain called source domain, while the conceptual domain that is understood this way is the target domain Understanding one domain in terms of another involves a set of fixed correspondences (technically called mappings) between a source and a target domain All definitions have in common that they speak of two terms related to each other thanks to the similarities they have But they also limit the function of metaphors to embellish or decorate the language

Metaphor is typically viewed as characteristic of language alone, a matter

of words rather than thought or action For this reason, most people think they can get along perfectly well without metaphor We have found, on the contrary, that metaphor is pervasive in everyday life, not just in language but

in thought and action Our ordinary conceptual system, in terms of which we both think and act, is fundamentally metaphorical in nature By what they found, Lakoff and Johnson indicated that “metaphors not only influence our linguistic behavior but also our thought processes and our system of value” (cited in Ágnes, 2009: 21)

Whatever the metaphor, two elements, or subjects, are unusually paired so that one subject is conceived in terms of the second The metaphor is presented by words to convey its meaning Regardless, some properties or characteristics of the secondary subject are transferred to the first and a whole new concept formed The slight tension of the pairing will increase the

viewer/reader‟s need to reconcile the juxtaposition and result in the comprehension of the metaphor The viewer will understand the pairing of the two subjects in a new and completely different light than if the two subjects were presented independently The need to reconcile this tension may require more active involvement from the viewer Thus, metaphor has implications for advertising, as active audiences are highly desirable and interpret the advertising message in a more meaningful and personal way When more time

is spent reading, viewing, and interpreting a message, the meaning is more internalized Therefore, advertising seeks to involve the consumers so that they will internalize the message of product slogans Advertising slogans also attempt to draw in the viewer to spend more time with the message

b) Types of metaphor

There are many ways of classifying metaphors based on different approaches However, in this study, it is better to comprehend metaphors in Lakoff and Johnson‟s classification

Conceptual/ Conventional metaphors

Conceptual Metaphor Theory became widely known with the publication

of Metaphors We Live By, by Lakoff and Johnson in 1980 Conceptual metaphor theory has since been developed and elaborated According to this theory, conceptual metaphor is perceived as a figurative comparison in which one idea (or conceptual domain) is understood in terms of another The fundamental basis of Conceptual Metaphor Theory is that metaphor operates

at the level of thinking

Conceptual metaphors link two conceptual domains, the „source‟ domain and the „target‟ domain The source domain consists of a set of literal entities,

stored together in the mind The „target‟ domain tends to be abstract, and takes its structure from the source domain, through the metaphorical link, or

„conceptual metaphor‟ Target domains are therefore believed to have relationships between entities, attributes and processes which mirror those found in the source domain At the level of language, entities, attributes and processes in the target domain are lexicalized using words and expressions from the source domain In the example: “Time is Money”, the metaphor uses everyday experience with money-the source domain to conceptualize time, an abstract entity, and herein, recognized as the target domain However, since the link between the target and the source is the metaphorical conceptualization, it is not always necessary to conceptualize time as money since according to many cultures‟ and societies‟ other concepts, time is not merely or priorly money and vice versus, money is not often metaphorically linked with time, but with other entities, as affirmed by Murray Knowles and Rosamund Moon, “Conceptual metaphors may be culture-specific”

In the 1980 edition of Metaphors we Live by, Lakoff and Johnson identify three categories of conceptual metaphors: ontological, structural and orientational Belonging to the structural metaphors group, ontological metaphor is perceived as a metaphor in which “an abstraction, such as an activity, emotion, or idea, is represented as something concrete, such as an object, substance, container, or person” such as in:

I put a lot of energy into washing the windows

I get a lot of satisfaction out of washing windows

In a detailed manner, this metaphor is further classified into container metaphor, where one concept is represented as having an inside and outside, and capable of holding something else and entity metaphor, in which an

abstraction is represented as a concrete physical object, or maybe a person (personification) Another kind of ontological metaphor is substance metaphor via the use of which, an abstract entity such as idea, emotion, event

or activity is represented as a solid material As seen in the following examples from “Metaphor we live by”, three kinds of ontological metaphors are quite clearly illustrated:

Life is empty for him (container metaphor)

Her ego is very fragile (entity metaphor)

Inflation is eating up our profits (personification)

There was a lot of good running in the race (substance metaphor)

As stated, structural metaphors, in their view, are considered as “cases where one concept is metaphorically structured in terms of another” Structural metaphors allow us to do much more than just orient concepts, refer to them, quantify them, etc., as we do with simple orientational and onto-logical metaphors; they allow us, in addition, to use one highly structured and clearly delineated concept to structure another This metaphor allows us to conceptualize what a rational argument is in terms of something that we understand more readily, namely, physical conflict In fact, as Lakoff and Johnson analyzed, “The point here is that not only our conception of an argument but the way we carry it out is grounded in our knowledge and experience of physical combat Even if you have never fought a fistfight in you life, much less a war, but have been arguing from the time you began to talk, you still conceive of arguments, and execute them, according to the ARGUMENT IS WAR metaphor because the metaphor is built into the conceptual system of the culture in which you live.” There is also another

with respect to one another” since “most of them have to do with spatial orientation: up-down, in-out, front-back, on-off, deep-shallow, central-peripheral” Orientational metaphors give a concept a spatial orientation; as in

“Happy is up”

Mixed metaphors

Mixed metaphors can be understood as different metaphors occurring in the same utterance, or the same sentence, to express the same concept Mixed metaphors is divided into impermissible mixed metaphor-metaphors that conflict because they serve different purposes and permissible mixed metaphor which not conflict with each other because they serve the same purpose, or exhibit a correlation with each other This classification may have sprung from the possibility to lead to a conflict of concepts In the following sentences a mixture of the argument-as-journey and argument-as-container metaphors is presented The first two sentences are acceptable; however, the last two are marginally acceptable

At this point our argument doesn‟t have much content

If we keep going the way we‟re going, we‟ll fit all the facts in

We can now follow the path of the core of the argument

The content of the argument proceeds as follows…

Here we can see the argument-as-container metaphor is decisively presented in the first two examples, however in the following illustrations there exist an overlap between the argument-as-container metaphor “the core

of the argument”, “the content of the argument” and the argument-as-journey metaphor-“the path of…” or “proceed”

Extending

The employment of extending is recognized when a new conceptual element is introduced in the source domain to an already existing conventional metaphor and the ordinary conceptual metaphor is expressed with new metaphorical expression The examples stated by Kovecses (2002:47) can illustrate this tactic

Two roads diverged in a wood, and I-

I took the one less traveled by

And that has made all the difference

It is not very difficult to acknowledge the conventional metaphor “Life is

a Journey” employed in the poem The novelty added is in this case, despite the very same destination both roads lead to, there is one road less or more traveled than the other

Elaborating

Quite different from extension, in elaboration, an existing element of the source is elaborated in an unusual way Elaboration captures the source in a novel and strange way, rather than adding a new expression to the source domain According to Lakeoff and Turner (1989), Horace used the metaphorical expression “eternal exile of the raft” to refer the death The conventional metaphor “Death is Departure” is captured right in the words Nevertheless, it is also further elaborated when described in detailed definition “exile” and “raft” The two words employed provoke the understanding that death is a forceful departure and the means of transportation-“raft” can not take them to the destination

c) Characteristics of metaphor

For all its characteristics, I just want to single out among them three to dwell on They are namely universality, systematic character and power of enriching semantic meaning

Universality

Metaphor is not simply confined to linguistics, but also has entered into and become spotlight of fields of philosophy cognitive science, artificial intelligence, psychology, sociology and education Metaphor has attracted tremendous attention from philosophers, which is evidenced by Kant‟s elaboration on conceptual metaphor from the angle of cognition and pointing out that our language is full of conceptualized expressions indirectly deriving from metaphorization In 1960, German philosopher Blumenberg also pointed out with emphasis that most of the reasoning of human beings is metaphorical because of abstract and scientific account can be possible

Metaphor proliferates too in natural science For instance, in physics,

we come to know what electricity is in terms of understanding the intangible water we are familiar with, hence expressions of flow of electricity, pressure

of electricity, obstacle of electricity, to name just a few

Metaphor, used in our daily thinking and acting is an omnipresent principle of human languages and makes abstraction possible, therefore it is a must to think in metaphor Lackoff and Johson„s investigation showed even higher frequency of use of metaphor - 70% of expressions in language derive from metaphorical concepts Ortony (1929) held: all languages are of metaphorical quality

Systematic character of metaphor

Different conceptual metaphors do not work independently, as Lackoff and Johnson (1980) put it, metaphorical entailments can characterize a coherent system of metaphorical concepts and a corresponding coherent system of metaphorical expressions for those concepts For instance, in English there are three metaphors related to time, namely,

Time is money

How do you spend your time these days?

That flat tire cost me an hour

Time is a limited resource

You don‟t use your time profitably

You are running out of time

Time is a valuable commodity

I don‟t have the time to give you

Thank you for your time

(Lakoff & Johnson, 1980)

Knowledge of what money, limited resources and valuable commodity are in mind, these metaphors can facilitate our understanding of the abstract concept time The three metaphors well agree with each other and mingle into

a harmonious whole, for money is in modern society a limited resource while

a limited resource is a commodity In other words, time is money entails time

is a limited resource, while the latter entails time is a valuable commodity

Power of enriching semantic meaning

Metaphor, in linguistic system, is to endow with a word new meaning and extension of meaning, and a bridge of the known and the unknown Metaphor makes one semantic domain map onto another (Lakoff & Turner, 1989) Cognitive semantics holds acquisition of new lexical meaning is by no means groundless and is grounded on the cognitive structuring which makes different meanings of one word relate to each other in a reasonable way We can use a polysemy loud to illustrate Sweetser‟s stand The word loud has following meanings: (a) having great intensity of sound (b) producing great intensity of sound; resounding (c) vehement or insistent: loud denunciations (d)Tastelessly bright ; garish, flashy: a loud red automobile (e) obsessive in appearance or manner

The first two items are of minor difference and of its literal meaning, while the third item is somewhat different from its literal meaning yet still bears close relationship to sound Item four and five bear no direct relationship

to sound, but sill stem from high-pitchingness and ear-catchingness of sound

In a word, metaphorization is the effective mechanism to make such connotation possible

2.2.2.2 Advertising slogan

a) Definition of advertising slogan

Slogans are a way of advertising products by catching words or phrase They concentrate in few words the motto of the company, its aims and the benefits that the products can bring to customers Slogans become an important part of the advertising strategy when a company chooses to advertise its products in an international market, entering a different social and cultural frame In order to be effective, every slogan has certain characteristics: it uses simple and colloquial language, the sentences must be short, usually imperative or interrogative, or even sentences without a predicate Slogans rely on the connotative meaning and ambiguity of words, use puns, well-known phrases, idioms or sayings New invented words, like blend words, nonce words or compounds make the slogan quickly draw the attention of the audience As components of an advertising text, slogans use figures of speech, such as: hyperbole, metaphor, repetition or alliteration Slogans can represent: an objective description of the product‟s image or utility (e.g Nokia Connecting people, Ralph Laurent- Eyewear); an urge to use the product (for example: Coca-Cola- Have a Coke and a smile, Pepsi - Have a Pepsi day!), a symbolic image of the product (Palmolive- The touch of nature, Bounty- A taste of paradise) Metaphors not only describe the products but they also transmit attitudes, ideas or concepts Usually slogans are made of short imperative sentences (e.g Apple computers- Think different American Express- Do more), or sentences without a predicate (e.g Allianz- The power on your side, American Airlines- Something special in the air) Slogans are also made up of an enumeration of nouns, adjectives, adverbs or verbs (e.g E-bay- Buy it Sell it Love it Paulaner- Good Better

Paulaner) There are slogans which play on the sense of balance between similar and dissimilar parts (e.g Playstation- Live in your world, play in ours; Microsoft- Your potential Our Passion) Many slogans contain a comparative

of superiority or the superlative (e.g Sony- Like no other; Duracell batteries

No battery is stronger longer) There are slogans which rely on the public‟s cultural knowledge using well-known idioms, sayings and phrases (e.g Make out, not war!; Help kids be kids!)

According to Rein, an advertising slogan is defined as a “unique phrase identified with a company or brand” (Rein, 1982, 49) The scholar asserts that the slogan, which is kind of a presentation of the main idea of the advertising campaign, has to “command attention, be memorable and be brief” (Rein,

1982, 54) Godin (2005) refers to the advertising slogan as a “scenario”, which attracts a potential customer

In his book “English in Advertising: A Linguistic Study of Advertising in Great Britain”, Leech (1972) maintains that the slogan is a short phrase used

by the company in its advertisements to reinforce the identity of the brand In his opinion, slogans are more powerful than companies‟ logos and can be easily remembered and recited by people Also, the scholar states that slogans have to clearly state the main idea of the advertisement, i.e they have to be easy to understand The idea that the slogan is a tool that helps a customer to identify the brand is also maintained by Dowling and Kabanoff who state that advertising slogans are a few words that “appear beneath or beside the corporate name at the bottom of a print advertisement and are separated from the body copy for easy recognition” (Dowling and Kabanoff 1996: 64) According to these authors, the advertising slogan is not only memorable itself, but also helps to memorize the brand or company

Various authors define the advertising slogan taking into consideration its specific characteristics, or simply present its synonyms Although there is no uniform definition in the scientific literature that would include all the characteristics and functions of the advertising slogan, all the above mentioned definitions share a common idea Thus, we would define the advertising slogan as a short catchy phrase related to a specific brand, which defines, presents, and helps customers remember the key concepts of a brand

or advertising campaign itself

Slogans are a major component of the printed advertisements They carry the central message of a company advertising its brand At the same time, slogans transmit a message about the culture and the customs of a country and hence, the translation of culture-bound elements of the source text can often become problematic The absence of a similar equivalent of the source text element in the target text requires most of the times adaptation, paraphrase or literal translation (as slogans often make use of the literal meaning of idioms

or phrases)

b) Some features of advertising slogan

- To achieve an emphatic effect, the advertising slogan is just like a headline which uses initial capitalization to attract more attention or to stress every word it says to impress the reader

For example,

Heinz: Beanz Meanz Heinz

Toyota: I Love What You Do For Me

- One of the best techniques for bringing in the brand name is to make the slogan rhyme with it An advertising slogan is better if it reflects the

brand‟s personality By this kind of rhyming, the brand name is highlighted The advertising slogan is thus highly purposed It can differentiate a slogan from others by the brand name and the special rhyming which is the identity

of the slogan

Haig Scotch: Don't be vague Ask for Haig

Quavers: The flavour of a Quaver is never known to waver

- A fall-back position is to use a rhyme and mention the brand name without it actually rhyming It is not so effective, perhaps, because the brand name is not highlighted The slogan is likely to lose its identity, because similar products can use the same ad slogan with a simple change of the product name

Viakal: It's the Viakal fizz that does the bizz!

Jaguar : Grace, space, pace

- Alliteration can help the slogans achieve the strong beating rhythm needed to make it an repeatable sentence By so doing, the sentences are more slogan-styled They can be easily remembered by the audience Alliteration can also achieve an emphatic effect of the meaning

Allied Irish Bank: Britain's best business bank

Greyhound: Greyhound going great

- The use of second person addressee “you” tends to shorten the distance between the product or the producer and consumers, as if the producer or the

ad is speaking to you face to face, making sincere promises, honest recommendations In so doing, the ad slogans stand a better chance to move the receiver or customers to action, because the receiver feels that he is being thought of and taken care of and he is the center point of the producers

For example,

HYUNDAI: Always there for you

Nestle Milo: Bring out the champion in you

- Use of “every” “always”, etc: These words are often used in ads to indicate the universal application of the product or to include as many potential customers as possible or to achieve the emphasis of the product‟s utility or the company‟s unswerving commitment

For example,

Always Coca-Cola

Mitsubishi: Technically, everything is possible

- Use of “no”, “none”, etc: Negatives tend to be used very sparingly because the purpose of all ad slogans is to strengthen the positive side But when negatives do occur, they are usually placed in an emphatic position to highlight the special the positive side

For example,

Mercedes Benz: The pursuit for perfection has no finish line

M&Ms melt in your mouth, not in your hand

- Use of coined words: Coined words are both new and memorable Coined words are kind of smart words have a special meaning in the specified context They can raise the interests of the ad slogan receivers, make them ponder upon the meaning and marvel at the smart idea of the admen By so doing, they recognized the brand

Louis Vuitton: Epileather