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Chapter 13 Absorption and Variable Costing Chapter 11 Absorption/Variable Costing and CostVolumeProfit Analysis Questions The two basic differences between absorption and variable costing lie in the treatment of fixed factory overhead and the presentation of costs/expenses on the income statement. Absorption costing treats fixed factory overhead as a product cost and allocates it to the units produced during the period; variable costing treats fixed overhead as a period expense and charges the full amount incurred to the income of the period. Absorption costing presents costs on the income statement in their functional categories without regard to cost behavior while variable costing presents costs on the income statement as either fixed or variable as well as product or period The underlying cause of the difference between absorption and variable costing is the definition of an asset. Asset cost should include all costs necessary to get an item into place and ready for sale or use. Absorption costing considers fixed overhead to be an inventoriable cost (asset) because products could not be produced without the basic manufacturing capacity represented by fixed overhead cost. Variable costing proponents, however, believe that fixed overhead is not an inventoriable cost because it is incurred regardless of whether production is achieved. This is not a problem for which there is a single correct answer since both positions have logical and rational arguments to support them. A functional classification requires cost to be classified based on the reason it was incurred, i.e., selling, administrative, or production. A behavioral classification of costs requires costs to be classified according to the way the cost behaves with changes in product volume, i.e., variable or fixed 25 25 26 Chapter 11 Absorption/Variable Costing and CostVolumeProfit Analysis Absorption costing is required for external reporting. The rationale is that fixed manufacturing overhead is regarded as a product cost and that it should therefore be included with the variable production costs and be shown as an expense only in the period in which the related products are sold Use of monetary, quantitative information varies greatly between external and internal users. External users emphasize profitability potential; internal users emphasize information that helps make sales, production, and capital expenditure decisions Both absorption and variable costing have a place in decision making. Accountants and decision makers need to understand the applications and limitations of the two techniques within the context of past, present, and future cost information needs. No matter which type of costing a firm uses, the firm’s total revenue must cover all costs—both variable and fixed—and also generate a satisfactory profit if a firm is to survive in the long run The methods of cost accumulation and cost presentation used for reporting are determined by what is acceptable to those parties for whom the reports are intended. External reporting is guided by the characteristics of reliability, uniformity, and consistency. Internal reporting is guided by flexibility in helping managers with planning, controlling, decision making, and performance evaluation Absorption costing requires a functional classification of costs, with two major cost groupings: product and period. Variable costing requires costs to be classified according to their behavior: fixed or variable. In addition, variable costing can employ a dual categorization of costs; costs are first classified by their behavior and then, within the behavioral classes, costs are further classified as to their function. Variable overhead is highly correlated with production, meaning that it statistically changes directly and proportionately with production. Because it behaves with respect to production the same way as direct material and direct labor, and treats only these three costs as product costs, many accountants have called it direct costing. Variable costing is a better term because all three costs are variable; however, variable overhead must be allocated and is, therefore, not direct Many important organizational decisions involve a consideration of impacts on volume of production and sales, and/or tradeoffs between variable and fixed costs. A scheme that requires costs to be classified by their behavior lends itself to these types of decisions Chapter 11 Absorption/Variable Costing and CostVolumeProfit Analysis 27 28 Chapter 11 Absorption/Variable Costing and CostVolumeProfit Analysis Student answers will vary. No solution provided 10 When the production level exceeds the sales level, absorption costing income will be higher than variable costing income because some of the fixed factory overhead incurred during the period will be deferred into inventory rather than going to the income statement. Since no fixed overhead is inventoried under variable costing, there will be more dollars of expense on the income statement under variable costing than there will be under absorption costing When the production level is less than the sales level, some of the fixed overhead deferred in previous periods will be charged against income as part of cost of goods sold under absorption costing in addition to the current period fixed overhead. Thus, there will be greater income charges under absorption costing than under variable, resulting in a smaller income amount 11 The breakeven point is the starting point for CVP analysis because before a company can earn profits, it must first cover all of its variable and fixed costs; the point at which all costs are just covered is the breakeven point 12 Contribution margin is selling price minus variable cost. Contribution margin is the amount that is available to cover fixed costs and generate profits for the company. It fluctuates in direct proportion with sales volume because the two elements used in its computation (selling price and variable cost) are both variable and, thus in total, fluctuate directly with sales volume 13 The usefulness of CVP analysis is its ability to clearly forecast income expected to result from the shortrun interplay of cost, volume, price, and quality. It is often useful in analyzing current problems regarding product mix, make or buy, sell or process further, and pricing In the long run, however, all of these factors and their relationships and the assumptions that underlie CVP regarding these factors are likely to change. This emphasizes that CVP only holds true for the short run. Results must be recalculated periodically to maintain validity 14 The variable costing income statement is depicted by the following equation: Sales variable costs fixed costs = pretax income. At any operating level, total revenues are equal to total expenses plus profits (or minus losses). Total expenses can be illustrated by the formula for a straight line (y=a+bX). At the breakeven point, y (total costs) is equal to total revenues. By adding an additional amount for desired profit, it is "as if another cost needs to be covered, requiring revenues to increase to that extent." Chapter 11 Absorption/Variable Costing and CostVolumeProfit Analysis 29 30 Chapter 11 Absorption/Variable Costing and CostVolumeProfit Analysis 15 If fixed costs increase and selling price and variable costs remain constant, contribution margin will not change because fixed costs do not enter into the computation of contribution margin. Because a larger amount of fixed costs must now be covered by the same amount of contribution margin per unit, the breakeven point will rise 16 Contribution margin per unit can be divided into fixed costs to compute breakeven point in units. Contribution margin percentage can be divided into fixed costs to compute break even point in sales dollars 17 The contribution margin ratio is simply the contribution margin per unit divided by the sales price per unit. The breakeven point is obtained by dividing total fixed costs by the contribution margin ratio 18 Since taxes will reduce income before taxes by $.40 of each dollar, the income that will remain to be considered net income or profits will only be $.60 of each dollar. Therefore, to generate $.60 of net income, the company will need to produce $1.00 of income before taxes dividing what is desired by the remaining portion after taxes yields the corresponding value before taxes 19 The "bag" or "basket" assumption means that a multiproduct firm will consider that the products it sells are sold in a constant, proportional sales mix as if in a bag of goods. It is necessary to make this assumption in order to determine the contribution margin for the entire company product line, since individual products' contribution margins may differ significantly. A single contribution margin must be used in CVP analysis so the "bag" or "basket" assumption allows CVP computations to be made 20 The margin of safety is a measure that presents the difference between the actual or pro forma level of sales and its break even point, BEP. Remember that the BEP is not a commercial objective, but rather a reference point against which actual or pro forma sales can be compared, and the margin of safety measures either the comfort or risk, depending on whether the margin of safety is greater than or less than the BEP. Therefore, the margin of safety is the relationship of actual or pro forma sales to the BEP reference point Chapter 11 Absorption/Variable Costing and CostVolumeProfit Analysis 31 21 Operating leverage refers to the amount of fixed costs relative to variable costs in a company's cost structure. Higher operating leverage is associated with a higher proportion of fixed costs; lower operating leverage is associated with a lower level of fixed costs. The level of operating leverage is dependent on the level of revenues. Further, operating leverage provides information about how profit will change when revenue changes. High operating leverage indicates that the level of profit is very sensitive to a change in revenue level. The reverse is true for low operating leverage Margin of safety is the difference between actual or projected sales and breakeven level sales. It identifies the amount by which sales could fall and still leave the firm's bottom line in the black 22 Breakeven charts are prepared to show, in graphic form, the relationships between revenues, expenses, volume, and profits (losses). The traditional breakeven chart does not present contribution margin, whereas the contemporary breakeven chart does. On the contemporary breakeven chart, contribution margin is indicated by the area between the revenue line and the variable cost line. The profitvolume graph plots profit against volume Exercises 23 24 a (20,000 18,400) × $8.50 = $13,600 b (20,000 18,400) × ($8.50 $1.50) = $11,200 c Absorption costing would have produced the higher net income because it would have required $2,400 (1,600 × $1.50) of fixed manufacturing overhead to be inventoried rather than to be charged against income The only difference between variable and absorption net income is due to the difference in treatment of fixed manufacturing overhead Fixedoverheadexpensed: Variablecosting$500,000 Absorptioncosting($500,000ì(37,500ữ40,000))468,750 NIdifference$31,250 Thecompany'snetincomewouldhavebeen$31,250higher 32 25 Chapter11 Absorption/VariableCostingandCostưVolumeưProfitAnalysis a Ingredients Labor Variable overhead Total variable cost Divided by units Variable cost per unit $28,000 13,000 24,000 $65,000 ÷100,000 $0.65 Total variable cost $65,000 Fixed overhead 12,000 Total cost $77,000 Divided by units ữ100,000 Absorptioncostperunit $0.77 b Variablecostofgoodssold=99,000ì$0.65=$64,350 c Costofgoodssold=99,000ì$0.77=$76,230 d Endinginventory(variablecosting)=1,000ì$0.65 =$650 Endinginventory(absorptioncosting)=1,000ì$0.77 =$770 Fixedoverheadchargedtoexpense(variablecosting) =$12,000 Fixedoverheadchargedtoexpense(absorptioncosting) =99,000ì($12,000ữ100,000)=99,000ì$0.12=$11,880 e 26 a Incomeưvariablecosting$90,000 Deduct additional fixed cost ($6 × 2,000) 12,000 Incomeabsorption costing $78,000 b Incomevariable costing $ 90,000 Add inventoriable fixed cost ($6 × 3,000) 18,000 Incomeabsorption costing $108,000 27 a 1. Charming Curios Income Statement (Absorption Costing Basis) For the Month ended April 2002 ($000 omitted) Sales $4,800 Less cost of goods sold: Variable cost per unit $ 24 Fixed overhead cost per unit 10 Total unit cost $ 34 Times number of units sold × 100 Cost of goods sold at standard $3,400 Less production volume variance (5,000 units @ $10) (50) (3,350) Gross margin $1,450 Less fixed selling & administrative expenses (800) Income before taxes $ 650 Chapter 11 Absorption/Variable Costing and CostVolumeProfit Analysis 33 Difference in incomes = $600 $650 = ($50) Thisamountisequaltotheincreaseininventoryof 5,000unitsì$10perunitfixedoverheaddeferred inendinginventoryunderabsorptioncosting b Theviceưpresidentofmarketingshouldfindthevariable costingapproachtoincomedeterminationdesirablefor manyreasons,includingthese: ãVariablecostingincomevarieswithunitssold,not unitsproduced ãFixedmanufacturingoverheadcostsarechargedagainst revenueintheperiodinwhichtheyareincurred; consequently,manufacturingcostperunitdoesnot changewithachangeinproductionlevel ãThecontributionmarginoffersausefultoolformaking decisionsthatconsiderchangesinrelationshipsamong costs,volumelevels,andprofitfigures (CMAadapted) 28 a Estimatedfixedoverhead=$0.16ì200,000=$32,000 b Actual (and estimated) fixed overhead Applied fixed overhead (180,000 × $.16) Underapplied fixed overhead (absorption) $32,000 28,800 $ 3,200 There would be no under or overapplied fixed overhead under variable costing since fixed overhead is not applied to units of product c Direct materials Direct labor Variable overhead Cost per unit (variable) Fixed overhead Cost per unit (absorption) $0.18 0.10 0.05 $0.33 0.16 $0.49 d Absorption Cost of Goods Sold (195,000 × $0.49) $ 95,550 Plus underapplied overhead 3,200 Adjusted cost of goods sold $ 98,750 Selling and administrative costs: Variable (195,000 × $0.14) $ 27,300 Fixed 150,000 177,300 Total period costs (absorption) $276,050 Variable cost of goods sold (195,000 × $0.33) $ 64,350 Variable selling expenses (195,000 × $0.14) 27,300 Fixed overhead 32,000 Fixed selling and administrative 150,000 Total period costs (variable) $273,650 34 29 30 Chapter 11 Absorption/Variable Costing and CostVolumeProfit Analysis e Income will be higher under variable costing because the sales level is greater than the production level. It will be higher by the fixed overhead per unit ($0.16) times the change in inventory (15,000 unit decline) or $2,400 a Totalrevenuerisesby$50+$42=$92 b Totalcostsrisebytheamountofvariablecosts,$42 c TotalpretaxprofitrisesattherateoftheCMperunit, $50 Breakeveninunits=$120,875ữ($60ư$35)=4,835units;in dollarsbreakeven=4,835ì$60=$290,100 31 Let Y = level of sales that generate pretax income = 30% of sales, then: Y 0.60Y ($50,000 × 12) = 0.30Y 0.10Y = $600,000 Y = $6,000,000 Since existing sales are $2,500,000, sales would need to increase by $6,000,000 $2,500,000 = $3,500,000 32 a First, convert the desired aftertax income to a pretax desired income: $495,014 ÷ (1 0.35) = $761,560 Note that total variable costs per unit = $1,800, and total fixed costs = $280,420 Next, let P represent the number of playhouses that must be sold to generate $761,560 in pretax income: $3,000P $1,800P $280,420 = $761,560 $1,200P = $1,041,980 = 869 playhouses (rounded) b Find aftertax equivalent of 20%: 20% ÷ (1 0.35) = 30.77%. Variable costs as a percentage of sales: $1,800 ÷ $3,000 = 60% Let R = the level of revenue that generates a pretax return of 30.77%: R 0.60R $280,420 = 0.3077R 0.0923R = $280,420 R = $3,038,137 (rounded) Chapter 11 Absorption/Variable Costing and CostVolumeProfit Analysis 63 Reliable should consider such things as: connections to other Reliable flights that might be made by these passengers longrange potential for increased load factors increased customer goodwill in this new market increased employment opportunities for labor in the area competition in the market Reality Check 52 Substantial cost structure implications must be considered in selecting from the alternative production technologies. Machinebased technologies will tend to have much higher levels of fixed costs and lower levels of variable costs than laborintense technologies. Accordingly, the machinebased technologies will have higher operating leverage. Having higher operating leverage means that the firm’s income will be much more sensitive to changes in level of sales. Because higher operating leverage is associated with higher income sensitivity to volume changes, high operating leverage is desired if future sales are expected to be increasing. Higher leverage allows net income to grow at a higher rate as sales increase. Alternatively, if the future portends decreasing sales, firms will prefer to have low operating leverage because costs will tend to fall more rapidly as sales diminish. With high operating leverage, costs will remain more constant as sales drop causing net income to drop very rapidly. In an ideal world, one would desire to have a very low level of fixed costs below the breakeven point and only fixed costs above the breakeven point. If the cost structure contained only fixed costs, then each dollar of revenue above the breakeven point would generate a dollar of income before profit. CVP analysis is useful to determine when a firm should consider trading variable costs for fixed costs in order to shift the cost structure from more variable to more fixed, or vice versa. For a given level of sales, a company with mostly variable costs will have a higher margin of safety than a similar firm with mostly fixed costs. If a firm had only variable costs, its sales could fall to zero without causing the firm to incur a loss. Consequently, its breakeven point is zero. The firm with a high level of fixed costs would have a much higher breakeven point. 64 Chapter 11 Absorption/Variable Costing and CostVolumeProfit Analysis 53 An issue in the use of CVP analysis is that CVP analysis requires costs to be classified as either variable or fixed. The outcome of CVP analysis is sensitive to variations in this classification. In making decisions that rely on CVP analyses, it is important to be mindful of the requirement to dichotomize costs between these two categories (fixed and variable). Further, it is important to recognize that in the long term all costs are variable. A problem arises when shortterm decisions have longterm consequences. In this circumstance, costs will have been incorrectly considered in the CVP analysis because too many of the costs would have been classified as fixed. Accordingly, the greatest potential for problems arises in situations in which a longterm decision is made on the basis of a shortterm classification of costs. A further observation is that CVP decisions are made in an incremental fashion. This means that each decision is made independently of all other decisions. The reality is that past decisions affect future decisions and shortterm decisions can affect longterm decisions. CVP analysis can be used in long, medium, and short term decision making. The key is to use a classification of costs that is appropriate for the time horizon. For longer term decisions, newer cost control technologies such as activitybased costing can be used to determine which costs are likely to vary with decision alternatives being considered. By relating the cost drivers to the decision at hand, managers can determine which costs are likely to be affected, and by how much, by the decision being made 54 The debate surrounding the use of variable costing versus absorption costing for valuing inventory hinges on whether the incurrence of fixed overhead creates an asset. A cost incurred to create an asset, as opposed to a cost that is an expense of the period, must be capitalized and should not be charged against revenues (expensed) until its related benefit is recognized in income. Since inventory is an asset, any costs that are incurred to create that asset, including fixed overhead, should be considered for capitalization. This is the argument for use of absorption costing. However, proponents of variable costing argue that the incurrence of fixed overhead relates more to the capacity to produce than production per se. Accordingly, these people argue that fixed overhead is not directly related to production sufficiently to be considered an inventoriable cost Chapter 11 Absorption/Variable Costing and CostVolumeProfit Analysis 55 65 a Fixed costs that would increase include the additional equipment costs and salaries for testing, treating, storage and disposal of treated waste. Increased variable costs would include labor wages, the treatment supplies, and energy costs of performing the treatment and disposing of the neutralized waste. The increases in these variable costs would lower the product contribution margin unless prices are raised to compensate b After determining that the substance is toxic, the president has to consider business as usual versus the costs of treatment and/or proper disposal which may make product prices uncompetitive, preserving the health of humans downriver, the effects on fish, wildlife and the environment, maintaining the good name and reputation of the company, the impact on the stakeholders should the dumping be discovered, the legality of falsifying the reports, the impact on the employees should the plant be closed from lack of profitability, the economic stability of the town, and its dependence on the plant for survival c The employees are implying that not addressing the problem is the lesser of evils because there is no proof that the waste causes cancer; (2) to clean up the problem may cause the company to become uncompetitive; (3) 10,000 employees could lose their jobs; and (4) the town's economy could collapse The fault with the above rationalizations about the waste not being toxic to humans lies partially in the fact that the company failed to recognize the damage to other nonhuman environmental participants. The waste may be potentially harmful to the fish and other organisms in the river and the polluted water is absorbed by the surrounding land (thus polluting the land). Furthermore, the fishermen sell their polluted catches to outside markets, thus spreading the effects of the pollution even further Fault is also seen in the rationalization because the company falsified the levels of suspected cancer causing materials in its reports to authorities. If the company truly believed that no harm was being done to either the people downstream or the environment, why were the reports falsified? Doing so instilled a false sense of security in the members of its society (both employees and townspeople) regarding their general welfare. If the company had provided accurate disclosure of toxicity levels, the public would have had the opportunity to decide whether to remain on their jobs or in the vicinity of the polluters, look for work elsewhere or relocate to an area where better conditions exist, or to seek the 66 Chapter 11 Absorption/Variable Costing and CostVolumeProfit Analysis necessary assistance in requiring the company to take corrective action These rationalizations seem to indicate that unhealthy and unethical acts can be permitted and tolerated if a large number of directly affected people benefit without regard for the effects on persons or entities that are indirectly affected. While utilitarianism does look at the greatest good for the greatest number, it considers all partiesdirectly and indirectly affectedin making that costbenefit analysis The company in this case is not considering the indirect effects of its actions d The president must take some action to deal with the problem. First, the dumping should be discontinued altogether until the waste is tested to determine if it is cancer causing. If it is not, obtain information on the environmental effects of the dumping and, if unharmful, continue to dump. The company should then report its findings to the authorities and discontinue falsifying its reports If the waste is cancer causing or causes significant environmental damage, the company should immediately issue a policy statement that no additional dumping shall take place. Then the costs of treating the waste to neutralize it should be compared to other alternatives that might exist or could be created such as using it as a raw material in another product or introducing alternative processing methods. The company could solicit the employees' and townspeople's assistance since all have a large vested interest in finding a solution to the problem. Investigation of how other companies producing the same waste handle the problem would be helpful; some of this type of information should be available from EPA or state environmental agencies. If other companies are handling the waste in a similar manner, all companies could be liable for the costs of cleanup, which would disallow any economic advantage to the other companies. In addition, the company should investigate the costs of (if possible) cleaning up the waste that has already been dumped. Since all of these options take time, however, the company will most likely have to incur additional shortrun costs so that the longrun effects can be minimized 56 Student answers will vary. No solution provided 57 Student answers will vary. No solution provided ... Chapter 11 Absorption/Variable? ?Costing? ?and? ?Cost? ?Volume? ?Profit? ?Analysis 27 28 Chapter 11 Absorption/Variable? ?Costing? ?and? ?Cost? ?Volume? ?Profit? ?Analysis Student answers will vary. No? ?solution? ?provided 10 When the production level exceeds the sales level, absorption ... Absorption/Variable? ?Costing? ?and? ?Cost? ?Volume? ?Profit? ?Analysis CM% = $127 ÷ $291.20 = 43.61% ($1,200,000 + ($680,000 ÷ (10.40))) ÷ .4361 = $5,350,455 Chapter 11 Absorption/Variable? ?Costing? ?and? ?Cost? ?Volume? ?Profit? ?Analysis. .. Absorption/Variable? ?Costing? ?and? ?Cost? ?Volume? ?Profit? ?Analysis 49 Net income $ 578,110 50 Chapter 11 Absorption/Variable? ?Costing? ?and? ?Cost? ?Volume? ?Profit? ?Analysis 45 $1,365,000 $889,400 = 1.53 rounded