Chemistry atoms first (WCB chemistry) 3rd edition (2017) by burgge 2

Chemistry atoms first (WCB chemistry) 3rd edition (2017) by burgge 2 Chemistry atoms first (WCB chemistry) 3rd edition (2017) by burgge 2 Chemistry atoms first (WCB chemistry) 3rd edition (2017) by burgge 2 Chemistry atoms first (WCB chemistry) 3rd edition (2017) by burgge 2 Chemistry atoms first (WCB chemistry) 3rd edition (2017) by burgge 2 Chemistry atoms first (WCB chemistry) 3rd edition (2017) by burgge 2

566 CHAPTER 12  Liquids and Solids Questions and Problems SECTION 12.2:  PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS Review Questions 12.1 Explain why liquids, unlike gases, are virtually incompressible 12.2 What is surface tension? What is the relationship between intermolecular forces and surface tension? How does surface tension change with temperature? 12.3 Despite the fact that stainless steel is much denser than water, a stainless-steel razor blade can be made to float on water Why? 12.4 Use water and mercury as examples to explain adhesion and cohesion 12.5 A glass can be filled slightly above the rim with water Explain why the water does not overflow 12.6 Draw diagrams showing the capillary action of (a) water and (b) mercury in three tubes of different radii 12.7 What is viscosity? What is the relationship between intermolecular forces and viscosity? 12.8 Why does the viscosity of a liquid decrease with increasing temperature? 12.9 Why is ice less dense than water? 12.10 Define boiling point How does the boiling point of a liquid depend on external pressure? Referring to Table 11.6, what is the boiling point of water when the external pressure is 187.5 mmHg? 12.11 As a liquid is heated at constant pressure, its temperature rises This trend continues until the boiling point of the liquid is reached No further rise in temperature of the liquid can be induced by heating Explain Computational Problems 12.12 The vapor pressure of benzene (C6H6) is 40.1 mmHg at 7.6°C What is its vapor pressure at 60.6°C? The molar heat of vaporization of benzene is 31.0 kJ/mol 12.13 Estimate the molar heat of vaporization of a liquid whose vapor pressure doubles when the temperature is raised from 75°C to 100°C.  Conceptual Problems 12.14 Predict which of the following liquids has greater surface tension: ethanol (C2H5OH) or dimethyl ether (CH3OCH3) 12.15 Predict the viscosity of ethylene glycol relative to that of ethanol and glycerol (see Table 12.1).  CH2 OH CH2 OH Ethylene glycol 12.16 Vapor pressure measurements at several different temperatures are shown for mercury Determine graphically the molar heat of vaporization for mercury T(°C) 200 P(mmHg) 17.3 250 300 74.4 246.8 320 340 376.3 557.9 12.17 The vapor pressure of liquid X is lower than that of liquid Y at 20°C, but higher at 60°C What can you deduce about the relative magnitude of the molar heats of vaporization of X and Y?  SECTION 12.3:  PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS Review Questions 12.18 What is an amorphous solid? How does it differ from a crystalline solid? 12.19 Define glass What is the chief component of glass? Name three types of glass 12.20 Define the following terms: crystalline solid, lattice point, unit cell, coordination number, closest packing 12.21 Describe the geometries of the following cubic cells: simple cubic, body-centered cubic, facecentered cubic Which of these structures would give the highest density for the same type of atoms? Which the lowest? 12.22 Classify the solid states in terms of crystal types of the elements in the third period of the periodic table Predict the trends in their melting points and boiling points 12.23 The melting points of the oxides of the third-period elements are given in parentheses: Na2O (1275°C), MgO (2800°C), Al2O3 (2045°C), SiO2 (1610°C), P4O10 (580°C), SO3 (16.8°C), Cl2O7 (−91.5°C) Classify these solids in terms of crystal types 12.24 Define X-ray diffraction What are the typical wavelengths (in nanometers) of X rays? (See Figure 3.1.) 12.25 Write the Bragg equation Define every term and describe how this equation can be used to measure interatomic distances Computational Problems 12.26 What is the coordination number of each sphere in (a) a simple cubic cell, (b) a body-centered cubic cell, and (c) a face-centered cubic cell? Assume the spheres are all the same 12.27 Calculate the number of spheres that would be found within a simple cubic cell, body-centered QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 567 12.28 12.29 12.30 12.31 12.32 12.33 12.34 12.35 cubic cell, and face-centered cubic cell Assume that the spheres are the same.  Metallic iron crystallizes in a cubic lattice The unit cell edge length is 287 pm The density of iron is 7.87 g/cm3 How many iron atoms are within a unit cell? Barium metal crystallizes in a body-centered cubic lattice (the Ba atoms are at the lattice points only) The unit cell edge length is 502 pm, and the density of the metal is 3.50 g/cm3 Using this information, calculate Avogadro’s number [Hint: First calculate the volume (in cm3) occupied by mole of Ba atoms in the unit cells Next calculate the volume (in cm3) occupied by one Ba atom in the unit cell Assume that 68 percent of the unit cell is occupied by Ba atoms.]  Vanadium crystallizes in a body-centered cubic lattice (the V atoms occupy only the lattice points) How many V atoms are present in a unit cell? Europium crystallizes in a body-centered cubic lattice (the Eu atoms occupy only the lattice points) The density of Eu is 5.26 g/cm3 Calculate the unit cell edge length in picometers.  Crystalline silicon has a cubic structure The unit cell edge length is 543 pm The density of the solid is 2.33 g/cm3 Calculate the number of Si atoms in one unit cell A face-centered cubic cell contains X atoms at the corners of the cell and Y atoms at the faces What is the empirical formula of the solid?  When X rays of wavelength 0.090 nm are diffracted by a metallic crystal, the angle of first-order diffraction (n = 1) is measured to be 15.2° What is the distance (in picometers) between the layers of atoms responsible for the diffraction? The distance between layers in an NaCl crystal is 282 pm X rays are diffracted from these layers at an angle of 23.0° Assuming that n = 1, calculate the wavelength of the X rays in nanometers.  Conceptual Problems 12.36 Identify the unit cell of molecular iodine (I2) shown here (Hint: Consider the position of iodine molecules, not individual iodine atoms.) 12.37 Shown here is a zinc oxide unit cell What is the formula of zinc oxide?  O2− Zn2+ SECTION 12.4:  TYPES OF CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS Review Questions 12.38 Describe and give examples of the following types of crystals: (a) ionic crystals, (b) covalent crystals, (c) molecular crystals, (d) metallic crystals 12.39 Why are metals good conductors of heat and electricity? Why does the ability of a metal to conduct electricity decrease with increasing temperature? Conceptual Problems 12.40 A solid is hard, brittle, and electrically nonconducting Its melt (the liquid form of the substance) and an aqueous solution containing the substance conduct electricity Classify the solid 12.41 A solid is soft and has a low melting point (below 100°C) The solid, its melt, and an aqueous solution containing the substance are all nonconductors of electricity Classify the solid.  12.42 A solid is very hard and has a high melting point Neither the solid nor its melt conducts electricity Classify the solid 12.43 Which of the following are molecular solids and which are covalent solids: Se8, HBr, Si, CO2, C, P4O6, SiH4?  12.44 Classify the solid state of the following substances as ionic crystals, covalent crystals, molecular crystals, or metallic crystals: (a) CO2, (b) B12, (c) S8, (d) KBr, (e) Mg, (f) SiO2, (g) LiCl, (h) Cr 12.45 Explain why diamond is harder than graphite Why is graphite an electrical conductor but diamond is not?  SECTION 12.5:  PHASE CHANGES Review Questions 12.46 What is a phase change? Name all possible changes that can occur among the vapor, liquid, and solid phases of a substance 12.47 What is the equilibrium vapor pressure of a liquid? How is it measured, and how does it change with temperature? 568 CHAPTER 12  Liquids and Solids 12.48 Use any one of the phase changes to explain what is meant by dynamic equilibrium 12.49 Define the following terms: (a) molar heat of vaporization, (b) molar heat of fusion, (c) molar heat of sublimation What are their typical units? 12.50 How is the molar heat of sublimation related to the molar heats of vaporization and fusion? On what law are these relationships based? 12.51 What can we learn about the intermolecular forces in a liquid from the molar heat of vaporization? 12.52 The greater the molar heat of vaporization of a liquid, the greater its vapor pressure True or false? 12.53 Using Table 11.6 as a reference, what is the boiling point of water when the external pressure is 118.0 mmHg? 12.54 A closed container of liquid pentane (bp = 36.1°C) is at room temperature Why does the vapor pressure initially increase but eventually stop changing? 12.55 What is critical temperature? What is the significance of critical temperature in condensation of gases? 12.56 What is the relationship between intermolecular forces in a liquid and the liquid’s boiling point and critical temperature? Why is the critical temperature of water greater than that of most other substances? 12.57 How the boiling points and melting points of water and carbon tetrachloride vary with pressure? Explain any difference in behavior of these two substances 12.58 Why is solid carbon dioxide called dry ice? 12.59 The vapor pressure of a liquid in a closed container depends on which of the following: (a) the volume above the liquid, (b) the amount of liquid present, (c) temperature, (d) intermolecular forces between the molecules in the liquid? 12.60 Wet clothes dry more quickly on a hot, dry day than on a hot, humid day Explain 12.61 Which of the following phase transitions gives off more heat: (a) mole of steam to mole of water at 100°C, or (b) mole of water to mole of ice at 0°C? 12.62 A beaker of water is heated to boiling by a Bunsen burner Would adding another burner raise the temperature of the boiling water? Explain 12.63 Explain why splashing a small amount of liquid nitrogen (b.p 77 K) is not as harmful as splashing boiling water on your skin Computational Problems 12.64 Calculate the amount of heat (in kilojoules) required to convert 25.97 g of water to steam at 100°C 12.65 How much heat (in kilojoules) is needed to convert 212.8 g of ice at −15°C to steam at 138°C? (The specific heats of ice and steam are 2.03 and 1.99 J/g · °C, respectively.)  12.66 The molar heats of fusion and sublimation of lead are 4.77 and 182.8 kJ/mol, respectively Estimate the molar heat of vaporization of molten lead Conceptual Problems 12.67 Freeze-dried coffee is prepared by freezing brewed coffee and then removing the ice component with a vacuum pump Describe the phase changes taking place during these processes.  12.68 How is the rate of evaporation of a liquid affected by (a) temperature, (b) the surface area of a liquid exposed to air, (c) intermolecular forces? 12.69 Explain why steam at 100°C causes more serious burns than water at 100°C.  12.70 The following compounds, listed with their boiling points, are liquid at −10°C: butane, −0.5°C; ethanol, 78.3°C; toluene, 110.6°C At −10°C, which of these liquids would you expect to have the highest vapor pressure? Which the lowest? Explain 12.71 A student hangs wet clothes outdoors on a winter day when the temperature is −15°C After a few hours, the clothes are found to be fairly dry Describe the phase changes in this drying process.  SECTION 12.6:  PHASE DIAGRAMS Review Questions 12.72 What is a phase diagram? What useful information can be obtained from studying a phase diagram? 12.73 Explain how water’s phase diagram differs from those of most substances What property of water causes the difference? Conceptual Problems 12.74 The blades of ice skates are quite thin, so the pressure exerted on ice by a skater can be substantial Explain how this facilitates skating on ice 12.75 A length of wire is placed on top of a block of ice The ends of the wire extend over the edges of the ice, and a heavy weight is attached to each end It is found that the ice under the wire gradually melts, so the wire slowly moves through the ice block At the same time, the water above the wire refreezes Explain the phase changes that accompany this phenomenon.  12.76 The boiling point and freezing point of sulfur dioxide are −10°C and −72.7°C (at atm), respectively The triple point is −75.5°C and 1.65 × 10−3 atm, and its critical point is at 157°C and 78 atm On the basis of this information, draw a rough sketch of the phase diagram of SO2 12.77 A phase diagram of water is shown Label the regions Predict what would happen as a result of the following changes: (a) Starting at A, we raise the temperature at constant pressure (b) Starting at B, QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 569 we lower the pressure at constant temperature (c) Starting at C, we lower the temperature at constant pressure.  B P A C T ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS 12.78 At −35°C, liquid HI has a higher vapor pressure than liquid HF Explain 12.79 Based on the following properties of elemental boron, classify it as one of the crystalline solids discussed in Section 12.4: high melting point (2300°C), poor conductor of heat and electricity, insoluble in water, very hard substance.  12.80 Referring to Figure 12.30, determine the stable phase of CO2 at (a) atm and −60°C and (b) 0.5 atm and −20°C 12.81 Which of the following properties indicates very strong intermolecular forces in a liquid: (a) very low surface tension, (b) very low critical temperature, (c) very low boiling point, (d) very low vapor pressure?  12.82 Given two complementary strands of DNA containing 100 base pairs each, calculate the ratio of two separate strands to hydrogen-bonded double helix in solution at 300 K (Hint: The formula for calculating this ratio is e−ΔE/RT, where ΔE is the energy difference between hydrogen-bonded double-strand DNAs and single-strand DNAs and R is the gas constant.) Assume the energy of hydrogen bonds per base pair to be 10 kJ/mol 12.83 The average distance between base pairs measured parallel to the axis of a DNA molecule is 3.4 Å The average molar mass of a pair of nucleotides is 650 g/mol Estimate the length in centimeters of a DNA molecule of molar mass 5.0 × 109 g/mol Roughly how many base pairs are contained in this molecule?  12.84 A CO2 fire extinguisher is located on the outside of a building in Massachusetts During the winter months, one can hear a sloshing sound when the extinguisher is gently shaken In the summertime there is often no sound when it is shaken Explain Assume that the extinguisher has no leaks and that it has not been used 12.85 What is the vapor pressure of mercury at its normal boiling point (357°C)?  12.86 A flask of water is connected to a powerful vacuum pump When the pump is turned on, the water begins to boil After a few minutes, the same water begins to freeze Eventually, the ice disappears Explain what happens at each step 12.87 The liquid-vapor boundary line in the phase diagram of any substance always stops abruptly at a certain point Why?  12.88 The interionic distances of several alkali halide crystals are as follows: Crystal NaCl NaBr NaI KCl KBr KI Interionic 282 distance (pm) 299 324 315 330 353 Plot lattice energy versus the reciprocal interionic distance How would you explain the plot in terms of the dependence of lattice energy on the distance of separation between ions? What law governs this interaction? (For lattice energies, see Table 5.1.) 12.89 Which has a greater density, crystalline SiO2 or amorphous SiO2? Why?  12.90 A student is given four solid samples labeled W, X, Y, and Z All have a metallic luster She is told that the solids could be gold, lead sulfide, mica (which is quartz, or SiO2), and iodine The results of her investigations are: (a) W is a good electrical conductor; X, Y, and Z are poor electrical conductors (b) When the solids are hit with a hammer, W flattens out, X shatters into many pieces, Y is smashed into a powder, and Z is not affected (c) When the solids are heated with a Bunsen burner, Y melts with some sublimation, but X, W, and Z not melt (d) In treatment with M HNO3, X dissolves; there is no effect on W, Y, or Z On the basis of these test results, identify the solids 12.91 Which of the following statements are false? (a) Dipole-dipole interactions between molecules are greatest if the molecules possess only temporary dipole moments (b) All compounds containing hydrogen atoms can participate in hydrogen-bond formation (c) Dispersion forces exist between all atoms, molecules, and ions.  12.92 The diagram shows a kettle of boiling water Identify the phases in regions A and B B A © Simon Murrell/OJO Images/Getty CHAPTER 12  Liquids and Solids 12.93 The south pole of Mars is covered with solid carbon dioxide, which partly sublimes during the summer The CO2 vapor recondenses in the winter when the temperature drops to 150 K Given that the heat of sublimation of CO2 is 25.9 kJ/mol, calculate the atmospheric pressure on the surface of Mars [Hint: Use Figure 12.30 to determine the normal sublimation temperature of dry ice and Equation 12.4, which also applies to sublimations.]  12.94 The properties of gases, liquids, and solids differ in a number of respects How would you use the kinetic molecular theory (see Section 11.2) to explain the following observations? (a) Ease of compressibility decreases from gas to liquid to solid (b) Solids retain a definite shape, but gases and liquids not (c) For most substances, the volume of a given amount of material increases as it changes from solid to liquid to gas 12.95 The standard enthalpy of formation of gaseous molecular iodine is 62.4 kJ/mol Use this information to calculate the molar heat of sublimation of molecular iodine at 25°C.  12.96 A small drop of oil in water assumes a spherical shape Explain (Hint: Oil is made up of nonpolar molecules, which tend to avoid contact with water.) 12.97 Under the same conditions of temperature and density, which of the following gases would you expect to behave less ideally: CH4 or SO2? Explain.  12.98 The distance between Li+ and Cl− is 257 pm in solid LiCl and 203 pm in an LiCl unit in the gas phase Explain the difference in the bond lengths 12.99 Heat of hydration, that is, the heat change that occurs when ions become hydrated in solution, is largely due to ion-dipole interactions The heats of hydration for the alkali metal ions are Li+, −520 kJ/ mol; Na+, −405 kJ/mol; K+, −321 kJ/mol Account for the trend in these values.  12.100 The fluorides of the second period elements and their melting points are: LiF, 845°C; BeF2, 800°C; BF3, −126.7°C; CF4, −184°C; NF3, −206.6°C; OF2, −223.8°C; F2, −219.6°C Classify the type(s) of intermolecular forces present in each compound 12.101 Calculate the ΔH° for the following processes at 25°C: (a) Br2(l ) Br2(g), (b) Br2(g) 2Br(g) Comment on the relative magnitudes of these ΔH° values in terms of the forces involved in each case (Hint: See Table 10.4.)  12.102 Which liquid would you expect to have a greater viscosity, water or diethyl ether? The structure of diethyl ether is shown in Problem 7.35 12.103 A beaker of water is placed in a closed container Predict the effect on the vapor pressure of the water when (a) its temperature is lowered, (b) the volume of the container is doubled, (c) more water is added to the beaker.  12.104 Ozone (O3) is a strong oxidizing agent that can oxidize all the common metals except gold and 12.105 12.106 12.107 12.108 12.109 12.110 12.111 platinum A convenient test for ozone is based on its action on mercury When exposed to ozone, mercury becomes dull looking and sticks to glass tubing (instead of flowing freely through it) Write a balanced equation for the reaction What property of mercury is altered by its interaction with ozone? A sample of limestone (CaCO3) is heated in a closed vessel until it is partially decomposed Write an equation for the reaction, and state how many phases are present.  Carbon and silicon belong to Group 4A of the periodic table and have the same valence electron configuration (ns2np2) Why does silicon dioxide (SiO2) have a much higher melting point than carbon dioxide (CO2)? A pressure cooker is a sealed container that allows steam to escape when it exceeds a predetermined pressure How does this device reduce the time needed for cooking?  A 1.20-g sample of water is injected into an evacuated 5.00-L flask at 65°C What percentage of the water will be vapor when the system reaches equilibrium? Assume ideal behavior of water vapor and that the volume of liquid water is negligible The vapor pressure of water at 65°C is 187.5 mmHg What are the advantages of cooking the vegetable broccoli with steam instead of boiling it in water?  A quantitative measure of how efficiently spheres pack into unit cells is called packing efficiency, which is the percentage of the cell space occupied by the spheres Calculate the packing efficiencies of a simple cubic cell, a body-centered cubic cell, and a face-centered cubic cell (Hint: Refer to Figure 12.21 and use the relationship that the volume of a sphere is 43  πr3, where r is the radius of the sphere.) The phase diagram of helium is shown Helium is the only known substance that has two different liquid phases: helium-I and helium-II (a) What is the maximum temperature at which helium-II can exist? (b) What is the minimum pressure at which solid helium can exist? (c) What is the normal boiling point of helium-I? (d) Can solid helium sublime?  100 Pressure (atm) 570 Solid 10 0.1 Liquid (helium-I) Liquid (helium-II) Gas 0.01 Temperature (K) QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 571 12.112 The phase diagram of sulfur is shown (a) How many triple points are there? (b) Which is the more stable allotrope under ordinary atmospheric conditions? (c) Describe what happens when sulfur at atm is heated from 80°C to 200°C 154°C 1288 atm P (atm) Rhombic Liquid Monoclinic 1.0 10−4 atm Vapor 10−5 atm 95.4°C 119°C T (°C) 12.113 Provide an explanation for each of the following phenomena: (a) Solid argon (m.p −189.2°C; b.p −185.7°C) can be prepared by immersing a flask containing argon gas in liquid nitrogen (b.p −195.8°C) until it liquefies and then connecting the flask to a vacuum pump (b) The melting point of cyclohexane (C6H12) increases with increasing pressure exerted on the solid cyclohexane (c) Certain high-altitude clouds contain water droplets at −10°C (d) When a piece of dry ice is added to a beaker of water, fog forms above the water.  12.114 Argon crystallizes in the face-centered cubic arrangement at 40 K Given that the atomic radius of argon is 191 pm, calculate the density of solid argon 12.115 Given the phase diagram of carbon, answer the following questions: (a) How many triple points are there and what are the phases that can coexist at each triple point? (b) Which has a higher density, graphite or diamond? (c) Synthetic diamond can be made from graphite Using the phase diagram, how would you go about making diamond?  Diamond P (atm) Liquid × 104 Graphite Vapor 3300 T (°C) 12.116 A chemistry instructor performed the following mystery demonstration Just before the students arrived in class, she heated some water to boiling in an Erlenmeyer flask She then removed the flask from the flame and closed the flask with a rubber stopper After the class commenced, she held the flask in front of the students and announced that she could make the water boil simply by rubbing an ice cube on the outside walls of the flask To the amazement of everyone, it worked Give an explanation for this phenomenon 12.117 Swimming coaches sometimes suggest that a drop of alcohol (ethanol) placed in an ear plugged with water “draws out the water.” Explain this action from a molecular point of view.  2.118 Given the general properties of water and ammonia, comment on the problems that a biological system (as we know it) would have developing in an ammonia medium Boiling point Melting point Molar heat capacity Molar heat of  vaporization Molar heat of fusion Viscosity Dipole moment Phase at 300 K H2O 373.15 K 273.15 K 75.3 J/K · mol 40.79 kJ/mol NH3 239.65 K 195.3 K 8.53 J/K · mol 23.3 kJ/mol 6.0 kJ/mol 0.001 N · s/m2 5.9 kJ/mol 0.0254 N · s/m2   (at 240 K) 1.46 D Gas 1.82 D Liquid 12.119 Why citrus growers spray their trees with water to protect them from freezing?  12.120 Calcium metal crystallizes in a face-centered cubic unit cell with a cell edge length of 558.84 pm Calculate (a) the radius of a calcium atom in angstroms (Å) and (b) the density of calcium metal in g/cm3 12.121 A student heated a beaker of cold water (on a tripod) with a Bunsen burner When the gas was ignited, she noticed that there was water condensed on the outside of the beaker Explain what happened.  12.122 The compound dichlorodifluoromethane (CCl2F2) has a normal boiling point of −30°C, a critical temperature of 112°C, and a corresponding critical pressure of 40 atm If the gas is compressed to 18 atm at 20°C, will the gas condense? Your answer should be based on a graphical interpretation 12.123 Iron crystallizes in a body-centered cubic lattice The cell length as determined by X-ray diffraction is 286.7 pm Given that the density of iron is 7.874 g/cm3, calculate Avogadro’s number.  12.124 Sketch the cooling curves of water from about 110°C to about −10°C How would you also show the formation of supercooled liquid below 0°C that then freezes to ice? The pressure is at atm throughout the process The curves need not be drawn quantitatively 572 CHAPTER 12  Liquids and Solids T (°C) 12.125 The boiling point of methanol is 65.0°C, and the standard enthalpy of formation of methanol vapor is −201.2 kJ/mol Calculate the vapor pressure of methanol (in mmHg) at 25°C (Hint: See Appendix for other thermodynamic data of methanol.)  12.126 A sample of water shows the following behavior as it is heated at a constant rate difference between your calculated result and the experimental value.  12.130 Explain why drivers are advised to use motor oil with lower viscosity in the winter and higher viscosity in the summer 2.131 At what angle would you expect X rays of wavelength 0.154 nm to be reflected from a crystal in which the distance between layers is 312 pm? (Assume n = 1.)  12.132 Silicon used in computer chips must have an impurity level below 10−9 (i.e., fewer than one impurity atom for every 109 Si atoms) Silicon is prepared by the reduction of quartz (SiO2) with coke (a form of carbon made by the destructive distillation of coal) at about 2000°C SiO2(s) + 2C(s) Heat added If twice the mass of water has the same amount of heat transferred to it, which of the graphs [(a)−(d)] best describes the temperature variation? Note that the scales for all the graphs are the same Next, solid silicon is separated from other solid impurities by treatment with hydrogen chloride at 350°C to form gaseous trichlorosilane (SiCl3H) Si(s) + 3HCl(g) SiCl3H(g) + H2(g) Finally, ultrapure Si can be obtained by reversing the above reaction at 1000°C SiCl3H(g) + H2(g) T (°C) Si(l) + 2CO(g) Si(s) + 3HCl(g) The molar heat of vaporization of trichlorosilane is 28.8 kJ/mol and its vapor pressure at 2°C is 0.258 atm (a) Using this information and the equation Heat added (a) (c) T (°C) Heat added Heat added Heat added (b) (d) 12.127 A closed vessel of volume 9.6 L contains 2.0 g of water Calculate the temperature (in °C) at which only half of the water remains in the liquid phase (See Table 11.6 for vapor pressures of water at different temperatures.)  12.128 The electrical conductance of copper metal decreases with increasing temperature, but that of a CuSO4 solution increases with increasing temperature Explain 12.129 Assuming ideal behavior, calculate the density of gaseous HF at its normal boiling point (19.5°C) The experimentally measured density under the same conditions is 3.10 g/L Account for the ln P1 ΔHvap 1 = − P2 R ( T2 T1 ) determine the normal boiling point of trichlorosilane (b) What kind(s) of intermolecular forces exist between trichlorosilane molecules? (c) Each cubic unit cell (edge length a = 543 pm) contains eight Si atoms If there are 1.0 × 1013 boron atoms per cubic centimeter in a sample of pure silicon, how many Si atoms are there for every B atom in the sample? (d) Calculate the density of pure silicon 12.133 Patients who have suffered from kidney stones often are advised to drink extra water to help prevent the formation of additional stones An article on WebMD.com recommends drinking at least quarts (2.84 L) of water every day—nearly 50 percent more than the amount recommended for healthy adults How much energy must the body expend to warm this amount of water consumed at 10°C to body temperature (37°C)? How much more energy would have to be expended if the same quantity of water were consumed as ice at 0°C? ΔHfus for water is 6.01 kJ/mol Assume the density and specific heat of water are 1.00 g/cm3 and 4.184 J/g · °C, respectively, and that both quantities are independent of temperature.  ANSWERS TO IN-CHAPTER MATERIALS 573 Answers to In-Chapter Materials PRACTICE PROBLEMS 12.1A 265 mmHg 12.1B 75.9 kJ/mol, 109°C 12.2A 10.5 g/cm3 12.2B Body-centered cubic 12.3A Ca, F. 12.3B Cs, Cl 12.4A 2.65 g/cm3 12.4B 421 pm 12.5A 2.72 g/cm3 12.5B 361 pm 12.6A 984 kJ 12.6B 100°C, liquid and vapor in equilibrium 12.7A (a) ∼110°C, ∼−10°C; (b) liquid 12.7B Pressure (atm) 2.0 S 1.0 L G 100 200 Temperature (°C) 300 SECTION REVIEW 12.2.1 a 12.2.2 e 12.2.3 b 12.2.4 b 12.3.1 d 12.3.2 a 12.5.1 a 12.5.2 c 12.6.1 a 12.6.2 e Chapter Physical Properties of Solutions 13.1 Types of Solutions 13.2 A Molecular View of the Solution Process • The Importance of Intermolecular Forces Energy and Entropy in Solution Formation â Shawn Knol/Getty Images 13.3 Concentration Units • Molality • Percent by Mass • Comparison of Concentration Units 13.4 Factors That Affect Solubility • Temperature • Pressure A COLLOID is a uniform dispersion of one substance in another substance Liquid 13.5 Colligative Properties • Vapor-Pressure Lowering • BoilingPoint Elevation • Freezing-Point Depression • Osmotic Pressure • Electrolyte Solutions ferromagnetic particles are suspended in a carrier fluid, such as an organic solvent or 13.6 Calculations Using Colligative Properties shape of the ferrofluid can change Chemists and materials scientists have found uses 13.7 Colloids speakers and computer hard drives magnets or ferrofluids represent an unusual type of colloid wherein nanoscale water When no external magnetic field is present, the fluid is not magnetic However, when an external magnetic field is applied, the paramagnetic nanoparticles align with the magnet Depending on the strength of the magnetic field applied, the density and for ferrofluids in magnetic liquid sealants, low-friction seals for rotating shafts, stereo Before You Begin, Review These Skills • Molecular geometry and polarity [∣◂◂ Section 7.2] • Intermolecular forces [∣◂◂ Section 7.3] • Solution stoichiometry [∣◂◂ Section 9.5] 13.1 TYPES OF SOLUTIONS As we noted in Section 1.5, a solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances Recall that a solution consists of a solvent and one or more solutes [∣◂◂ Section 9.1] Although many of the most familiar solutions are those in which a solid is dissolved in a liquid (e.g., saltwater or sugar water), the components of a solution may be solid, liquid, or gas The possible combinations give rise to seven distinct types of solutions, which we classify by the original states of the solution components Table 13.1 gives an example of each type In this chapter, we will focus on solutions in which the solvent is a liquid; and the liquid solvent we will encounter most often is water Recall that solutions in which water is the solvent are called aqueous solutions [∣◂◂ Section 9.1] Solutions can also be classified by the amount of solute dissolved relative to the maximum amount that can be dissolved A saturated solution is one that contains the maximum amount of a solute that will dissolve in a solvent at a specific temperature The amount of solute dissolved in a given volume of a saturated solution is called the  solubility.  It is important to realize that solubility refers to a specific solute, a specific solvent, and a specific temperature For example, the solubility of NaCl in water at 20°C is 36 g per 100 mL The solubility of NaCl at another temperature, or in another solvent, would be different An unsaturated solution is one that contains less solute than it has the capacity to dissolve A supersaturated solution, on the other hand, contains more dissolved solute than is present in a saturated solution (Figure 13.1) It is generally not stable, and eventually the dissolved solute will come out of solution An example of this phenomenon is shown in Figure 13.2 TABL E 13.1 Student Annotation: The term solubility was also defined in Section 9.2 Types of Solutions Solute Solvent State of resulting solution Example Gas Gas Gas* Air Gas Liquid Liquid Carbonated water Gas Solid Solid H2 gas in palladium Liquid Liquid Liquid Ethanol in water Liquid Solid Solid Mercury in silver Solid Liquid Liquid Saltwater Solid Solid Solid Brass (Cu/Zn) *Gaseous solutions can only contain gaseous solutes 575 AP-20 ANSWERS TO ODD-NUMBERED PROBLEMS 25.91 (a) SiCl4, (b) F−, (c) F, (d) CO2 25.93 There is no change in oxidation number; it is zero for both compounds – + Cl Cl Cl Cl P 25.95 PCl+4 : Cl P Cl , sp3; PCl –6 : , sp3d Cl Cl Cl Cl 25.97 25°C: K = 9.61 × 10−22; 100°C: K = 1.2 × 10−15 25.99 The glass is etched (dissolved) by the reaction: 6HF(aq) + SiO2(s) H2SiF6(aq) + 2H2O(l) This process gives the glass a frosted appearance 25.101 1.18 25.103 0.833 g/L; The molar mass derived from the observed density is 74.41, which suggests that the molecules are associated to some extent in the gas phase This makes sense due to strong hydrogen bonding in HF Chapter 26 26.3 (a) CaCO3 (b) CaCO3 · MgCO3 (c) CaF2 (d) NaCl (e) Al2O3 (f) Fe3O4 (g) Be3Al2Si6O18 (h) PbS (i) MgSO4 · 7H2O (j) CaSO4 26.13 KP = 4.5 × 105 26.15 (a) 8.9 × 1012 cm3 (b) 4.0 × 108 kg SO2 26.17 Ag, Pt, and Au will not be oxidized, but the other metals will 26.19 Al, Na, and Ca 26.33 (a) 2Na(s) + 2H2O(l ) 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g) (b) 2NaOH(aq) + CO2(g) Na2CO3(aq) + H2O(l) (c) Na2CO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) 2NaCl(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l) (d) NaHCO3(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l) (e) 2NaHCO3(s) Na2CO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(g) (f) no reaction 26.35 (a) 2K(s) + 2H2O(l) 2KOH(aq) + H2(g) (b) NaH(s) + H2O(l) NaOH(aq) + H2(g) (c) 2Na(s) + O2(g) Na2O2(s) (d) K(s) + O2(g) KO2(s) 26.39 3Mg(s) + 8HNO3(aq) 3Mg(NO3)2(aq) + 4H2O(l ) + 2NO(g); The magnesium nitrate is recovered from solution by evaporation, dried, and heated in air to obtain magnesium oxide: 2Mg(NO3)2(s) 2MgO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g) 26.41 The electron configuration of magnesium is [Ne]3s2 The 3s electrons are outside the neon core (shielded), so they have relatively low ionization energies Removing the third electron means separating an electron from the neon (closed shell) core, which requires a great deal more energy 26.43 Even though helium and the Group 2A metals have ns2 outer electron configurations, helium has a closed shell noble gas configuration and the Group 2A metals not The electrons in He are much closer to and more strongly attracted by the nucleus Hence, the electrons in He are not easily removed Helium is inert 26.45 (a) CaO(s) (b) Ca(OH)2(s) 26.49 (a) 1.03 V (b) 3.32 × 104 kJ/mol 26.51 tetrahedral and octahedral; The accepted explanation for the nonexistence of AlCl3− is that the chloride ion is too big to form an octahedral cluster around a very small Al3+ ion 26.53 4Al(NO3)3(s) 2Al2O3(s) + 12NO2(g) + 3O2(g) 26.55 The “bridge” bonds in Al2Cl6 break at high temperature: Al2Cl6(g) 2AlCl3(g) This increases the number of molecules in the gas phase and causes the pressure to be higher than expected for pure Al2Cl6 26.57 In Al2Cl6, each aluminum atom is surrounded by four bonding pairs of electrons (AB4-type molecule), and therefore each aluminum atom is sp3 hybridized VSEPR analysis shows AlCl3 to be an AB3-type molecule (no lone pairs on the central atom) The geometry should be trigonal planar, and the aluminum atom should therefore be sp2 hybridized 26.59 65.4 g/mol 26.61 Copper(II) ion is more easily reduced than either water or hydrogen ion, so there should be no reduction of water or hydrogen ion at the cathode Copper metal is more easily oxidized than water, so water should not be affected by the copper purification process under standard conditions and it should not be oxidized at the anode 26.63 (a) 1482 kJ/mol (b) 3152.8 kJ/mol 26.65 Mg(s) reacts with N2(g) at high temperatures to produce Mg3N2(s) Ti(s) also reacts with N2(g) at high temperatures to produce TiN(s) 26.67 (a) In water, the aluminum(III) ion causes an increase in the concentration of hydrogen ion (lower pH) This results from the effect of the small diameter and high charge (3+) of the aluminum ion on surrounding water molecules The aluminum ion draws electrons in the OH bonds to itself, thus allowing easy formation of H+ ions (b) Al(OH)3 is an amphoteric hydroxide It will dissolve in strong base with the formation of a complex ion Al(OH)4−(aq) The concentration Al(OH)3(s) + OH−(aq) – of OH in aqueous ammonia is too low for this reaction to occur 26.69 CaO(s) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) 26.71 Metals have closely spaced energy levels and (referring to Figure 26.10 of the text) a very small energy gap between filled and empty levels Consequently, many electronic transitions can take place with absorption and subsequent emission of light continually occurring Some of these transitions fall in the visible region of the spectrum and give rise to the flickering appearance 26.73 NaF: cavity prevention; Li2CO3: antidepressant; Mg(OH)2: laxative; CaCO3: calcium supplement, antacid; BaSO4: radiocontrast agent 26.75 Both Li and Mg form oxides (Li2O and MgO) Other Group 1A metals (Na, K, etc.) also form peroxides and superoxides In Group 1A, only Li forms nitride (Li3N), like Mg (Mg3N2) Li resembles Mg in that its carbonate, fluoride, and phosphate have low solubilities 26.77 Zn 26.79 87.66% Na2O; 12.34% Na2O2 26.81 727 atm Index A absolute entropy, 623, 635–636 absolute temperature scale, 7, 484 absolute zero, 7, 484, 635–636 absorbance, 385 absorption, 603 absorption spectrum, 385 accuracy, 16 acetic acid, 352–354, 362–363, 721 boiling point and freezing point of, 592 buffers and, 777–783, 817–818 common ion effect and, 775–776 indicators of, 793 ionization constant of, 732, 746 Kekulé structure of, 1041 Lewis structure of, 253–254, 721 percent ionization of, 601, 739 resonance stabilization and, 1044 titration of, 764–765, 786–790, 793 acetone, 176, 331, 533, 1028, 1029 acetylene, 177, 214, 275–282, 442–443, 1090 acetylsalicylic acid, 327, 740 achiral isomers, 1011 acid(s), 362–367, 716–773 See also specific types and processes definition of, 181 ionization of, 351–352, 719, 727, 731, 736, 737–739 key equations for, 763 molecular structure and strength of, 719–722 pH of, 387–389, 724–726 strong, 363, 726–728 weak, 731–741 acid ionization constant, 731–741 acid rain, 229, 336, 737, 989–992 acid-base indicators, 394, 793–795 acid-base neutralization, 365–367, 368, 393–397, 619 acid-base reactions, 362–367 acid-base titration, 393–397, 764–765, 784–795 acidic oxides, 757–758 acidic salt solutions, 752–754 actinides, 107–108, 129 activated complex, 878 activation energy, 878–879, 905–909 active metals, 333–334, 372 activity, in radioactive decay, 927–928 activity series, 372–373 actual yield, 326 addition polymerization, 1081 addition polymers, 1061–1062, 1081–1087 addition reactions, 1052–1054, 1057–1058 adenosine triphosphate (ATP), 645, 1044–1045, 1055–1056 adhesion, 532, 533 adsorption, 603 aerogels, 530 aerosols, 602, 993 air pollution, 989–993 alcohols, 183, 1029–1032, 1037 aldehydes, 183, 1029, 1031, 1038 aliphatic compounds, 1028 alkali metals, 53, 333–334, 757–758 alkaline batteries, 853–854 alkaline earth metals, 53, 129, 334, 728, 757–758 alkanes, 182–183, 1029, 1033–1036 Alka-Seltzer, 4, 325–326, 909–910 alkyl groups, 1029–1031, 1033 alkynes, 1090 allotropes, 175, 624 alpha (α) particle, 42–44, 947, 965 alpha (α) rays, 42 altitude, and hemoglobin, 696 aluminum, 89, 334, 863 aluminum oxide, 170–171, 334–335, 758 amalgam, 848, 1096 amide(s), 1029, 1031, 1038 amide group, 1029–1031 amines, 183, 1029, 1031, 1038 amino acids, 1063–1066 amino group, 183, 1029–1032, 1038 ammonia, 352–354, 362–364 acid-base titration with, 790–792 critical temperature and pressure of, 554 in early atmosphere, 975 formation of, 376, 633 ionization constant and pH of, 388, 742–743 amorphous solids, 539–540 ampere, amphetamine, 1032–1033 amphoteric hydroxides, 758–759 amphoteric species, 722 amplitude, 70–71 angstrom (Å), 6, 71 angular momentum quantum number, 93–94 anhydrous, definition of, 188 aniline, 742 anions, 138–140, 143–147 in coordination compounds, 1003, 1007–1009 in ion nomenclature, 169–172 in ionic compounds, 165–167 in ionic crystals, 547–549 in Lewis dot symbols, 164 in polyatomic ions, 184–185 in salt solutions, 751–757 anisotropic liquid crystals, 1092 anode, 833 anthrax, 232–233 antibonding molecular orbitals, 283 antifreeze, 593 antimony, 48, 335, 1103–1104 antioxidants, 210 aqueous equilibrium, 700–701 aqueous solutions, 350–413, 575–576 acid-base reactions in, 362–367, 368 concentration of, 378–391 dilution of, 382–386 electrolysis of, 858–859 electrolytes in, 351–356, 594–596 general properties of, 351–356 gravimetric analysis of, 391–393 molarity of, 378–382 nonelectrolytes in, 351–356 oxidation of metals in, 372 oxidation-reduction reactions in, 368–378 pH of, 387–389 precipitation reactions in, 357–362, 368, 800–801 preparation of, 379–386 quantitative analysis of, 391–397 solubility of ionic compounds in, 351, 357–359 stoichiometry of, 389–390 titration analysis of, 393–397 aqueous species, 310 argon-40, 949 aromatic compounds, 1028 Arrhenius, Svante, 364 Arrhenius acids and bases, 364 Arrhenius equation, 905–909 artificial hearts and heart valves, 1097 artificial joints, 1098 ascorbic acid, 362–363, 748, 1027 aspartame, 1032–1033 aspirin, 327, 740 Aston, F W., 51 atactic polymers, 1087 atmosphere See Earth’s atmosphere atmospheres (unit of measurement), 477 atmospheric pressure, 477–478 atom(s), 3, 39–47 Bohr’s theory of, 80–86 central, 222–224 Dalton’s theory of, 39–40, 52, 173–174 de Broglie’s hypothesis of, 87–89 Heisenberg uncertainty principle and, 90–91 imaging of, 66 nuclear model of, 43–44 number of (mole), 54–58, 60–61 plum-pudding model of, 43–44 properties and bonding of, 211, 212–213 quantum mechanics and, 90–95, 264–265 quantum theory of, 74–78 Schrödinger equation and, 91 structure of, 40–45 atom economy, 330–331 atomic bomb, 956–957, 961–962 atomic force microscopy (AFM), 66, 1098–1099 atomic line spectra, 79–86 atomic mass, 50–52, 125–126, 190, 943–946 atomic mass unit (amu), 6, 50 atomic number, 46–47, 126, 941–942 atomic orbitals, 92–99 Aufbau principle and, 101–102 of coordination compounds, 1013–1014, 1016 degenerate, 102, 103 electron configurations in, 100–109 electron spin in, 95 energies of, 99–101 Hund’s rule and, 102–103, 143 hybridization of, 267–282, 290–291 orientation of, 93–94 Pauli exclusion principle and, 101, 143 periodic table and, 105–109, 112–113, 126, 128–130 quantum numbers of, 92–95 representing electrons in, 96–97 shape of, 93, 96 size of, 92, 96 valence bond theory and, 264–267 atomic radius, 44, 132–134, 153–154 of carbon, 1028 of cubic cells, 544 ionic radius vs., 147–148 of metals, 132 of nonmetals, 132 of transition metals, 1004 atomic theory, 39–40, 52, 173–174 atomic weight, 50–52, 190 attraction, 41, 48, 67, 141–142, 259–263, 576–577 See also specific modes and processes Aufbau principle, 101–102 auroras, 978 autoionization of water, 722–723 average atomic mass, 50–52, 190 average molecular mass, 190 average reaction rate, 879–884 Avogadro, Amedeo, 54, 485 Avogadro’s law, 485–489, 505 Avogadro’s number, 54–55, 193 axial bonds, 249–250 B balancing of chemical equations, 311–314 of nuclear equations, 941–942 of oxidation-reduction reactions, 372–375, 829–832 ball-and-stick models, 175 Balmer, Johann, 80 Balmer emission series, 85 band gap, and conductivity, 1101–1104 bar (unit of measurement), 477 Bardeen, John, 1105 barometer, 478 I-1 I-2 INDEX base(s), 231, 362–367, 717–773 See also specific types and processes definition of, 352 ionization of, 351–352 pH of, 387–389, 724–726 strong, 728–730 weak, 741–744 base ionization constant, 741–744 base SI units, 5–9 bases, nucleotide, 1066–1067 basic hydroxides, 758–759 basic oxides, 757 basic salt solutions, 751–752 batteries, 828, 849–856 BCS theory, 1105 Becquerel, Antoine, 42 Beer-Lambert law, 385 belt of stability, 48–49, 943 “the bends,” 503–504 bent molecules, 247, 250 benzene boiling and freezing points of, 592 combustion of, 318 critical temperature and pressure of, 554 electrophilic substitution of, 1054–1055, 1057–1058 entropy changes and, 643 formulas for, 177 molar heat of fusion, 555 molar heat of vaporization, 553 molecular orbitals in, 291–292, 553 organic compounds related to, 1028 in phenol production, 331 resonance in, 229, 291 as solvent, 578–580, 590 beta (β) particle, 42–43, 965 beta (β)-particle emission, 943, 947 beta (β) rays, 42–43 bidentate ligands, 1005, 1006 bile/bile salt, 604 bimolecular reaction, 911–912 binary compounds, 165, 179–181, 200–201 bioavailability of drugs, 876 biofuels, 414 biological catalysts, 921–923 biological equilibria, 696 biological polymers, 1063–1067, 1088 biomagnification, 654 biomedical materials, 1095–1098 bioprospecting, 1026 bioterrorism, 232 blackbody radiation, 74 blood, 388, 533, 597 blood doping, 696 blood lead level (BLL), 1009 body-centered cubic cell, 542, 544 Bohr, Niels, 80–81, 91 Bohr’s theory, of hydrogen atom, 80–86 boiling point, 7, 537 dipole-dipole interactions and, 260 dispersion forces and, 262 of halogens, 262 hydrogen bonding and, 261 normal, 537, 559–560 phase changes and, 552–553 of transition metals, 1004 of water, 7–8, 484, 592, 904 boiling-point elevation, 591–593 Boltzmann, Ludwig, 472–473, 620 Boltzmann constant, 620 bomb calorimeter, 433–437 bond(s) See also specific types atomic properties and, 211, 212–213 axial, 249–250 carbon, 1028, 1042–1043 coordination compound, 1013–1018 covalent, 172–179, 215–216 dative, 231 delocalized, 291–293, 1043 directionality of, 265–266 double, 214–215 electronegativity in, 216–218 energetics of, 214–215, 264–266 equatorial, 249–250 equivalent, 1043 hybridization of orbitals and, 267–282, 290–291 hydrogen, 260–261, 577 ionic, 165–169, 215–216 localized, 291, 1043 molecular geometry and, 247–259 multiple, 214–215, 275–282 octet rule and, 211–215 peptide, 1063 pi (π), 276–282, 1028 polarity of, 215–222 sigma (σ), 275–282 single, 214–215 triple, 214–215 bond angles, 249–254 bond energy, 214–215, 264–266 bond enthalpy, 444–448 bond length, 214–215, 219, 264 bond order, 285 bonding molecular orbitals, 283 bonding theories, 290–293 crystal field theory, 1013–1018 hybridization of atomic orbitals, 267–282, 290–291 Lewis theory, 173, 211, 264, 290 molecular orbital theory, 282–292 valence bond theory, 264–267, 290, 444, 1003 valence-shell electron-pair repulsion model, 247–254, 290 bond-line structures, 1042–1043 bones, radioactive, 150 Born-Haber cycle, 448–452 boron neutron capture therapy (BNCT), 963 Boyle, Robert, 481 Boyle’s law, 480–483, 487 brachytherapy, 963 Brackett emission series, 85 Bragg, Sir William L., 545 Bragg, William H., 545 Bragg equation, 545 brain imaging, 963–964 brain tumors, 963 breeder reactor, 959 bromine, 126, 174, 187, 336–337 reaction with formic acid, 882–887, 890 solubility of, 579–580 bromophenol blue, 794, 795 bromothymol blue, 794 Brønsted acids and bases, 363–365, 717–719 buckminsterfullerene, 1100 buckyballs, 1100 buffers, 777–784, 817–818 burette, 5, burst lung, 503–504 butane, 182 butyl group, 1030 C caffeine, 743–744 calcium, 104, 150, 1009 calcium carbonate, 309, 315, 350, 991 calcium chloride, electrolysis of, 860 calcium oxide, 641–642 calcium phosphate, 184 calorie (cal), 416 calorimeter, 427 bomb, 433–437 coffee-cup, 429–435 calorimetry, 427–438 cancer chemotherapy for, 1019–1020 nuclear medicine for, 963 radiation and, 150, 965–966 candela (cd), capillary action, 532 carbides, 170 carbocation, 1052, 1055–1057 carbon, 1027–1028 allotropes of, 175, 310, 440, 549–550, 624, 1099 atomic radius of, 1028 catenation of, 1028 compounds containing, 182–183, 1027–1028 crystal structure of, 549–550 electron configuration of, 1027 reactivity of, 335 unique characteristics of, 1027–1028 carbon-14, 948–949, 951, 962 carbon bonds, 1028, 1042–1043 carbon cycle, 985–986 carbon dioxide atmospheric increases in, 987 density of, 494 as greenhouse gas, 985–989 indoor pollution from, 995–996 molecular speed of, 475 molecular vibrations of, 987 phase diagram of, 558–559 polarity in, 255–256 solubility of, 586–587 sources of, 987 vapor pressure of, 538–539 carbon fibers, 1092 carbon monoxide, 995–996 carbon nanotubes, 1100 carbon tetrachloride, 452–453, 578–580 carbonated beverages, 586–587 carbonates, 985–986 carbonic acid, 720, 737, 748, 760 carbonyl chloride, 659–660 carbonyl group, 183, 1029–1031, 1037–1038 carboplatin, 1019–1020 carboxy group, 183, 1029–1032 carboxylic acids, 183, 721, 1029, 1031, 1037 Carothers, Wallace, 1063 catalysis, 915, 919–923 catalysts, 915, 919–923 biological, 921–923 electrocatalysts, 856 catalytic converters, 920–921 catalytic rate constant, 919 catenation, 1028 cathode, 41, 833 cathode ray(s), 41 cathode ray tube, 40–41 cathodic protection, 864 cations, 135–136, 140, 143–147 in coordination compounds, 1007–1009 in diagonal relationships, 142 in ion nomenclature, 169–172 in ionic compounds, 165–167 in ionic crystals, 547–549 in Lewis dot symbols, 164 in polyatomic ions, 184–185 in qualitative analysis, 813–814 in salt solutions, 751–757 Celexa, 1051 cell diagram, 833–836 cell electromotive force (cell emf), 833 cell potential, 833 cell voltage, 833 cellulose, 1066 Celsius, Ander, Celsius scale, 7–9, 484 central atoms, 222–224, 253–254 central science, ceramic matrix composites, 1092 ceramics, 1090–1091 cesium chloride, 547, 548 Chadwick, James, 45 chain reaction, nuclear, 956 chalcogens, 53 Charles, Jacques, 484 Charles’s law, 483–485, 488 chelating agents, 1006, 1009, 1019 chelation therapy, 1009, 1019 chemical bonding See bond(s) chemical change, 24–25 chemical energy, 67 chemical equations, 309–317 balanced, calculations with, 320–323 balancing, 311–314 interpreting and writing, 309–310 representing free elements in, 310 chemical equilibrium, 655–656 See also equilibrium chemical formula, 3, 165, 175 chemical kinetics, 876–939 catalysis in, 919–923 collision theory of, 877–881 in first-order reactions, 891–893, 896–901, 927–928 key equations in, 925–926 radioactive decay in, 927–928, 947–950 reaction mechanisms in, 910–919 reaction rates in, 877–909 in second-order reactions, 891–893, 901–903 temperature in, 904–909 in third-order reactions, 892–893 in zeroth-order reactions, 893, 903 chemical process, 24, 137 chemical property, 24–25, 137 chemical reactions, 3, 309 activation energy for, 878–879, 905–909 atom economy in, 330–331 catalysis in, 919–923 direction of, predicting, 670–673 electron affinity and, 331–332 elementary, 911–912 energy changes in, 415–417 entropy changes in, 629 gaseous, 505–512 ionization energy and, 331–332 limiting reactants in, 322–330, 340–341 measuring progress of, 879–889 mechanisms of, 910–919 molecularity of, 911–912 nuclear reactions vs., 941 patterns of reactivity of, 314–316 periodic trends in reactivity, 331–337 rate of, 877–909 rate-determining step in, 912–915 types of, 315–316 See also specific types yield of, 326–327 chemical statement, 309 chemistry See also specific types, processes, structures, and substances as central science, definition of, familiarity with, 3, study of, 3–4 success in class, 18 chemotherapy, 1019–1020 chiral molecules, 1011–1012, 1048–1052 chiral switching, 1050–1052 chlorine, 126, 174, 187, 336–337 anion of, 170 CFCs and, 974, 980–984 electron configuration of, 165 oxoacids of, 720 chlorine gas, 137, 471, 506, 659–660, 857, 860 chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), 974, 980–984, 988 chlorophenol blue, 794, 795 cholesteric liquid crystal, 1093 cholesteryl benzoate, 1092–1093 cis isomers, 1011–1012, 1047–1048 cisplatin, 1019–1020 citalopram, 1051 Clausius-Clapeyron equation, 535–536 climate change, 988 closed system, 417 closest packing, 542–544 cloud seeding, 1055 coefficients, 311 coffee-cup calorimeter, 429–435 cohesion, 532, 533 coinage metals, 337 colligative properties, 588–602 collision theory, 877–881 colloids, 574, 602–604 color, in crystal field theory, 1014–1016 combination reaction, 315–317, 376 combined gas law, 489–490 combustion, 315–316, 376 bond enthalpy and, 445–447 calorimetry of, 433–437 energy/energy changes in, 415–416 indoor pollution from, 995 as spontaneous process, 619 thermochemical equation in, 425–426 combustion analysis, 317–319 common ion effect, 775–777, 802–805 complementary colors, 1014 complex ions, 807 coordination compound, 1003–1020 formation of, 807–811 INDEX I-3 composite materials, 1092 compounds, 163, 173 aliphatic, 1028 aromatic, 1028 binary, 165 coordination, 1003–1020 covalent, 452–453 electrolyte vs nonelectrolyte, 351–355 gaseous, 471 inorganic, 182, 189, 1027 ionic, 165–172, 200–201, 351 law of definite proportions, 173 law of multiple proportions, 173–174 lead, 1026 molecular, 179–184, 351–352 naming of, 171–172, 179–184 octet rule and, 211–215 octet rule exceptions and, 230–236 organic, 182–183, 1027–1046 oxidation number of, 369–372, 377 percent composition of, 192–193 compressibility, of gases, 472, 473, 553 concentrated solution, 378 concentration cells, 850–852 concentration of reactants See reactant concentration concentration of solutions See solution concentration concentration units, 581–584 condensation, 534, 552, 553 condensation polymers, 1062–1063, 1087–1089 condensation reaction, 1062 condensed phases, 22, 531 condensed structural formulas, 1040–1041 conduction band, 1101–1103 conjugate acid, 717–718, 744–747 conjugate acid-base pair, 717, 744–747 conjugate base, 717–718, 744–747 conjugate pair, 717 conservation of energy, 67, 418–419 conservation of mass, 311 constant-pressure calorimetry, 429–433 constant-pressure reactions, 422–424 constant-volume calorimetry, 433–437 constant-volume reactions, 422–424 constitutional (structural) isomerism, 258–259, 1047 control rods, 958 conversion factor, 18–19 Cooper, Leon Neil, 1105 coordinate covalent bond, 231, 1003 coordination chemistry, 1002–1025 coordination compounds, 1003–1020 applications of, 1019–1020 bonding in, 1013–1018 nomenclature for, 1007–1009 reactions of, 1019 structure of, 1010–1012 coordination number, 541–542, 1003–1004, 1006, 1010 copolymers, 1062, 1084–1089 copper, corrosion of, 863 copper electrodes, 833–835, 838–840 core electrons, 131 corrosion, 24, 862–864 coulomb (C), 218, 859–860 Coulomb’s law, 41, 48, 140–142, 166–168, 259, 1052 counter ions, 1003 coupled reactions, 644–645 covalent bonds, 172–179, 215–216 coordinate, 231, 1003 directionality of, 265–266 electronegativity and, 216–218 energetics of, 214–215, 264–266 enthalpy and stability of, 444–448 hybridization of orbitals and, 267–282, 290–291 in ionic species, 184–189 Lewis structures of, 211–214, 222–230 multiple, 214–215 nonpolar, 217 octet rule and, 211–215 octet rule exceptions and, 230–236 polar, 215–218 valence bond theory and, 264–267, 444, 1003 covalent compounds, 452–453 See also covalent bonds covalent crystals, 549–550, 551 covalent radius, 132 cowpox, crenation, 597 cresol red, 794 critical mass, 956 critical pressure, 553–554 critical temperature, 553–554 cross-links, 1083 Crutzen, Paul, 974 crystal field splitting, 1013–1014, 1018 crystal field theory, 1013–1018 crystalline solids (crystals), 539, 540–552 covalent, 549–550, 551 ionic, 547–549, 551 metallic, 551–552 molecular, 550–551 structure of, 540–546 types of, 547–552 X-ray diffraction of, 544–545 crystals, liquid, 1092–1095 cubic cells, 541–546 cubic centimeter, 9–10 cubic close-packed (ccp) structure, 543–544 cubic decimeter, 9–10 Cunningham, Orville, 504 curie (Ci), 964 D d orbitals, 97–98 of coordination compounds, 1013–1018 hybridization with s and p orbitals, 271–273 d-block elements, 128–129, 145–146 Dacron, 1088, 1097 Dalton, John, 39–40, 52, 173–174 Dalton’s law of partial pressures, 500–502, 507–511, 590 Daniell cell, 833, 838 dating, radioactive, 927–928, 948–950 dative bond, 231 daughter isotope, 947 Davisson, Clinton, 89 de Broglie, Lewis, 87 de Broglie hypothesis, 87–89 de Broglie wavelength, 88–89 Debye, Peter, 218 debye units (D), 218 decimeter, 9, 10 decomposition reaction, 315–316, 376 decompression injury, 503–504 decompression sickness, 504 definite proportions, law of, 173 degenerate orbitals, 102, 103 delocalized bonding, 291–293, 1043 Democritus, 39 density, 9–11, 25 dental amalgam, 848, 1096 dental implants, 1096–1097 deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), 1066–1067, 1088 deposition, 553, 556 derived units, 9–11 detergents, 1020 deuterium, 46, 958–959, 960 dextrorotatory isomer, 1012, 1049 diagonal relationships, 142, 332 dialysate, 598 dialysis, 598 dialyzer, 598 diamagnetic electrons, 103, 282 diamond, 175, 310, 428, 440, 549–550, 624 diatomic molecules, 174, 218–219 dibasic bases, 365 diffraction of electrons, 89 diffusion, of gases, 476 dilute solutions, 378 dilution, 382–386 dimensional analysis, 19 diodes, 1104 dipeptides, 645 dipole induced, 577, 579 instantaneous, 261–262 ion interactions with, 262, 577 dipole moment, 218–221, 255–261 dipole-dipole interactions, 259–261, 577 dipole-induced dipole, 577 diprotic acids, 365, 748–751 direction of reactions, predicting, 670–673 I-4 INDEX directionality of bonds, 265–266 disintegrations per second (dps), 927 dispersion forces, 261–262, 577 displacement reaction, 372 disproportionation reaction, 376 dissociation, 351–352, 600–601 distillation, 24 DMSA, 1009 DNA, 1066–1067, 1088 donor atom, 1006 doping blood, 696 semiconductor, 1102–1103 double bond, 214–215 double replacement reactions, 360 double-slit experiment, 72, 284 doubling time, 959 Downs cell, 857 dry cells, 853–854 dynamic equilibrium, 534, 554, 656 See also equilibrium E Earth’s atmosphere, 975–984 greenhouse effect in, 985–989 ozone layer of, 974, 977, 980–984 phenomena in outer layers of, 978–980 Earth’s crust, 959, 984 EDTA, 1006, 1009, 1020 effective collision, 877–881 effective nuclear charge, 131–132 effusion, of gases, 476 Einstein, Albert, 75–78 Einstein’s mass-energy equivalence relationship, 944 eka-aluminum, 124, 125 elastomer, 1083 electric current, measurement of, electrically conducting polymers, 1090 electrocatalysts, 856 electrochemistry, 828–875 batteries in, 849–856 corrosion in, 862–864 electrolysis in, 856–862, 866–867 galvanic cells in, 833–836 key equations in, 865 Nernst equation in, 848–850 spontaneity in, 844–853 standard reduction potentials in, 836–843 electrodes, 833 See also specific types and applications electrolysis, 856–862 electrolyte(s), 351–356 replenishing, sports drinks for, 351, 355 strong, 352–355, 360, 363 weak, 352–355 electrolyte solutions, 351–356, 594–596 electrolytic cells, 857 electromagnet, 103 electromagnetic spectrum, 70–71 electromagnetic theory, 95 electromagnetic wave, 71, 947 electron(s) Bohr’s theory of, 80–86 core, 131 de Broglie’s hypothesis of, 87–89 diamagnetic, 103, 282 diffraction of, 89 discovery of, 40–42 excited state, 84 free, 81 ground state, 84, 100–105, 112–113 Heisenberg uncertainty principle and, 90–91 location in atom, 45, 92 lone pairs of, 211–215 mass and charge of, 45 number of, 46–47 octet rule for, 211–215 octet rule exceptions in, 230–236 odd number of, 231–233 orbitals of, 92–99 See also atomic orbitals; molecular orbitals orbits of, 81–86 paramagnetic, 103, 282 probability density of, 96–97 quantum mechanics and, 90–95 quantum theory of, 74–78 radial probability distribution of, 96–97 removal, ionization energy and, 134–137 repositioning of, 1044–1046 representation in orbitals, 96–97 resonance structures and, 228–230, 1043–1046 Schrödinger equation and, 91 sharing of (covalent bonding), 172–179, 215–216 shielding, 131–132 spherical distribution of, 96–97 spin of, 95 transfer in ionic bonding, 165–169, 215–216 transfer in redox reactions, 368–378 unpaired, 210 valence, 128, 129, 131–132, 163–165, 211–214, 222–230, 264–267 valence bond theory and, 264–267, 290 electron acceptors, 759 electron affinity, 137–140, 153–154, 217, 331–332 electron capture, 943, 947 electron configuration, 100–109 Aufbau principle and, 101–102 of coordination compounds, 1003–1004, 1016–1018 effective nuclear charge and, 131–132 Hund’s rule and, 102–103, 143, 1016 of ions, 143–147 Lewis dot symbols for, 163–165 octet rule and, 211–215 Pauli exclusion principal and, 101, 143, 282 periodic table and, 105–109, 112–113, 126, 128–130 of transition metals, 1003–1004 writing, general rules for, 103–104 electron density, 92, 96–97 electron domain, 248–252 electron donors, 759 electron spin quantum number, 94–95 electron-domain geometry, 249–252 electronegativity, 216–218 electronics, modern, 1080 electrophile, 1052 electrophilic addition, 1053–1054 electrophilic substitution, 1054–1058 electrospinning, 1097–1098 electrostatic energy, 67–69 element(s), 39 See also periodic table; specific elements classification of, 128–130 discovery of, 52, 124, 125, 126 free, 310 Lewis dot symbols for, 163–165 molecule of, 173 periodic table of, 52–54 elementary reaction, 911–912 elimination reactions, 1058 emission spectrum, 79–86, 95 empirical formula, 176–178, 196–197, 317–319 empirical formula mass, 192, 196 emulsification, 604 emulsifier/emulsifying agent, 604 emulsions, 602 enantiomers, 1012, 1048–1052 endothermic process/reaction, 416 See also specific processes/reactions enthalpy changes in, 425–426, 446, 632 heat capacity in, 428–429 sign conventions for, 420 in spontaneous processes, 619 endpoint, of titration, 394, 793 Endrate, 1009 energy, 67–69, 415–421 See also enthalpy; entropy; specific types as capacity to work, 67, 419 conservation of, 67, 418–419 definition of, 67, 419 forms of, 67 free, 637–644 in living systems, 644–645 potential, 67 production of, 415 quantization of, 74–75 in solution formation, 578–580 as state function, 418 supply of, 415 units of, 68–69, 140, 416 energy changes, 67–69, 415–421 English system of measurement, enthalpy, 424–427 bond, 444–448 of reaction, 424–425, 456–457 standard, of formation, 440–444 standard, of reaction, 441–444 as state function, 424, 438 enthalpy changes, 424–425 in constant-pressure calorimetry, 429–433 in constant-volume calorimetry, 433–437 in exothermic and endothermic reactions, 444–446 Hess’s law of, 438–440, 442, 556 in spontaneous processes, 620 in sublimation, 556 entropy, 578, 620–622 absolute, 623, 635–636 in boiling-point elevation, 591 free energy and, 637–644 in freezing-point depression, 592 key equations in, 647 in protein folding, 618 qualitative description of, 620 quantitative description of, 620–622 in solution formation, 578–580 standard, 623–626, 635–636 in vapor-pressure lowering, 588–590 entropy changes in system, 622–631 calculation of, 622–623 chemical reactions (gas molecules) and, 626–627, 629 dissolution and, 627–630 factors affecting, 628–629 melting and, 626–627 molar mass and, 629 molecular complexity and, 628 phase change and, 629 qualitatively predicting sign of, 626–630 sublimation and, 626–627 temperature and, 626–627, 628 vaporization and, 626–627 volume change and, 628 entropy changes in universe, 631–637 calculation of, 632 second law of thermodynamics and, 632–635 third law of thermodynamics and, 635–636 environmental chemistry, 974–1001 enzymes, 644–645, 921–923 equatorial bonds, 249–250 equilibrium addition/removal of substance and, 686–688, 692 aqueous, 700–701 biological, 696 calculating concentrations of, 677–685 common ion effect and, 775–777, 802–805 concept of, 655–656 dynamic, 534, 554, 656 factors affecting, 686–697 free energy and, 670–676 gaseous, 666–669 heterogeneous, 662–663 homogeneous, 662 key equations in, 699 Le Châtelier’s principle and, 686, 696, 793, 803, 848–849 octanol-water system of, 654 pressure change and, 689–690 solubility, 700–701, 795–801 temperature change and, 690–691, 693 and tooth decay, 808 volume change and, 689–690, 694–695 equilibrium constant, 657–661 in autoionization of water, 722–723 calculation of, 658–660 free energy and, 673–676 magnitude of, 660–661, 670 in spontaneity of redox reactions, 844–847 equilibrium expressions, 658, 662–669 calculating acid ionization using, 737–739, 748–750 calculating equilibrium concentrations using, 677–685 calculating pH of buffer using, 777–782 calculating pH using, 732–733 calculating solubility using, 700–701, 796–801 common ion effect and, 775–777, 802–803 containing only gases, 666–669 determining acid ionization constant from, 732–733, 739–740 determining acid-base properties of salt solutions using, 751–756 determining autoionization of water using, 722–723 determining base ionization constant from, 741–744 determining complex ion formation in, 808–811 manipulation of, 663–666 predicting direction of reaction using, 670–673 solving problems using, 670–685, 700–701 equilibrium process, 632–635 equilibrium tables, 677–685 acid-base calculations using, 732–744, 748–756 calculating pH of buffer using, 777–782 calculating solubility using, 700–701, 796–801 common ion effect and, 775–777, 802–803 determining complex ion formation using, 808–811 equilibrium vapor pressure, 534, 552 equivalence point, 394, 793 equivalent bonds, 1043 erythema nodosum leprosum (ENL), 1051 erythrocytes, 597, 696 erythropoietin, 696 esomeprazole, 1051 esters, 1029, 1031, 1037 ethane, 177, 182, 183, 896, 900–901, 1028 ethanol, 183, 1027, 1028, 1030, 1032, 1037 boiling and freezing points of, 592 critical temperature and pressure of, 554 Kekulé structure of, 1041 miscibility of, 579 molar heat of fusion, 555 molar heat of vaporization, 553 molecular formula for, 176 oxidation of, 1059 resonance stabilization in, 1044 specific heat of, 428 viscosity of, 533 ethyl group, 1030 ethylene, 275–282 ethylene glycol, 579, 593, 1088 eutrophication, 1020 evaporation (vaporization), 471, 534, 552–554, 626–627 exact number, 12, 14, 19 excess reactants, 322 excited state, 84 excluded volume, 499 exothermic process/reaction, 416 See also specific processes/reactions enthalpy changes in, 425–426, 444–446, 632 heat capacity in, 428–429 sign conventions for, 420 in spontaneous processes, 619–620 expanded octet, 233–235 experiment, 2, extensive property, 25 F f orbitals, 98 f-block transition elements, 129 face-centered cubic cell, 542, 544 factor-label method, 19 Fahrenheit, Daniel Gabriel, Fahrenheit temperature scale, 8–9 families, on periodic table, 52 Faraday, Michael, 844, 859 Faraday constant, 844, 866 ferrofluids, 574 fertile isotopes, 959 fertilizers, 225–226, 686 Fiberglass, 1092 field strength, 1016 filtration, 24 first law of thermodynamics, 418–419 first-order reactions, 891–893, 896–901, 927–928 Fischer, Emil, 922 flame test, 814 flerovium, 124 fluids, 472 fluorescence, 42 fluoride poisoning, 598 fluorine, 126, 174, 370, 890–894 fluorine-19, 943–945 fluoroapatite, 808 foams, 602 INDEX I-5 force, SI unit of, 140 formal charge, 224–228 formaldehyde, 226–227, 278–279, 1027, 1041 combustion of, 315 indoor pollution from, 993, 996 solubility of, 579–580 formation constant, 808–811 formic acid, 169, 732, 882–887, 890, 996 formula(s) See specific formulas formula mass, 190 formula weight, 190 fossil fuels, 414, 987, 990–993 fractional precipitation, 812–813 free electron, 81 free elements, 310 free energy, 637–644 and equilibrium, 670–676 in living systems, 644–645 predicting sign of, 639 in redox reactions, 844–853 solving problems using, 641–643 standard change in, 640–641, 648–649 free radicals, 210, 231–233, 965, 1061, 1081 freezing, 552, 553, 554, 619 freezing point, 7–8, 484, 554 freezing-point depression, 591–593, 599–600 Freons, 980 frequency, 70–71 fuel cells, 828, 855–856 fugu fish, 308 Fuller, R Buckminster, 1100 fullerenes, 1100 functional groups, 183, 1029–1033, 1037–1038 fusion See melting; nuclear fusion G gallium, 124, 125, 1102–1104 galvanic cells, 833–836 See also batteries; fuel cells redox reaction spontaneity in, 844–853 standard reduction potentials in, 836–843 galvanization, 864 gamma (γ) rays, 43, 70, 72, 965 gas(es), 22–23, 470–529 collection over water, 508–511 compressibility of, 472, 473, 553 density of, 472, 493–495 diffusion of, 476 effusion of, 476 electron affinity in, 137–140 entropy changes in, 626–627, 629 equilibrium expressions containing, 666–669 flow of, 472 homogeneous mixtures of, 472 ideal, 491–495 inert, 337 ionization energy and, 134–137 key equations for, 514–515 kinetic molecular theory of, 472–476, 487–488, 501, 531 molar mass of, 493–495 molecular speed of, 473–475 noble, 53, 105, 128–130, 211, 310, 337, 471 phase changes of, 552–558 pressure of, 477–480 pressure of, combined gas law and, 489–490 pressure of, equation for real behavior, 496–500 pressure of, ideal gas equation and, 491–495 pressure of, partial, 500–502, 507–511, 590 properties of, 471–472 reactions of, 505–512 real, 496–500 room temperature, 471–472 standard entropy in, 624 volcanic, 470 volume of, 472, 473, 480–487 volume of, equation for real behavior, 497–500 volume of, ideal gas equation and, 491–495 volume of, molar, 510–511 gas constant, 473, 492 gas embolism, 504 gas equation, ideal, 491–495 gas laws, 480–491 Avogadro’s law, 485–489, 505 Boyle’s law, 480–483, 487 Charles’s law, 483–485, 488 combined, 489–490 Dalton’s law of partial pressure, 500–502, 507–511, 590 Graham’s law, 476 kinetic molecular theory and, 487–488 gas mixtures, 500–505, 516–517 gaseous compounds, 471 gaseous equilibria, 666–669 gaseous reactants and products, 505–512 Gatorade, 351 Gay-Lussac, Joseph, 484–485 Geiger, Hans, 43 Geiger counter, 964 gels, 602 geodesic dome, 1100 geometric isomers, 1011, 1047–1052 Gerlach, Walther, 95 germanium, 1102 Germer, Lester, 89 Gibbs free energy, 638 See also free energy glass, 539–540 global warming, 988 glycerol, 533 gold, crystal structure of, 545–546 gold nanoshells, gold-foil experiment, Rutherford’s, 43, 44 Goodyear, Charles, 1083 graduated cylinder, 5, Graham’s law, 476 gram (g), graphene, 1100 graphite, 175, 310, 428, 440, 549–550, 624, 1099–1100, 1102 gravimetric analysis, 391–393 Greek prefixes, 179–181 green chemistry, 330–331 greenhouse effect, 985–989 ground state, 84, 100–105, 112–113 Group 1A elements, 53, 128, 129, 332, 333–334, 337, 370 Group 2A elements, 53, 128, 129, 332, 334, 370 Group 3A elements, 128, 129, 332 Group 4A elements, 128, 129, 332, 335 Group 5A elements, 128, 129, 332, 335 Group 6A elements, 53, 128, 129, 332, 335–336 Group 7A elements, 53, 128, 129, 332, 336–337, 370 Group 8A elements, 53, 128, 129, 332, 337 Group 1B elements, 105–106, 128, 129, 337 Group 2B elements, 105–106, 128–129 Group 3B elements, 105–106, 128, 129 Group 4B elements, 128, 129 Group 5B elements, 128, 129 Group 6B elements, 128, 129 Group 7B elements, 128, 129 Group 8B elements, 128, 129 groups, on periodic table, 52, 53 See also specific groups Guldberg, Cato, 658 H Haber process, 686 half-cell, 833 half-cell potentials, 836 half-life of radioactive isotopes, 948 of reactant concentration, 899–903 half-reaction, 368, 373–375, 829 half-reaction method, 374–375, 829–832 halides, 336–337 halogen(s), 53, 129, 262, 333, 336–337 halogen substituents, 1034 hard water, 350 heat, 415–416 See also thermodynamics changes in, calorimetry of, 427–438 molar, of fusion, 555 molar, of vaporization, 552–553 sign conventions in, 420 specific, 428–438 work and, 419–421 heat capacity, 428–438 heating curve, 556 heavy water (deuterium), 46, 958–959, 960 Heisenberg, Werner, 90 Heisenberg uncertainty principle, 90–91 I-6 INDEX helium atomic and molar mass of, 56 electron configuration of, 101 emission spectrum of, 81, 100 mole of, 54, 60–61 molecular orbitals of, 284 molecular speed of, 474–475 periodic table placement of, 52 supply and use of, 38 helium atom, 39, 45 hemodialysis, 598 hemoglobin, 577, 600, 602, 696, 995–996 Henderson-Hasselbalch equation, 779–782, 787–789, 817 Henry’s law, 586–587 Henry’s law constant, 586 heptyl group, 1030 Hess’s law, 438–440, 442, 556 heteroatoms, 1042 heterogeneous catalysis, 920 heterogeneous equilibria, 662–663 heterogeneous mixture, 23, 602 heteronuclear diatomic molecules, 174 hexagonal close-packed (hcp) structure, 543–544 hexyl group, 1030 high-spin complexes, 1016–1017 high-temperature superconductor, 1105 Hindenburg, 415 homogeneous catalysis, 921 homogeneous equilibria, 662 homogeneous mixture, 23, 472, 602 homonulcear diatomic molecules, 174 Hund’s rule, 102–103, 143, 1016 hybridization of atomic orbitals, 267–282, 290–291 in molecules containing multiple bonds, 275–282 hydrates, 188–189 hydration, 357–358, 579 hydrides, 333 hydrocarbons, 182 hydrochloric acid, 181, 352, 362–363, 727–728 hydrogen gas production from, 510–511 indicators of, 793 neutralization reaction of, 365 serial dilution of, 386 titration of, 784–786, 790–792, 793 hydrochlorofluorocarbon-123 (HCFC-123), 983 hydrocyanic acid, 732 hydrofluoric acid, 181, 219, 364, 601, 700, 732–736, 751 hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), 983–984 hydrogen compounds containing, 181 emission spectrum of, 80–86, 95, 100 isotopes of, 46–47 oxidation number of, 370 partial pressure of, 502 reactivity of, 332–333 hydrogen atom, 45, 46 Bohr’s theory of, 80–86 electron configuration of, 100 ionizable, 181, 1044 molecular orbitals of, 283–284 nuclear charge of, 131 quantum mechanical description of, 92 hydrogen bomb, 961–962 hydrogen bonding, 260–261, 577 hydrogen electrode, 836–838 hydrogen halides, 219 hydrogen ions, 181, 352, 364 hydrogen peroxide decomposition of, 315, 376, 632, 885–886, 896, 914, 918, 919 formulas for, 176–177 percent composition of, 192 hydrogen-oxygen fuel cells, 855–856 hydrohalic acids, 719 hydrolysis, salt, 751, 764–765 hydronium ions, 364, 387–389, 723–724 hydrophilic colloids, 602–604 hydrophobic colloids, 602–604 hydroxide(s), 363, 728–729, 757–758 hydroxide ions, 352, 723, 724–726 hydroxy group, 183, 1029–1031, 1037 hydroxyapatite, 795, 808, 1092 hydroxyl radical, 233, 991 hyperbaric oxygen therapy, 504 hypercalcemia, 1009 hypertonic solutions, 597 hypothermia, 556 hypothesis, 3, hypotonic solutions, 597 hypoxia, 696 I ibuprofen, 331 ice tables See equilibrium tables ideal gas, 491, 496 ideal gas equation, 491–495 ideal solution, 590 incident light, 385 incomplete octets, 230–231 indicators, acid-base, 394, 793–795 indoor pollution, 993–996 induced dipole, 577, 579 inert complex, 1019 inert gases, 337 inexact number, 12–15 infrared radiation, 70, 76, 79, 985–987 initial rate, 890–892 inorganic compounds, 182, 189, 1027 instantaneous dipole, 261–262 instantaneous rate, 884–886 integrated rate law, 896 intensive property, 25 interference, 72, 284, 544 interference pattern, 72 intermediates, 911 intermolecular forces, 259–263, 452, 531, 564–565 dipole-dipole, 259–261 dispersion, 261–262 hydrogen bonding as, 260–261 ion-dipole, 263 ionic bonding as, 259 magnitude of, 259 and melting points, 538, 539 and solubility, 576–578 International System of Units (SI units), 5–11, International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC), 1033–1036 intramolecular forces, 452, 531 intravenous fluids, 597 iodine, 126, 187, 336–337 molecular, 174, 902–903 nuclear binding energy of, 945–946 sublimation of, 556 vapor pressure of, 538–539 iodine-123, 963–964 iodine-131, 963 ion(s) See also specific types in aqueous solution, 351 complex, 807–811, 1003–1020 counter, 1003 covalent bonding of, 184–189 of d-block elements, 145–146 definition of, 134 electron configuration of, 143–147 geometry of, 247 See also molecular geometry in hard water, 350 ionization energy for creating, 134–137 Lewis dot symbols for, 164 Lewis structures of, 211–214, 222–230 of main group elements, 143–145 mass spectrometry of, 51 metal, in coordination compounds, 1003 monatomic, 143–144, 169–170 naming of, 169–170 oxidation number in, 370–372 polyatomic, 184–186 separation using solubility differences, 812–815 spectator, 360 ion pair, 595 ion-dipole interactions, 263, 577 ionic bonding, 165–169, 215–216 electronegativity in, 217–218 as intermolecular force, 259 lattice energy in, 448–453 ionic character, percent, 220–221 ionic compounds, 165–172 covalent compounds vs., 452–453 as electrolytes, 353–355 formulas for, 170–171 hydrates, 188–189 lattice energy of, 166–168, 448–453 lattice structure of, 166, 448 molar mass of, 201 naming of, 171–172, 200–201 solubility of, 351, 357–359, 579, 795–801 ionic crystals, 547–549, 551 ionic equations, 360–361 ionic liquids, 162 ionic radius, 147–150 ion-induced dipole, 577, 579 ion-ion forces, 577 ionizable hydrogen atom, 181, 1044 ionization and acids, 351–352, 719, 727, 731, 736, 737–739 and electrolytes, 351–355 percent, 600–601, 736, 737–739 ionization constant acid, 731–741 base, 741–744 calculating pH from, 732–737, 741–743 conjugate acid-base pair, 745–747 diprotic and polyprotic acids, 748 ionization energy, 134–137, 153–154, 331–332 ionizing radiation, 965 ionosphere, 977 ion-product constant, 723 iron, corrosion of, 4, 862–864 isoelectronic species/series, 148–149 isolated system, 417, 433 isomer(s), 258–259, 1010–1012, 1047–1052 isomerism, 1010–1012, 1047–1052 constitutional (structural), 258–259, 1047 drug development and, 1011, 1050–1052 geometric, 1047–1052 optical, 1011–1012, 1048 isomerization reactions, 1059 isopentyl group, 1030 isopropyl alcohol, 583–584, 1030, 1032 isopropyl group, 1030 isotactic polymers, 1086–1087 isotonic solutions, 594, 597 isotopes, 46–47 atomic mass of, 50–52 for chemical analysis, 962 for dating, 927–928, 948–950 for distinguishing reactions mechanisms, 918 fertile, 959 medical applications of, 963–964 parent and daughter, 947 radioactive, 947–953 stability of, 48–49 uses of, 962–964 isotropic liquids, 1092 J Jenner, Edward, joints, artificial, 1098 Joule, James, 68 joule (J), 68, 140, 416 K Kamerlingh-Onnes, H., 1105 Kekulé structures, 1041 Kelvin, Lord, 484 kelvin (K), Kelvin temperature scale, 7–8, 484 ketones, 1029, 1031, 1038 Kevlar, 1088–1089, 1092 kilocalorie (kcal), 416 kilogram (kg), 6, kinetic energy, 67–69, 473 kinetic lability, 1019 kinetic molecular theory, 472–476, 487–488, 501, 531 kinetics See chemical kinetics L labile complexes, 1019 lanthanides, 106–108, 129 laser, in nuclear fusion, 961 lattice energy, 166–168, 448–453 lattice point, 540–541 lattice structure, 166, 448, 540–541 laughing gas, 177–178, 322 law, law of conservation of energy, 67, 418–419 law of conservation of mass, 311 law of definite proportions, 173 law of mass action, 658 law of multiple proportions, 173–174 law of octaves, 125 Le Châtelier’s principle, 686, 696, 793, 803, 848–849 lead-206, 927–928, 949–950 lead compounds, 1026 lead poisoning, 1009, 1019 lead storage batteries, 854–855 leaving groups, 1056–1057 length, measurement of, 5, leukocytes, 597 levorotatory isomer, 1012, 1049 Lewis, Gilbert N., 163, 173, 211, 264, 759 Lewis acids and bases, 231, 759–761, 1003, 1005 Lewis dot symbols, 163–165 Lewis structures, 211–214, 222–230 drawing, 222–224, 250 formal charge and, 224–228 of molecules with more than one central atom, 253–254 octet rule exceptions in, 230–236 two or more possible (resonance), 228–230, 1043–1046 Lewis theory of bonding, 173, 211, 264, 290 ligands, 1005–1008 exchange or substitution, 1019 field strength of, 1016 geometry of, 1010–1012 light, 70–73 Einstein’s theory of, 75–78 incident, 385 particle theory of, 75–78 polarized, 1012–1013, 1049–1050, 1093 speed of, 70 transmitted, 1014 visible, 70–72, 79, 385 white, 79, 385, 1014 light water reactors, 957–958 light-emitting diode (LED), 1104 liming, 992 limiting reactants, 322–330, 340–341 line spectra, 79–86 linear molecules, 247, 249 liquid(s), 22–23, 471, 531–537 anisotropic, 1092 intermolecular forces and, 531 ionic, 162 isotropic, 1092 key equations for, 563 miscible, 579 phase changes of, 552–558 polar molecules in, 260 properties of, 531, 532–537 standard entropy in, 623–624 surface tension of, 532, 533 vapor pressure of, 533–536, 552–554 viscosity of, 532–533 liquid crystal displays (LCDs), 1093–1095 liquid crystals, 1092–1095 liquid magnets, 574 liter, 9, 10 lithium, 81, 102, 105, 332–334 lithium carbonate, 184, 192 lithium-ion batteries, 855 livermorium, 124 localized bonds, 291, 1043 INDEX I-7 localized surface plasmon resonances, lock-and-key model, for enzymes, 922 London dispersion forces, 261–262 lone pairs, 211–215 low-spin complexes, 1016–1017 luminous intensity, lycopene, 210 Lyman emission series, 85 M macroscopic level, magic numbers, 48 magma, 984 magnetic confinement, 961 magnetic levitation (maglev), 1002, 1105 magnetic properties, in crystal field theory, 1016–1018 magnetic quantum number, 93–94 magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), 1002 main group elements, 128, 129 atomic radius vs ionic radius, 147–148 chemical properties of, periodic trends in, 132–143 diagonal relationships of, 142, 332 ions of, 143–145 Lewis dot symbols for, 163–164 oxides of, 757–758 reactivity of, periodic trends in, 331–337 manometer, 478–479 Marsden, Ernest, 43 mass, atomic, 50–52, 125–126, 190, 943–946 conservation of, 311 critical, 956 empirical formula, 192, 196 as extensive property, 25 formula, 190 measurement of, 5, molar, 55–58, 60–61, 193–196, 201, 262 molecular, 190–191 percent composition by, 192–193, 196–197 of reactants and products, 321–322 subcritical, 956 weight vs., mass action, law of, 658 mass defect, 944 mass number, 46, 941–942 mass spectrometer, 51 matter, classification of, 22–24 properties of, 24–25 states of, 22–23, 471, 531 wave properties of, 87–89 Maxwell, James Clerk, 71, 472–473, 474 measured numbers, 12–15 measurement, 5–21 Meissner effect, 1105–1106 melting, 24, 552, 553, 554–555 entropy changes in, 626–627, 631 ice, 415, 425–426, 619 thermochemical equation in, 425–426 melting point, 25, 538, 539, 554 of ionic crystals, 549 normal, 554, 559–560 of transition metals, 1004 Mendeleev, Dmitri, 124, 125–126 meniscus, 532, 533 mercury adhesion and cohesion, 532, 533 critical temperature and pressure of, 554 dental amalgam, 848, 1096 molar heat of fusion, 555 molar heat of vaporization, 553 pressure measurement with, 477–481 vapor pressure of, 535 viscosity of, 533 mesophere, 977 metabolism, 644–645 metal(s), 52, 129 See also specific types active, 333–334, 372 activity series of, 372, 373 atomic radius in, 132 bonding of, 551 coinage, 337 conductivity of, 52 corrosion of, 862–864 crystals of, 543–544 density of, 551–552 extraction from ore, 990, 992 ligands of, 1005–1006 noble, 2, 372 oxidation in aqueous solutions, 372 oxides of, 334, 757–758 reactivity of, 332, 333–335, 337 representation in chemical equations, 310 metal ions in coordination compounds, 1003 in solution, qualitative analysis of, 813–814 metal matrix composites, 1092 metallic character, 140–142 metallic crystals, 551–552 metalloids, 52–53, 129, 140 reactivity of, 334–336 representation in chemical equations, 310 metallurgy, 1019 metathesis, 360 meter, 5, methamphetamine, 1033 methane, 182, 1027, 1029 combustion of, 4, 315, 425–426, 438, 447, 619, 855 critical temperature and pressure of, 554 in early atmosphere, 975 in greenhouse effect, 988 molar heat of fusion, 555 molar heat of vaporization, 552–553 molecule of, 174, 270–271 methanol, 253, 324, 579, 1030, 1032 methyl group, 1029, 1030 methyl orange, 794, 795 methyl radicals, 896, 900–901 methyl red, 793–795 metric system, Meyer, Lothar, 124, 125 microwave radiation, 70, 71 milk of magnesia, 169, 366, 388, 602, 723 millicurie (mCi), 964 Millikan, R A., 41–42 milliliter, 9, 10 millimeters mercury, 477–480 miscible liquids, 579 mixtures, 22, 23–24 gas, 500–505, 516–517 heterogeneous, 23, 602 homogeneous, 23, 472, 602 racemic, 1012, 1049–1052 separation of, 23–24 moderators, 957–958 modern materials, 1080–1109 biomedical, 1095–1098 ceramics, 1090–1091 composite materials, 1092 liquid crystals, 1092–1095 nanotechnology, 1080, 1098–1100 polymers, 1081–1090 semiconductors, 1080, 1101–1104 superconductors, 1105 molality (m) (molal concentration), 581–584 molar absorptivity, 385 molar enthalpy of sublimation, 556 molar heat of fusion, 555 molar heat of vaporization, 552–553 molar mass, 55–58, 193–196 and boiling point, 262 determining molecular formula from, 196–197 and dispersion forces, 262 and entropy changes, 629 of gas, 493–495 of halogens, 262 of ionic compound, determining, 201 mass-mole conversions with, 57–58, 60–61, 194–196 of solute, determining, 599–600 molar solubility, 796–799 molar volume, of gas, 510–511 molarity (M) (molar concentration), 378–382, 581–584, 594 I-8 INDEX mole (mol), 7, 54–58 conversions with mass, 57–58, 60–61, 194–196 reactant and product, 320–321 volume and (Avogadro’s law), 485–489, 505 mole fractions, 502–503, 516–517, 582, 588 molecular art, 174–175 molecular bases, 351–352 molecular compounds binary, 179–181 as electrolytes, 351–355 gaseous, 471 naming of, 179–184 number of atoms in, 179–181 oxidation number of, 369–372 solubility of, 351–352 molecular crystals, 550–551 molecular equation, 359–361 molecular formulas, 175–176, 177, 190, 196 molecular geometry, 247–259 bond angle in, 249–250 bond angle deviations in, 253–254 electron-domain geometry vs., 249–252 hybridization of orbitals and, 273–274 of molecules with more than one central atom, 253–254 and polarity, 255–259, 296–297 molecular level, molecular mass, 190–191 molecular orbital theory, 282–292 molecular orbitals, 282–292 bonding and antibonding, 283 diagrams of, 287–289 energy, ordering of, 287 in heteronuclear diatomic species, 288 pi (π), 285–287 sigma (σ), 283–284 molecular orientation, and reaction rate, 878, 881 molecular speed, 473–475 molecular stability, bond enthalpy and, 444–448 molecular weight, 190 molecularity of reaction, 911–912 molecules, 3, 173–179 diatomic, 174, 218–219 forces between, 259–263 formulas for, 175–178 Lewis structures of, 211–214, 222–230 models (art) of, 174–175 octet rule and, 211–215 polarity of, 255–259, 296–297, 1003 polarized, 262 polyatomic, 174, 986–987 shape of, 247–254, 296–297 See also molecular geometry Molina, Mario, 974 monatomic ion, 143–144, 169–170 monobasic bases, 365 monodentate ligands, 1005, 1006 monomers, 1060, 1081 monoprotic acids, 187, 365 Montreal Protocol, 982 Moseley, Henry, 126 motional energy, 620 multiple bonds, 214–215, 275–282 multiple proportions, law of, 173–174 N n-type semiconductor, 1102–1104 nanofibers, 1097–1098 nanotechnology, 1080, 1098–1100 nanotubes, 1100 nanowire, 1080 naphthalene, 538, 539, 556 near-infrared radiation, nematic liquid crystal, 1093 neptunium, 951–952 Nernst equation, 848–850 net ionic equations, 360–361 neutral salt solutions, 754–755 neutralization reaction, 365–367, 393–397, 619 neutron(s), 44–45, 941–942 electron capture and, 943 location in atom, 45 mass and charge of, 45 number of, 46–47, 941–942 as projectile, in synthetic isotope preparation, 952 release, in nuclear fission, 953–960 neutron-to-proton ratio, 48–49, 943 Newlands, John, 125 Newton, Isaac, 79 newton (N), 140, 477–478 Nexium, 1050–1051 night-vision goggles, 76 nitrates, 225–226, 975 nitric acid, 352, 720, 727, 737, 975 nitric oxide, 503, 737 in ozone layer destruction, 982 in photochemical smog, 992–993 reaction with oxygen, 911, 917 in space shuttle glow, 979 nitride, 170 nitrogen in Earth’s atmosphere, 975–977 molecular speed of, 474 molecule of, 174 partial pressure of, 500–502 reactivity of, 335 nitrogen-14, 951 nitrogen cycle, 975–976 nitrogen dioxide, 655–656, 658–659, 737, 896, 982 nitrogen fixation, 975 nitrous acid, 720, 732 nitrous oxide, 177–178, 322, 915 noble gas(es), 53, 128–130, 211, 310, 337, 471 noble gas core, 105 noble metals, 2, 372 nodes, 87 nonconductors, 1102 nonelectrolyte(s), 351–355 nonelectrolyte solutions, 351–356, 588–594 nonmetal(s), 52, 129 atomic radius in, 132 characteristics of, 140 oxides of, 757–758 reactivity of, 332, 335–337 representation in chemical equations, 310 nonpolar bond, 217–218 nonpolar molecules, 256, 261 nonspontaneous processes, 619 nonvolatile substances, 588 normal boiling point, 537, 559–560 normal freezing point, 554 normal melting point, 554, 559–560 northern lights, 978 nuclear accidents, 959–960 nuclear binding energy, 943–946, 954–956 nuclear chain reaction, 956 nuclear charge, effective, 131–132 nuclear chemistry, 940–973 See also specific processes and reactions nuclear energy, 940, 957–960, 988 nuclear equations, 941–942 nuclear fission, 953–960 nuclear fusion, 960–962 nuclear medicine, 963–964 nuclear model of atom, 43–44 nuclear reactions, 941 nuclear reactors, 940, 957–960 nuclear transmutation, 941, 951–953 nuclear waste, 940, 960, 988 nuclear weapons, 956–957, 961–962 nucleic acids, 1066–1067, 1088 nucleons, 46, 943–946 nucleophile, 1052 nucleophilic addition, 1053–1054, 1057–1058 nucleophilic substitution, 1054–1058 nucleotides, 1066–1067 nucleus (nuclei), 43–44 alpha (α)-particle emission by, 947 beta (β)-particle emission by, 943, 947 combination, in nuclear fusion, 960–962 density of, 48 electron capture by, 943 heavy, fission of, 953–960 positron emission by, 943 stability of, 48–49, 943–947 unstable, emission of, 941, 947 nylon, 1063, 1087 O observation, 2, oceans, bioprospecting in, 1026 octahedral complexes crystal field splitting in, 1013–1014 magnetic properties of, 1016–1018 octahedral molecule, 249, 251 octane, 182, 1041 octanol-water equilibrium system, 654 octaves, law of, 125 octet(s) expanded, 233–235 incomplete, 230–231 octet rule, 211–215 exceptions to, 230–236 resonance structures and, 228–230, 1043–1046 octyl group, 1030 odd number of electrons, 231–233 oil-drop experiment, Millikan’s, 41–42 omeprazole, 1051 open system, 417 optical isomers, 1011–1012, 1048 optically active molecules, 1049 orbit(s), 81–86 orbital(s), 92 See also atomic orbitals; molecular orbitals ore, metal extraction from, 990, 992 organic chemistry, 1026–1079 in drug development, 1049–1052 isomerism in, 1047–1052 lead compounds in, 1026 nomenclature in, 1033–1038 organic compounds, 182–183, 1027–1046 classes of, 1029–1040 functional groups of, 183, 1029–1033, 1037–1038 general formulas for select classes of, 1031 naming of, 1033–1038 resonance structures of, 1043–1046 organic molecules bond-line structures of, 1042–1043 condensed structural formulas of, 1040–1041 Kekulé structures of, 1041 representation of, 1040–1046 organic polymers, 1060–1067 organic reactions, 1052–1060 orientation of molecule, and reaction rate, 878, 881 osmosis, 593–594, 598 osmotic pressure, 593–594, 599–601 overvoltage, 859 oxalic acid, 748, 749–750 oxidation, 24, 369 See also oxidation-reduction reactions of metals in aqueous solutions, 372 oxidation numbers, 369–372, 377, 1003 oxidation state, 369–372, 1005–1007 oxidation-reduction reactions, 368–378, 1058–1059 See also specific types balancing of, 372–375, 829–832 combination, 376 decomposition, 376 in dental amalgam, 848 free energy in, 844–853 in galvanic cells, 833–836 Nernst equation and, 848–850 spontaneity under nonstandard conditions, 848–853 spontaneity under standard-state conditions, 844–847 standard reduction potentials in, 836–843 oxide(s), 170 acid-base properties of, 757–759 of main group elements, 757–758 of metals, 334, 757–758 of nonmetals, 757–758 oxidizing agent, 369 oxoacids, 186–188, 719–721 oxoanions, 186–188 oxygen average atomic mass of, 50 in Earth’s atmosphere, 975–977 hyperbaric therapy, 504 isotopes of, 50, 918, 951 molecule of, 174 nitric oxide reaction with, 911, 917 oxidation number of, 370 paramagnetism of, 282 partial pressure of, 500–501, 508 photodissociation of, 980 reactivity of, 335 oxygen cycle, 975–976 ozone, 228, 992–993 ozone holes, 982–984 ozone layer, 974, 977, 980–984 P p orbitals, 96–97 hybridization with s and d orbitals, 271–273 hybridization with s orbitals, 268–271 p-block elements, 108 p-type semiconductor, 1103–1104 packing spheres, 541–546 paramagnetic electrons, 103, 282 parent isotope, 947 partial charges, in bonding, 218–221 partial pressures of gases, 500–502, 507–511, 590 particle(s), 193 See also specific types particle accelerators, 951, 952–953 particle theory of light, 75–78 partition coefficient, 654 pascal (Pa), 477–478 Paschen emission series, 85 passivation, 863 patina, 863 Pauli, Wolfgang, 101 Pauli exclusion principle, 101, 143, 282 pentane, 182, 1034, 1042, 1047 pentyl group, 1030 peptide bonds, 1063 percent by mass, 581–584 percent composition by mass, 192–193, 196–197 percent dissociation, 600–601 percent ionic character, 220–221 percent ionization, 600–601, 736, 737–739 percent yield, 326–327 periodic table, 52–54, 125–131 atomic mass and, 125–126 atomic number on, 126 atomic radius and, 132–134, 153–154 carbon’s position on, 1027 classification of elements on, 128–130 Coulomb’s law and, 140–142 development of, 125–127 diagonal relationships on, 142, 332 electron affinity and, 137–140, 153–154 electron configurations and, 105–109, 112–113, 126, 128–130 electronegativity and, 216 ionization energy and, 134–137, 153–154 metallic character and, 140–142 modern, 128–131 monatomic ions on, 143–144 radioactive elements on, 941 reactivity and, 331–337 transition metals on, 1003–1004 trends on, 132–143, 331–337 periodicity, 124, 125 periods, on periodic table, 52 peroxides, 334 peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN), 992 pH, 387–389, 724–726 benchmark values of, 387 buffer, calculating, 777–782, 817 buffer with specific, preparing, 783, 817–818 calculating from acid ionization constant, 732–737 calculating from base ionization constant, 741–743 determining acid ionization constant from, 734–735, 739–740 determining base ionization constant from, 743–744 indicators of, 394, 793–795 precipitation (acid rain), 989–992 solution, 387–389, 751–757, 803–807 values of common fluids, 388 pH monitor, 784, 785 pH scale, 387–389, 724–726 pharmacokinetics, 876 phase, 552 phase boundary, 552 INDEX I-9 phase boundary line, 559 phase changes, 552–558 biological significance of, 556–557 entropy changes in, 629 phase diagrams, 558–561, 591 phase of wave, 284 phenol, 331, 732, 1028, 1033 phenolphthalein, 793–794 phosgene, 659–660 phosphate group, in nucleic acids, 1066–1067 phosphorus, 335, 1102–1103 photocathode, 76 photochemical smog, 992–993 photodecomposition, 975 photodissociation, 980 photoelectric effect, 75–78 photons, 75–78, 81–86, 986–987, 1014–1016 photosynthesis, 426–427, 962, 975, 986 photothermal ablation, physical change, 24 physical process, 24 physical property, 24 pi (π) bonds, 276–282, 1028 pi (π) molecular orbitals, 285–287 picometer (pm), 44 pipette, 5, Planck, Max, 74–75, 79 Planck’s constant, 74 plasma, blood, 597 plasma, nuclear, 961 platelets, 597 platinum electrode, 836–837 plum-pudding model, 43–44 plutonium-239, 956, 957, 959 pneumothorax, 503–504 pOH scale, 724 polar bonds, 215–222 polar covalent bonds, 215–218 polar molecule, 255–260, 1003 polar ozone holes, 982–984 polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs), 982 polarimeter, 1012 polarity of bonds, 215–222 in coordination compounds, 1003 in dipole-dipole interaction, 259–263 of molecules, 255–259, 296–297, 1003 in solution formation, 578–579 polarized lens, 1012–1013, 1049–1050 polarized light, 1012–1013, 1049–1050, 1093 polarized molecule, 262 polarizer, 1049 pollution acid rain and, 989–992 detergents and, 1020 indoor, 993–996 photochemical smog and, 992–993 thermal, 585, 958, 961 polonium-210, 941 polyacetylene, 1090 polyacrylonitrile, 1084 polyamides, 1087 polyatomic ions, 184–186 geometry of, 247 See also molecular geometry Lewis structure of, 211–214, 222–230 molar mass of, 201 naming of, 184–186, 200–201 oxidation number of, 370–372 polyatomic molecules, 174, 986–987 polybutadiene, 1084 polydentate ligands, 1005, 1006 polyesters, 1088 polyethylene, 1062, 1081–1082, 1084 polyisoprene, 1082 polymer(s), 1060, 1081–1090 addition, 1061–1062, 1081–1087 biological, 1063–1067, 1088 condensation, 1062–1063, 1087–1089 electrically conducting, 1090 organic, 1060–1067 proteins as, 645 radicals and, 210, 1061, 1081 tacticity of, 1086–1087 thermoplastic, 1081 thermosetting, 1081 polymer matrix composites, 1092 polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA), 1086, 1098 polypeptides, 618, 635, 1063 polypropylene, 1062, 1085 polyprotic acids, 187, 365, 748–751 polysaccharides, 1066 polystyrene, 1062, 1083, 1084, 1086–1087 polytetrafluoroethylene, 1062, 1084 polyvinylchloride (PVC), 1062, 1083, 1084 polyvinylidene chloride, 1086 positron, 942, 943 potassium, 81, 105, 334, 370, 814 potassium-40, 949 potassium bromide, 170 potassium hydrogen phthalate (KHP), 393–395 potential energy, 67 precipitate, 357 precipitation/precipitation reactions, 357–362, 368, 800–801 fractional, 812–813 predicting, 800–801 selective, for qualitative analysis, 813–814 precision, 16 prefixes Greek, 179–181 SI units, 5, pressure, 477 atmospheric, 477–478 calculation of, 478–480 constant, calorimetry in, 429–433 constant, reactions carried out in, 422–424 critical, 553–554 and equilibrium, 689–690 gas, 477–480 gas, combined gas law and, 489–490 gas, equation for real behavior, 496–500 gas, ideal gas equation and, 491–495 gas, partial, 500–502, 507–511, 590 measurement of, 478–480 osmotic, 593–594, 599–600 and reactant consumed, 507 and solubility, 586–587 standard, 492 as state function, 418 units of, 477 vapor, 508, 533–536, 538–539, 552–554, 556–558, 588–590 volume and (Boyle’s law), 480–483, 487 pressure-volume work, 422 Prilosec, 1051 primary amides, 1038 primary amines, 1038 primary carbon, 1028 primary pollutants, 992 primary valence, 1003 primitive (simple) cubic cell, 541, 542 principal quantum number, 92–94 probability density, 96–97 problem solving, 18–21 products, 309–310 equilibrium and, 655–656 gaseous, 505–512 mass of, 321–322 moles of, 320–321 solubility, 796–801 propane, 177, 182, 190 propane-oxygen fuel cell, 856 propyl group, 1030 proteins, 1063–1066 folding of, 618, 635 synthesis of, 645 protium, 46 proton(s), 43–44, 941–942 electron capture and, 943 location in atom, 45 mass and charge of, 45 neutron ratio to, 48–49, 943 number of (atomic number), 46–47, 126, 941–942 proton acceptors, 364, 717 proton donors, 364, 717 Proust, Joseph, 173 Proust’s law of definite proportions, 173 pure substance, 22 purines, 1066–1067 I-10 INDEX Pyrex, 540 pyridine, 742 pyrimidines, 1066–1067 Q qualitative analysis, 813–814 qualitative properties, 5, 24 quantitative analysis, 391–397 quantitative properties, 5, 24 quantization of energy, 74–75 quantum, 74 quantum mechanics, 90–95, 264–265 quantum number, 92–95 quantum theory, 74–78 quartz, 540, 550 quaternary carbon, 1028 quicklime, 991–992 quinine, 599 R racemic mixture, 1012, 1049–1052 racemization, 1057 rad (radiation absorbed dose), 964 radial probability distribution, 96–97 radiation, 40, 70–71 biological effects of, 150, 964–966 blackbody, 74 infrared, 985–987 ionizing, 965 measurement of, 964 ultraviolet, 70, 72, 975, 977, 980 yearly doses for Americans, 965 radiation therapy, 963 radicals, 210, 231–233, 965, 1061, 1081 radio waves, 70, 72 radioactive dating, 927–928, 948–950 radioactive decay, 927–928, 941, 947–950 radioactive decay series, 947 radioactive waste, 940, 960 radioactivity, 42–43, 941, 947–950 radon, 993–995 Raoult’s law, 588–590 rare earth (lanthanide) elements, 106–108, 129 rate constant, 885 determining reaction rate with, 895–904 experimental data to determine, 892, 898–899 temperature and, 905–909 rate law, 890–904 experimental determination of, 890–894 integrated, 896 rate-determining step in, 912–915 reactant concentration and time in, 895–904 rate of reaction, 887 rate-determining step, 912–915 reactant(s), 309–310 equilibrium and, 655–656, 686–688, 692 excess, 322 gaseous, 505–512 limiting, 322–330, 340–341 mass of, 321–322 moles of, 320–321 stoichiometric amounts of, 320–321 reactant concentration collision theory and, 877–881 in first-order reactions, 891–893, 896–901, 927–928 half-life of, 899–903 reaction rate dependence on, 877, 880–881, 890–895 in second-order reactions, 891–893, 901–903 in third-order reactions, 892–893 time and, 895–904 in zeroth-order reactions, 893, 903 reaction(s) See also specific types and processes chemical, 309 organic, 1052–1060 reaction mechanisms, 910–919 experimental support for, 918 with fast first step, 916–917 rate-determining step in, 912–915 reaction order, 890–894 reaction quotient, 657–658 reaction rate, 877–909 average, 879–884 catalysis and, 915, 919–923 expressing, 879–889 factors increasing, 877 in first-order reactions, 891–893, 896–901, 927–928 half-life in, 899–903 initial, 890–892 instantaneous, 884–886 molecular orientation and, 878, 881 rate law for determining, 895–904 reactant concentration and, 877, 880–881, 890–895 in second-order reactions, 891–893, 901–903 stoichiometry and, 886–889 surface area and, 881, 909–910 temperature and, 879, 880–881, 904–909 in third-order reactions, 892–893 in zeroth-order reactions, 893, 903 reaction yield, 326–327 red blood cells, 597, 696 redox reactions See oxidation-reduction reactions reducing agent, 369 reduction, 369 See also oxidation-reduction reactions reduction potentials, standard, 836–843 reinforced carbon-carbon composite (RCC), 1092 Reinitzer, Frederick, 1092 relative biological effectiveness (RBE), 964 relative enthalpy, 440 relativity, theory of, 944, 952 rem (roentgen equivalent for man), 964 repositioning, of electrons, 1044–1046 repulsion, 41, 48, 67, 141, 147, 263 resonance stabilization, 1043–1046 resonance structures, 228–230, 1043–1046 reversible process, 655–656 rhodopsin, 1059 ribonucleic acid (RNA), 1066–1067, 1088 roasting, of metal ores, 990, 992 Röntgen, Wilhelm, 42 root-mean-square (rms) speed, 474 rotations, molecular, 624, 625 Rowland, F Sherwood, 974 rubber, 992, 1060, 1081, 1082–1083 rubbing alcohol, 583–584, 1030, 1032 rust formation, 4, 862–864 Rutherford, Ernest, 43–45, 951 Rydberg, Johannes, 80 Rydberg equation, 80 S s orbitals, 96 hybridization with p and d orbitals, 271–273 hybridization with p orbitals, 268–271 s-block elements, 108 salicylic acid, 1032–1033 salt, 165, 365 See also sodium chloride salt bridge, 833–836 salt hydrolysis, 751, 764–765 salt solutions, acid-base properties of, 751–757 Saran Wrap, 1086 saturated solution, 575–576, 800 SBS rubber, 1086 scanning tunneling microscope (STM), 66, 1099 Schrieffer, John Robert, 1105 Schrödinger equation, 91 scientific measurement, 5–21 scientific method, 3–5 scientific notation, 12 scuba diving, 503–504 second (s), second electron affinity, 139 second law of thermodynamics, 618, 632–635 secondary carbon, 1028 secondary pollutants, 992 secondary valence, 1003 second-order reactions, 891–893, 901–903 semiconductors, 1080, 1101–1104 semipermeable membrane, 593, 597 sequestrants, 1020 serial dilution, 383–386 shielding, 131–132 shifting, in system, 686 SI units, 5–11, side reactions, 326 sigma (σ) bonds, 275–282 sigma (σ) molecular orbitals, 283–284 significant figures, 12–15 silicon, 1028, 1102–1104 silver, corrosion of, 863 simple cubic cell, 541, 542 single bond, 214–215 sintering, 1091 smallpox, smectic liquid crystal, 1093 smelting, 990 Smith, Robert Angus, 737 smog, photochemical, 992–993 soap molecules, 603–604 soda-lime glass, 540 sodium, 67, 95, 105, 165, 814 sodium-24, 963 sodium chloride aqueous solution, electrolysis of, 858–859 crystalline structure of, 547–549 dissociation of, 351–352, 600 as electrolyte, 351–353 formation of, 165–166, 331–332, 376, 448–451 molten, electrolysis of, 857, 859 properties of, 452–453 solubility of, 357, 578 sodium fluoride, 751 sodium hydroxide, 362–363, 393–394, 758, 786–790, 793, 814 sodium stearate, 603–604 soft tissue materials, 1097–1098 solar cells, 1102, 1104 solar flares, 978 sol-gel process, 1091 solids, 22–23, 471, 531, 538–552 amorphous, 539–540 crystalline, 539, 540–552 intermolecular forces and, 531 ionic, lattice energy of, 448–453 key equations for, 563 melting point of, 538 phase changes of, 552–558 polar molecules in, 260 preparation of solution from, 379–382 properties of, 531, 538–546 standard entropy in, 623 vapor pressure of, 538–539, 556 sols, 602 solubility, 576–580 common ion effect and, 775–777, 802–805 complex ion formation and, 807–811 definition of, 358, 575, 796 differences in, ion separation using, 812–815 entropy and, 578–580, 627–630 exceptions in, 358 factors affecting, 585–587, 802–812 guidelines, 358 intermolecular forces and, 576–578 of ionic compounds, 351, 357–359, 579, 795–801 molar, 796–799 of molecular compounds, 351–352 pH and, 803–807 pressure and, 586–587 temperature and, 575, 585 solubility equilibria, 700–701, 795–801 solubility product, 796 solubility product constant, 796–801 solute, 351, 575 solution(s), 351 aqueous, 350–413, 575–576 See also aqueous solutions buffer, 777–784, 817–818 colligative properties of, 588–602 common ion effect in, 775–777, 802–805 concentrated, 378, 382–383 dilute, 378, 382–383 dilution of, 382–386 electrolyte, 351–356, 594–596 energy and entropy in formation of, 578–580, 627–630 gravimetric analysis of, 391–393 hypertonic, 597 hypotonic, 597 ideal, 590 intermolecular forces in, 576–578 isotonic, 594, 597 key equations for, 606 molality of, 581–584 molarity of, 378–382, 581–584, 582, 594 molecular view of process, 576–580 nonelectrolyte, 351–356, 588–594 nonvolatile, 588 percent by mass, 581–584 pH of, 387–389, 751–757, 803–807 physical properties of, 574–617 preparation of, 379–386 quantitative analysis of, 391–397 salt, acid-base properties of, 751–757 saturated, 575–576, 800 standard, 384–386, 393–395 stock, 382–386 stoichiometry of, 389–390 supersaturated, 575–576, 800 titration analysis of, 393–397 types of, 575–576 unsaturated, 575–576, 800 visible spectrophotometry of, 385 volatile, 590 solution concentration, 378–391, 581–584 measurement of, 385–386, 581–584 molal, 581–584 molar, 378–382, 581–584, 594 square-bracket notation for, 389–390 standards of, 384–386, 393–395 solvation, 576 solvent, 351, 575 space shuttle, 979, 1090–1091, 1092 space-filling models, 175 Spanish flu, 504 specific heat, 428–429 spectator ions, 360 spectrochemical series, 1016 spectrophotometry, visible, 385 spherical distribution of electrons, 96–97 spin, electron, 95 spontaneous pneumothorax, 503–504 spontaneous processes, 619–620 enthalpy and, 620 entropy and, 620–637 predicting, 637–644 in redox reactions, 844–853 second law of thermodynamics and, 632–635 sports drinks, 351, 355 square packing, 541 square-bracket notation, 389–390 square-planar complexes, 1018 stability complex ion, 1019 molecular, bond enthalpy and, 444–448 nuclear, 48–49, 943–947 thermodynamic, 1019 stability (formation) constant, 808–811 standard atmospheric pressure, 478 standard enthalpy of formation, 440–444 standard enthalpy of reaction, 441–444 standard entropy, 623–626, 635–636 standard free energy of formation, 640–641, 648–649 standard free energy of reaction, 640–641, 648–649 standard hydrogen electrode (SHE), 836–838 standard reduction potentials, 836–843 standard solution, 393 standard temperature and pressure (STP), 492 standardization, 393–394 standing waves, 87 starch, 1066 state functions, 418, 424, 438 state of system, 418 states of matter, 22–23, 471, 531 stationary waves, 87 Staudinger, Hermann, 91, 1060–1061 steady state, 696 stereoisomers, 1010–1012, 1047–1052 Stern, Otto, 95 stock solution, 382–386 Stock system, 170 stoichiometric amount, 320–321 stoichiometric coefficients, 311, 912 stoichiometry, 389–390, 886–889 stomach, pH in, 387, 388, 723 stone leprosy, 989, 990 INDEX I-11 stratosphere, 974, 977, 980–984 strong acids, 363, 726–728 strong acid–strong base titrations, 784–786 strong acid–weak base titration, 790–792 strong bases, 363, 728–730 strong conjugate acid, 745 strong conjugate base, 745 strong electrolytes, 352–355, 360, 363 strong-field ligands, 1016 strontium-90, 150, 956, 959, 965 structural formulas, 175 structural formulas, condensed, 1040–1041 structural isomerism, 258–259, 1047 styrene, 1083, 1086 Styrofoam, 1083 subatomic particles, 40–45, 941–942 subcritical mass, 956 sublimation, 552, 553, 556–558, 626–627 submicroscopic level, substance, 22 substituents, 1034–1036 substituted alkanes, 1034–1036 substitution reactions, 1054–1058 substrates, for enzymes, 921–923 success, in chemistry class, 18 sugar(s) in nucleic acids, 1066–1067 in polysaccharides, 1066 solubility of, 351, 585 sulfur, 335–336 sulfur-35, 962 sulfur dioxide, 229, 309, 419, 550, 664, 981, 984 in acid rain, 229, 737, 989–992 sulfur trioxide, 229, 309, 336, 991 sulfuric acid, 352, 365, 720, 727, 748 in acid rain, 229, 336, 737 formation of, 229, 309, 336, 991, 992 in lead storage batteries, 854 Lewis structure of, 720 in volcanic eruptions, 982, 984 superacid, 716 superconducting transition temperature, 1105 superconductors, 1105 supercooling, 555 supercritical fluid, 553 superoxides, 233, 334, 965 supersaturated solutions, 575–576, 800 surface tension, 532, 533 surroundings, 415 energy/energy changes in, 415–421 entropy changes in, 631–637 suspension, 366 sutures, 1097 syndiotactic polymers, 1087 system, 415 calorimetry in, 427–438 energy/energy changes in, 415–421 enthalpy in, 424–427 entropy of, 578, 607–608, 622–631 equilibrium in, 655–656 shifting in, 686 state of, 418 T tacticity, 1086–1087 Tamiflu, 246 technetium, 964 Teflon, 1062, 1084 temperature absolute, 7, 484 combined gas law and, 489–490 critical, 553–554 and entropy, 626–627, 628, 635–636 and equilibrium, 690–691, 693 and free energy, 638–639, 642–643 ideal gas equation and, 491–495 measurement (scales) of, 5, 7–9, 484 and molecular speed, 474–475 and nuclear fusion, 960–961 and phase changes, 552–558 and reaction rate, 879, 880–881, 904–909 and solubility, 575, 585 standard, 492 as state function, 418 superconducting transition, 1105 and vapor pressure, 508, 533–536 volume and (Charles’s law), 483–485, 488 termolecular reaction, 911 tert-butyl group, 1030 tertiary carbon, 1028 tetrahedral complexes, 1018 tetrahedral molecule, 249, 251, 253 tetrodoxin, 308 thalidomide, 276–277, 1051 theoretical yield, 326 theory, 3, thermal energy, 67, 415–416 thermal pollution, 585, 958, 961 thermochemical equations, 425–427, 455 thermochemistry, 415–417 See also temperature calorimetry in, 427–438 definition of, 415 thermodynamic stability, 1019 thermodynamics, 417–421 enthalpy in, 424–427 first law of, 418–419 free energy in, 637–644, 844–853 in living systems, 635, 644–645 second law of, 618, 632–635 spontaneous and nonspontaneous processes in, 619–620 state and state functions in, 418 third law of, 635–636 thermometers, 5, 1093–1094 thermonuclear bomb, 961–962 thermonuclear reactions, 960 thermoplastic polymers, 1081 thermosetting polymers, 1081 thermosphere, 977 third law of thermodynamics, 635–636 third-order reactions, 892–893 Thomson, G P., 89 Thomson, J J., 41, 43 Thomson, William (Lord Kelvin), 484 thorium, 38, 108, 940, 959, 1096 thorium-232, 959 thorium-234, 947 3-D movies, 1049–1050 threshold frequency, 75–76 thrombocytes, 597 thymol blue, 794, 795 thyroid imaging, 963 time and half-life of radioactive isotopes, 948 and half-life of reactants, 899–903 measurement of, and reactant concentration, 895–904 tire pressure, 477 titration, acid-base, 393–397, 764–765, 784–795 tooth decay, 808 torr, 477, 478 tracers, 962–964 trans isomers, 1011–1012, 1047–1048 transition elements, 53, 129 transition metals, 53, 105–106, 108, 128–130, 169, 807, 1002–1005 transition state, 878 transmittance, 385 transmitted light, 1014 transmutation, nuclear, 941, 951–953 transuranium elements, 951–953 trends, periodic, 132–143, 331–337 See also periodic table trigonal bipyramidal molecule, 249, 251 trigonal planar molecule, 249, 251 triple bond, 214–215 triple point, 559 triprotic acids, 365 tritium, 46–47, 951 troposphere, 977 Trost, Barry, 330 Tyndall effect, 602–603 U ultraviolet radiation, 70, 72, 975, 977, 980 uncertainty, in measurement, 12–17 uncertainty principle, Heisenberg, 90–91 I-12 INDEX unimolecular reaction, 911–912 unit cell, 540–546 unit conversion, 18–21 units of measurement, 5–11, 18–21 unpaired electrons, 210, 231–233 unsaturated solution, 575–576, 800 uranium, 38, 42, 46–47 uranium-233, 959 uranium-235, 46–47, 953–959 uranium-238, 46–47, 927–928, 947, 949–950, 959 uranium decay series, 947, 949 urea, 742, 1027 V vaccination, valence band, 1101–1104 valence bond theory, 264–267, 290, 444, 1003 valence electrons, 128, 129, 131–132, 163–165, 211–214, 222–230, 264–267 valence-shell electron-pair repulsion (VSEPR) model, 247–254, 290 van der Waals, J D., 496 van der Waals constants, 497–500 van der Waals equation, 496–500 van der Waals forces, 259 van’t Hoff factor, 594–596 vapor pressure, 508 of liquids, 533–536, 552–554 lowering of, 588–590 of solids, 538–539, 556–558 vaporization, 471, 534, 552–554, 626–627 Versenate, 1009 vibrations, molecular, 624, 625, 877–878, 986–987 vinyl chloride, 1083 viscosity, 532–533 visible light, 70–72, 79, 385 visible spectrophotometry, 385 vision, 76, 1059 vitamins, solubility of, 604 volatile substances, 590 volcanoes, 470, 982, 984, 988 volume change in, and entropy, 628 change in, and equilibrium, 689–690, 694–695 combined gas law and, 489–490 constant, calorimetry in, 433–437 constant, reactions carried out in, 422–424 excluded, 499 as extensive property, 25 gas, 472, 473, 480–487 gas, equation for real behavior, 497–500 gas, ideal gas equation, 491–495 gas, molar, 510–511 gaseous reactant, 505–506 measurement of, 5, 6, 9–11, 10 moles and (Avogadro’s law), 485–489, 505 pressure and (Boyle’s law), 480–483, 487 as state function, 418 temperature and (Charles’s law), 483–485, 488 volumetric flask, 5, von Laue, Max, 544 vulcanization, 1083 W Waage, Peter, 658 water acid-base properties of, 722–724 aqueous species in, 310 autoionization of, 722–723 boiling point of, 7–8, 484, 592, 904 collection of gas over, 508–511 colloids in, 602–604 critical temperature and pressure of, 554 electrolysis of, 857–858 evaporation of, 471 extensive and intensive properties of, 25 formation of, 311, 333 formulas for, 177 freezing point of, 7–8, 484, 592 hard, 350 molar heat of fusion, 555 molar heat of vaporization, 553 phase changes of, 552–558 phase diagram of, 559 photodecomposition of, 975 physical states of, 23 as solvent, 722 See also aqueous solutions viscosity of, 533 water pollution, 1020 water softening, 350 wave (quantum) mechanics, 90–95 wave phases, 284 wave properties, 70–71, 87–89 wavelength, 70–73 wavelength, de Broglie, 88–89 wave-particle duality, 78 weak acids, 731–741 weak acid–strong base titration, 764–765, 786–790 weak base, 741–744 weak conjugate acid, 745 weak conjugate base, 745 weak electrolytes, 352–355 weak-field ligands, 1016 weight atomic, 50–52, 190 formula, 190 mass vs., molecular, 190 Werner, Alfred, 1003 Werner’s coordination theory, 1003 white blood cells, 597 white light, 79, 385, 1014 Wöhler, Friedrich, 1027 wood alcohol, 1030, 1032 work energy as capacity to do, 67 heat and, 419–421 pressure-volume, 422 sign conventions in, 420 X X-ray(s), 42, 70, 71, 72 X-ray diffraction, 89, 544–545 Y yield, of reaction, 326–327 yttrium barium copper oxide (YBCO), 1105 Z zero, absolute, 7, 484, 635–636 zeroth-order reaction, 893, 903 zinc electrodes, 833–836, 840–842 zinc iodide, 170 zinc-plating, 864 Fundamental Constants Avogadro’s number (NA) Electron charge (e) Electron mass Faraday constant (F) Gas constant (R) 6.0221418 × 1023 1.6022 × 10−19 C 9.109387 × 10−28 g 96,485.3 C/mol e− 0.08206 L · atm/K · mol 8.314 J/K · mol 62.36 L · torr/K · mol 1.987 cal/K · mol Planck’s constant (h) Proton mass Neutron mass Speed of light in a vacuum (c) 6.6256 × 10−34 J · s 1.672623 × 10−24 g 1.674928 × 10−24 g 2.99792458 × 108 m/s Some Prefixes Used with SI Units tera (T) 1012 centi (c) 10−2 giga (G) 109 milli (m) 10−3 mega (M) 106 micro (µ) 10−6 kilo (k) 103 nano (n) 10−9 deci (d) 10−1 pico (p) 10−12 Useful Conversion Factors and Relationships lb = 453.6 g in = 2.54 cm (exactly) mi = 1.609 km km = 0.6215 mi pm = × 10−12 m = × 10−10 cm atm = 760 mmHg = 760 torr = 101,325 N/m2 = 101,325 Pa cal = 4.184 J (exactly) L · atm = 101.325 J 1J=1C×1V ?°C = (°F − 32°F) × ?°F = 5°C 9°F 9°F × (°C) + 32°F 5°C ?K = (°C + 273.15°C) ( 1K 1°C ) Index of Important Figures and Tables Base SI Units Table 1.1 p Prefixes Used with SI Units Table 1.2 p Outermost Ground-State Electron Configurations Figure 3.26 p 106 Atomic Radii of Main Group Elements Figure 4.6 p 133 First Ionization Energies of Main Group Elements Figure 4.8 p 135 Electron Affinities of Main Group Elements Figure 4.10 p 138 Common Polyatomic Ions Table 5.10 p 185 Electron-Domain and Molecular Geometries of Molecules with Lone Pairs on the Central Atom Figure 7.2 p 249 Number of Electron Domains and Hybrid Orbitals on Central Atom Table 7.6 p 273 The Strong Acids Table 9.1 p 352 Solubility Guidelines: Soluble Compounds Table 9.2 p 358 Solubility Guidelines: Insoluble Compounds Table 9.3 p 358 Elements with Reliable Oxidation Numbers in Compounds or Polyatomic Ions Table 9.5 p 370 Activity Series Table 9.6 p 373 Common Oxidation Numbers Figure 9.8 p 377 Units of Pressure Commonly Used in Chemistry Table 11.2 p 477 Various Equivalent Expressions of the Gas Constant, R Table 11.4 p 492 Vapor Pressure of Water (P H2O) as a Function of Temperature Table 11.6 p 508 Ionization Constants of Some Weak Acids at 25°C Table 16.5 p 732 Ionization Constants of Some Weak Bases at 25°C Table 16.6 p 742 Ionization Constants of Some Diprotic and Polyprotic Acids at 25°C Table 16.7 p 748 Solubility Products of Some Slightly Soluble Ionic Compounds at 25°C Table 17.4 p 797 Formation Constants of Selected Complex Ions in Water at 25°C Table 17.5 p 809 Standard Reduction Potentials at 25°C Table 18.1 p 839 Alkyl Groups Table 23.1 p 1030 General Formulas for Select Classes of Organic Compounds Table 23.2 p 1031 ... 12. 7A (a) ∼110°C, ∼−10°C; (b) liquid 12. 7B Pressure (atm) 2. 0 S 1.0 L G 100 20 0 Temperature (°C) 300 SECTION REVIEW 12. 2.1 a 12. 2 .2 e 12. 2.3 b 12. 2.4 b 12. 3.1 d 12. 3 .2 a 12. 5.1 a 12. 5 .2 c 12. 6.1 a... PROBLEMS 12. 1A 26 5 mmHg 12. 1B 75.9 kJ/mol, 109°C 12. 2A 10.5 g/cm3 12. 2B Body-centered cubic 12. 3A Ca, F.  12. 3B Cs, Cl 12. 4A 2. 65 g/cm3 12. 4B 421 pm 12. 5A 2. 72 g/cm3 12. 5B 361 pm 12. 6A 984 kJ 12. 6B... (C2H6O2) is 62. 07 g/mol Kf and Kb for water are 1.86°C/m and 0. 52 C/m, respectively Solution 685 g C2H6O2 11.04 mol C2H6O2 = 11.04 mol C2H6O2   and    = 5. 32 m C2H6O2 62. 07 g/mol 2. 075 kg H2O