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CHAPTER 2 PROFIT PLANNING 21 Assumptions and Misconceptions about CVP Analysis General Note to the Instructor: This question can prove difficult because it requires not only considerable understanding of the concepts introduced in Chapter 2 but also some anticipation of concepts introduced in Chapter 3. The purposes of the questions are to stimulate discussion of the uses and limitations of CVP analysis and to counter the natural student skepticism regarding the applicability of basic concepts in light of the factors that make it impossible to portray the practicalities of business operations in the simple forms offered by theoretical analysis. The points to be made are that, the uncertainties of the real world notwithstanding, managers must plan and take actions and that any actions managers take implicitly reflect some assumptions about the future. For example, a store owner must set some prices, and the action of setting a price reflects some expectations about volume and costs. Similarly, a manager must decide not only whether or not to advertise but also, if some advertising is to be done, how much is reasonable. A manager must also decide how many employees to have as well as a host of other matters. CVP analysis, though far from a cureall, provides a reasonable basis for planning 1. CVP analysis answers "what if" and "what must we do to achieve" questions. It is a planning tool and helps managers see what should occur given certain estimates of the values of important variables. All of the classmate's statements are true; but they relate to facts that can only be known after the manager is required to decide what to do. A manager must decide what to do on the basis of estimates because the future is not known The emphasis in CVP analysis is not on past costs nor on current costs, but rather on the costs that can be expected in the future. A manager must make some estimates of the expected pattern of increases of costs and prices, and it is those estimates of expected patterns that form the basis for successful use of CVP analysis. Plans can be made by month, or for the entire year, or for some period of time in between those two extremes. The point is that planning relates to the future. It is probably impossible to overemphasize this point 2. Note to the Instructor: The depth of the answer to be expected on this question depends on the depth of the students' knowledge and understanding of microeconomics. In any case it is important to emphasize that basic study in microeconomic theory assumes that managers of a firm have information that is not, in fact, automatically available to them 21 The typical demand curve for a particular product has a negative slope. But CVP analysis is not concerned so much with the relationship between price and quantity demanded as it is with the likely results of a particular price and, implicitly, a set of other variables such as advertising expenditures. CVP analysis does not purport to answer the question, "How many will we sell at this price?" Rather it answers questions about profits at given levels of volume and price. CVP analysis is a planning tool. Note also that the idea of relevant range is important here. A cost structure (mix of variable and fixed costs) holds over a range of volume levels for a single firm regardless of the sales price of the product. (To emphasize the points of difference between microeconomic theory and break even analysis, note also that the longrun cost curves used for the former do not assume the same cost structures at each level of volume.) 3. Again, CVP analysis is a planning tool and utilizes the best information available at a given point in time when planning must take place. If a manager knows (or considers it probable) that certain costs will change, his CVP analysis should take such knowledge into consideration, for that analysis is, by virtue of its being a planning tool, future oriented 4. The possibility of reduced prices does not reduce the usefulness of CVP analysis but only changes the manner in which the analysis is carried out. There are several ways to handle the problem proposed by some sales at reduced prices. One way is to integrate into the calculation of contribution margin percentage the effects of sales at reduced prices. Another is to estimate separately the contribution margins from sales at regular prices and sales at reduced prices. In either case, the critical concern is the quantity of merchandise that the manager believes will have to be sold at reduced prices 22 Effects of Events 1. The slope of the revenue line will increase 2. The slope of the total cost line will increase, but the intercept will remain the same 3. The graph will not change, but the expected volume will be higher 23 Effects of Keeping Up With Technology The statement describes a typical situation in a retailing company dependant upon technology. Amazon.com will face large and continued fixed costs expenditures to support its marketing and promotion, product development and technology, and operating infrastructure development. Amazon.com’s variable costs are primarily the cost of the merchandise (books, audio, and video) sold. To achieve profitability, Amazon.com must emphasize revenue growth 22 24 Income Statement and CVP Analysis (1015 minutes) 1. Sales $480,000 Variable costs 360,000 Contribution margin 120,000 Fixed costs 80,000 Income $ 40,000 2. (a) 40,000 units $80,000/($8 $6) (b) $320,000, $8 x 40,000, or $80,000/[($8 $6)/$8] Note to the Instructor: We can calculate required volumes incrementally, either in units or dollars, by dividing the existing income or loss by the contribution margin (per unit or percentage) and subtracting that from existing sales. For breakeven units, the calculations are as follows: Income $ 40,000 Divided by contribution margin per unit ($8 $6) $2 Equals decrease in unit sales to reach breakeven point 20,000 Subtracted from current unit volume 60,000 Equals breakeven unit sales 40,000 3. (a) 100,000 units $80,000/[($8 $6) (15% x $8)] = $80,000/($2 $1.20) (b) $800,000 100,000 x $8, or $80,000/(25% 15%) The contribution margin percentage of 25% is ($8 $6)/$8 An income statement shows, Sales $800,000 Variable costs 600,000 Contribution margin 200,000 Fixed costs 80,000 Income $120,000 15% x $800,000 4. $8.67 rounded Desired profit ($40,000 x 2) $ 80,000 Plus fixed costs 80,000 Equals required contribution margin $160,000 Divided by volume 60,000 units Equals required perunit contribution margin $ 2.67 Plus perunit variable cost 6.00 Equals required selling price $ 8.67 25 Income Statement and CVP Analysis (1015 minutes) 1. Sales $800,000 Variable costs at 40% 320,000 Contribution margin 480,000 Fixed costs 450,000 Income $ 30,000 2. $750,000 $450,000/(100% 40%) 23 3. $850,000 [$450,000 + (2 x $30,000)]/(100% 40%) = $510,000/60% You might wish to show that this part can also be solved by finding the increase in sales required to increase profit by $30,000. That is $50,000 ($30,000/60%). Adding $50,000 to existing sales of $800,000 gives $850,000. 26 Income Statement and CVP Analysis with Taxes (1520 minutes) 1. Sales $480,000 Variable costs 360,000 Contribution margin 120,000 Fixed costs 80,000 Income before taxes 40,000 Income taxes at 30% 12,000 Income $ 28,000 2. Desired income (2 x $28,000) $ 56,000 Divided by 70% = required pretax income $ 80,000 Plus fixed costs 80,000 Equals required contribution margin $160,000 Divided by unit contribution margin $2 (a) Equals unit sales required 80,000 Times unit price $8 (b) Equals sales dollars required $640,000 Note to the Instructor: An alternative calculation is to divide the required contribution margin by the contribution margin percentage. Required contribution margin $160,000 Divided by contribution margin percentage 25% Equals sales dollars required $640,000 3. $8.67 rounded This is the same question and answer as requirement 4 of 24. Income taxes do not affect pretax profit calculations or breakeven calculations. Desired pretax profit ($40,000 x 2) $ 80,000 Plus fixed costs 80,000 Equals required contribution margin $160,000 Divided by volume 60,000 Equals required perunit contribution margin $ 2.67 Plus variable cost 6.00 Equals required price $ 8.67 Note to the Instructor: The $8.67 price also doubles the aftertax profit. We asked the assignment in this way to highlight that doubling pretax profit is equivalent to doubling aftertax profit 24 27 Income Statement and CVP Analysis with Taxes (1520 minutes) 1. Sales $800,000 Variable costs 320,000 Contribution margin 480,000 Fixed costs 450,000 Income before taxes 30,000 Income taxes at 40% 12,000 Income $ 18,000 2. Desired income (2 x $18,000 above) $ 36,000 Divided by (100% 40%) 60% Equals required pretax income 60,000 Plus fixed costs 450,000 Equals required contribution margin $510,000 Divided by contribution margin percentage 60% Equals sales required $850,000 28 Basic CVP Analysis (2025 minutes) 1. (a) 33,334 units (rounded) $600,000/($30 $12) = $600,000/$18 (b) $1,000,000 $600,000/($18/$30) = $600,000/60%, or 33,334 x $30 2. (a) 40,000 units ($600,000 + $120,000)/$18 (b) $1,200,000 ($600,000 + $120,000)/60%, or 40,000 x $30 3. (a) 41,667 (rounded) $600,000/($18 [12% x $30]) = $600,000/$14.40 (b) $1,250,00 $600,000/(60% 12%) = $600,000/48%, or 41,667 x $30 4. $35.33 rounded Sales variable costs fixed costs = profit S (30,000 x $12) $600,000 = $100,000 S $360,000 $600,000 = $100,000 S = $1,060,000 Price = $1,060,000/30,000 = $35.33 5. $35.93 rounded Sales variable costs fixed costs = profit S 30,000 x $9 10%S $600,000 = $100,000 S $270,000 10%S $600,000 = $100,000 90%S = $970,000 S = $1,077,778 Price = $1,077,078/30,000 = $35.93 (rounded) Note to the Instructor: This basic exercise makes the point that CVP analysis and other techniques can yield impossible answers, here fractions of units or pennies. Some students believe that if their answer is not a whole number, they must have done something wrong. (This feeling is especially prevalent during examinations.) 29 Basic CVP Relationships, with Income Taxes (1520 minutes) 25 1. (a) 266,667 units ($3,000,000 + [$600,000/60%])/($40 $25) = $4,000,000/$15 (b) $10,666,667 Total required contribution margin (part a) $4,000,000 Divided by contribution margin percentage ($40 $25)/$40 37.5% Or, 266,667 x $40 2. $38.333 Required contribution margin (part 1) $4,000,000 Divided by units 300,000 Required contribution margin per unit $ 13.333 Plus variable cost 25.000 Required price $ 38.333 3. $38.15 rounded Sales variable costs fixed costs = pretax profit S (300,000 x $21) 10%S $3,000,000 = $1,000,000 90%S = $10,300,000 S = $11,444,444 Price = $11,444,444/300,000 = $38.15 rounded 210 Relationships Among Variables (2030 minutes) 1. To work this part it is necessary to start with the second blank (d) $78,000, $28,000 + $50,000 (c) 2,600 units ($78,000/$30 contribution margin per unit) Contribution margin per unit ($50 x 60%) $30 Contribution margin in total, from part (d) $78,000 2. (b) 75% (100% contribution margin of 25%) Contribution margin per unit ($60,000/3,000) $20 Contribution margin percentage ($20/$80) 25% (e) $80,000, (loss of $20,000 after deducting fixed costs from a contribution margin of $60,000) 3. Again, it is necessary to start with the second blank (d) $75,000, $25,000 + $50,000 (b) 80% (100% contribution margin percentage of 20%) Contribution margin per unit ($75,000/15,000) $5 Contribution margin percentage ($5/$25) 20% 26 211 Relationships Among Variables (1520 minutes) 1. $8 selling price $6 + ($2,000/1,000) $800 fixed costs $2,000 $1,200 2. 2,000 units sold $4,000/($5 $3) $2,500 income $4,000 $1,500 3. $10 selling price $6 + ($16,000/4,000) $8,000 income $16,000 $8,000 212 CVP Graph (1015 minutes) 1. $6,000 2. $2,000, which is the answer at all levels of sales 3. $4,000, the difference between $6,000 total costs at the 4,000unit (breakeven) level minus $2,000 fixed costs. You do not need variable cost per unit to solve this part 4. $1.00, $4,000/4,000 from the previous part. Or, read the value of total cost at any level above zero sales, subtract fixed costs of $2,000, and divide by unit sales 5. $1.00, same as in part 4. This question emphasizes the point that variable cost per unit remains constant throughout the relevant range 6. $1.50, $6,000 sales divided by 4,000 units at the breakeven point. 7. $1,500, $0.50 contribution margin ($1.50 $1.00) times 3,000 units 8. $500 loss, $1,500 contribution margin (part 7) minus $2,000 fixed costs 9. $500 profit, which is contribution margin of $2,500 (500 x $0.50) less fixed costs of $2,000 10. 5,000 units. This is $2,500 fixed costs divided by $0.50 contribution margin per unit 213 Basic Sales Mix (10 minutes) 1. 34% 12% + 7% + 15% Produce Meat/Dairy Canned Goods Contribution margin percentage 40% 35% 30% Sales mix percentage 30% 20% 50% Weightedaverage contribution margin 12% 7% 15% 2. $2,000,000 $680,000/34% 3. $2,617,647 ($680,000 + $210,000)/34% 27 214 Improving Sales Mix (1520 minutes) 1. 62% 20% + 18% + 24% Termites Lawn Pests Interior Pests Contribution margin percentage 50% 60% 80% Sales mix percentage * 40% 30% 30% Weightedaverage 20% 18% 24% * $160,000/$400,000; $120,000/$400,000, $120,000/$400,000 Alternatively, some students will solve for total contribution margin by carrying out the multiplication of CM% by budgeted sales, then adding the sales and contribution margins. This part tests to see whether students understand the concept of sales mix by presenting the information in a different form from that in the text 2. $98,000 Contribution margin, $400,000 x 62% $248,000 Fixed costs 150,000 Profit $ 98,000 3. (a) 68% 10% + 18% + 40% Termites Lawn pests Interior pests Contribution margin percentage 50% 60% 80% Sales mix percentage 20% 30% 50% Weightedaverage 10% 18% 40% (b) $122,000 Contribution margin ($400,000 x 68%) $272,000 Fixed costs 150,000 Profit $122,000 Note to the Instructor: This exercise demonstrates that sales mix affects profit (through its effect on the contribution margin percentage). Thus, even though selling prices, the percentages of variable cost to price, total fixed costs, and total sales dollars remained constant, the shift in sales mix resulted in a six percentage point increase in the weightedaverage contribution margin percentage and a corresponding six percentage point increase in return on sales, an additional $24,000 profit 215 Margin of Safety (510 minutes) 2,250 units, or $202,500 (2,250 x $90), as computed below Expected sales, in units 16,000 Fixed costs $275,000 Contribution margin, $90 $52 (20% x $90) $ 20 Breakeven point 13,750 Margin of safety, in units 2,250 216 Alternative CVP Graph (continuation of 215) (1015 minutes) 28 Perunit contribution margin under the alternative is $26.50 [$90 $41 (25% x $90)] and the breakeven point is 12,264 units ($325,000 fixed costs/ $26.50), which is 1,486 less than before 300,000 200,000 100,000 -100,000 - 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000 -200,000 -300,000 -400,000 The graph highlights the desirability of the change. Profit is higher under the alternative once volume reaches 7,692 units ($50,000 difference in fixed costs divided by $6.50 difference in contribution margin). Because the company expects sales of 16,000 units, unless the new production/marketing strategies will reduce volume, the alternative dominates the existing case 217 CVP Graph, Analysis of Changes (510 minutes) Revenue Line Total Cost Line Breakeven Point 1. Decrease slope No effect Increase (shallower revenue line) 2. No effect Decrease slope Lower (decrease) (shallower angle on cost line) 3. No effect Higher intercept of Not determinable (the cost line, but re answer depends on the duction of slope of specific numbers) that line 4. No effect No effect No effect 5. Increase slope Increase slope Not determinable (depends on relationship between price and cost changes) Note to the Instructor: This exercise should help students understand 29 how changes in the basic facts of a situation will change its graphical analysis. To emphasize that both the graphic and the contributionmargin approaches allow conceptual analysis of breakeven situations, you might wish to review each of the above changes using the contributionmargin approach, as follows: A price decrease decreases perunit contribution margin, which raises the breakeven point 2. A decrease in perunit variable cost increases perunit contribution margin, which lowers the breakeven point 3. A decrease in perunit variable cost increases perunit contribution margin and therefore reduces the breakeven point. An increase in fixed costs increases the breakeven point, so the effect of the two events cannot be determined without knowing the numerical amounts 4. Since price, perunit variable costs, and total fixed costs do not change, the breakeven point remains the same. The company's profit will be lower than expected, but breakeven remains the same 5. An increase in selling price increases contribution margin, thus lowering the breakeven point; but an increase in perunit variable cost decreases contribution margin, thus raising the breakeven point. The ultimate effect on the breakeven point depends on the relative magnitudes of the changes in the two factors 218 Converting an Income Statement (20 minutes) 1. Sales $400,000 Variable costs: Cost of goods sold $240,000 Commissions ($400,000 x 10%) 40,000 Total variable costs 280,000 Contribution margin 120,000 Fixed costs: Salaries ($71,000 $40,000) 31,000 Utilities 10,000 Rent 15,000 Other 25,000 Total fixed costs 81,000 Income $ 39,000 2. (a) 10,800 units $81,000/$7.50 Volume is $400,000/$25 = 16,000, so contribution margin is $120,000/16,000 = $7.50 (b) $270,000 10,800 x $25 or $81,000/30% (30% = $120,000/$400,000) 210 235 CVP in a Service Business (1015 minutes) 1. $200,000 Hours generated internally, 15 x 2,000 30,000 Hours from freelancers, 80,000 30,000 50,000 Total hours 80,000 Revenues at $40 per hour $3,200,000 Variable cost, 50,000 x $25 1,250,000 Contribution margin 1,950,000 Fixed costs 1,750,000 Profit $ 200,000 2. 56,667 Fixed costs plus desired profit ($1,750,000 + $300,000) $2,050,000 Revenue from internal billing, 30,000 x $40 (no variable cost) 1,200,000 Contribution needed from freelancers 850,000 Required hours, $850,000/($40 $25) 56,667 Or, to increase profit by $100,000 from $200,000 to $300,000 requires 6,667 additional hours, which is $100,000/$15 contribution per hour 236 Developing CVP Information (2530 minutes) April May Sales $100,000 $80,000 Variable costs: Cost of sales (40% of sales) $40,000 $32,000 Commissions (20% of sales) 20,000 16,000 Supplies (2% of sales) 2,000 1,600 Total variable costs (62% of sales) 62,000 49,600 Contribution margin (38% of sales) 38,000 30,400 Fixed costs: Rent $ 1,200 $ 1,200 Salaries* 14,500 14,500 Insurance 1,100 1,100 Utilities 1,500 1,500 Miscellaneous 6,000 6,000 Total fixed costs 24,300 24,300 Income $13,700 $ 6,100 *Calculation of fixed cost of salaries: Salaries, wages commissions for April $34,500 Less variable cost of commissions: April sales $100,000 Commission percentage 20% Commissions for April 20,000 Fixed portion of payroll $14,500 Note to the Instructor: This assignment offers the opportunity to illustrate the greater usefulness of contribution margin format income 221 statements, as well as to discuss the notion of fixed and variable costs being in the same account (salaries, wages, and commissions). 237 Margin of Safety (25 minutes) 1. Margins of safety in dollars Model 440 Model 1200 Expected sales $200,000 $250,000 Sales at breakeven point: $59,000/40% 147,500 $120,000/60% 200,000 Margins of safety $ 52,500 $ 50,000 Margins of safety as percentages Model 440, 26.25%, $52,500/$200,000 Model 1200, 20%, $50,000/$250,000 2. With a higher margin of safety on Model 440, most students will conclude that it should be introduced despite its lower expected profitability. There is no correct answer because there are no reasonably objective data regarding the probabilities of the expected sales not materializing. The decision should hinge on whether the expected difference in profits of $9,000 ($30,000 $21,000) is significant enough to offset the greater risk that attends Model 1200 Some factors that bear on the decision follow (a). The current state of the company and its expected state without considering the new possibilities. If the company expects high profitability from its other lines, it might be more willing to take the greater risk involved with the Model 1200. A company experiencing low profitability and expecting it to continue, might be more likely to take the apparently surer thing, the Model 440. It could go the other way, as well. A company with relatively low expected profitability might be more willing to take some risks to get back into a more favorable situation (b). The extent to which the fixed costs are avoidable. If virtually all fixed costs could be avoided if the wallet turned out to be a poor seller, there might be more willingness to bring out the Model 1200. The less the avoidability of fixed costs, the more likely that a conservative management would select the safer product (c). The confidence in the forecasts. At this point students have not been exposed to expected value calculations and other techniques that could be applied, but some will see that investigation into the reliability of the forecasts would be helpful 222 238 Changes in Operations (2530 minutes) 1. Extending the hours of operations appears wise. Packard can expect an additional profit of $460 per week, computed as follows: Revenues (2,000 x $.80 per hour) $1,600 Costs to achieve additional revenue: Variable costs: Additional rent on lease (10% of additional revenue) $160 Additional city tax (5% of additional revenue) 80 Total additional variable cost (15%) $ 240 Fixed costs: Additional salaries for attendants $800 Additional utilities and insurance 100 Total additional fixed cost 900 Total additional costs 1,140 Increase in profit $ 460 2. About 1,324 hours Fixed costs to be covered, from requirement 1 $ 900 Contribution margin from additional revenue $0.80 15% of $0.80 (from requirement 1) $0.68 Hours required to offset additional costs ($900/$0.68) 1,323.5 Note to the Instructor: The $12,000 paid to the owner of the lot is, of course, irrelevant because it will not change regardless of the number of hours the parking lot remains open. Even at this early stage in the course, most students are likely to recognize this fact and deal only with incremental costs in their solutions, but it may be worthwhile to point out this fact specifically in reviewing the solution 239 CVP AnalysisProduct Mix (35 minutes) 1. About 319,000 cases (rounded) ($600,000 + $375,000)/$3.057 Premium Regular Total Selling price $10.50 $7.40 Variable brewing costs 5.10 4.25 Commissions, 10% of price 1.05 0.74 Total variable costs 6.15 4.99 Unit contribution margin $4.35 $2.41 Percentage in mix 1/3 2/3 Weightedaverage contribution margin $1.45 + $1.607 = $3.057 2. 106,333 premium and 212,667 regular (1/3 and 2/3 of 319,000) 223 3. Monthly profit decreases about $7,000, so the campaign is not worthwhile The totals below are rounded Profit without campaign Contribution margin 350,000 x $3.057 $1,069,950 Fixed costs 975,000 Profit $ 94,950 Profit with campaign Premium Regular Total Cases, 350,000/3 x 120%; 140,000 350,000 x 2/3 x 95% 221,700 361,700 Per case contribution margin $ 4.35 $ 2.41 Total contribution margin $609,000 $534,300 $1,143,300 Fixed costs $975,000 + $80,000 1,055,000 Profit $ 88,300 4. $3.161 (rounded) $1,143,300/361,700 It is possible to redo the analysis from requirement 1, but unnecessary if the students understand the weighted average contribution margin 5. 333,755 $1,055,000/$3.161 You might want to note that the increase in the breakeven point indicates that the increase in fixed costs overwhelmed the increase in WACM per case. Of course, the opposite could have happened. Moreover, we have no assurance that the new mix would prevail at different levels of total volume. For example, the increased advertising might get nearly all of the new and existing customers who would to switch to premium to do so. So the company might have to rely on increases in regular sales beyond the 361,700 case level. 240 Unit Costs (2025 minutes) Anderson Shoe Store Income Statement for Month Sales (5,000 x $25) $125,000 Cost of sales (50% of sales) 62,500 Gross profit 62,500 Commissions (15% of sales) 18,750 Contribution margin 43,750 Fixed costs: Salaries and wages $30,000 Utilities, insurance, rent 3,500 33,500 Profit $ 10,250 An alternative way to determine what would happen to income if sales increase by 1,000 pairs is to use contribution margin of $8.75 per pair ($25 $12.50 $3.75 commission). Profit should rise by $8,750 if volume rises by 1,000 pairs, and the income statement shows that The fallacy in Anderson's reasoning is the unit cost problem. He 224 assumed that the unit costs would be constant, not decline as sales increased. Despite the great deal of attention paid to this point, it remains a serious difficulty for many students 241 CVP Analysis and Breakeven PricingMunicipal Operation (1520 minutes) 1. A loss of $8,000 Revenues, (200 x $50) + (1,000 x $15) $25,000 Costs: Fixed $25,000 Variable, businesses, 200 x 12 x $1.25 3,000 residences, 1,000 x 4 x $1.25 5,000 33,000 Loss $( 8,000) 2. $61.87 for businesses, $20.63 for residences, both rounded Total revenue required, equals total cost, above $33,000 Total pickups (200 x 12) + (1,000 x 4) 6,400 Price per pickup $5.156 Business charge = perpickup price x 12 $61.87 Residence charge = perpickup price x 4 $20.63 Alternatively, solving for the monthly prices, let R = residence price, then 3R = business price 1,000R + (3 x 200 x R) = $33,000 1,600R = $33,000 R = $20.63 242 Product Profitability (35 minutes) 1. Gold is the most profitable per unit sold, because its contribution margin per unit is highest. 2. Silver is the most profitable per dollar of sales because its contribution margin percentage is highest. Regular Silver Gold Contribution margin $ 4 $12 $15 Divided by selling price $10 $20 $30 Contribution margin percentage 40% 60% 50% 3. (a) 48% Regular Silver Gold Contribution margin percentages 40% 60% 50% Sales mix percentage, in dollars 40% 20% 40% Weightedaverage contribution margin 16% + 12% + 20% = 48% (b) The breakeven point is $416,667 ($200,000/48%) (c) Volume required for a profit of $30,000 is $479,167 ($200,000 + $30,000)/48% 225 4. (a) $400,000 ($200,000/50%) Regular Silver Gold Contribution margin percentages 40% 60% 50% Sales mix percentage 30% 30% 40% Weighted contribution margin 12% + 18% + 20% = 50% (b) $460,000 (($200,000 + $30,000)/50%) 5. (a) $10 Regular Silver Gold Contribution margin per unit $ 4 $12 $15 Sales mix percentage 40% 20% 40% Weightedaverage contribution margin $1.60 + $2.40 + $6.00 = $10.00 (b) 20,000 ($200,000/$10) (c) 23,000 ($200,000 + $30,000)/$10 = $230,000/$10 243 Alternative Cost BehaviorA Movie Company (20 minutes) 1. $68,421,052 under the normal arrangement, $62,500,000 under the special arrangement Normal (N) Fixed costs: Drift's salary $20,000,000 Other 45,000,000 Total $65,000,000 Divided by contribution margin percentage: Price 100% Variable cost, 5% of the receiptstoproducer 5% Equals contribution margin percentage 95% Equals breakeven sales in receiptstoproducer $68,421,052 Special (S) Fixed costs: Drift's salary ($20,000,000 x .25) $ 5,000,000 Other 45,000,000 Total $50,000,000 Divided by contribution margin percentage (100% 20%) 80% Equals breakeven sales in receiptstotheproducer $62,500,000 2. N S Total admissions $200,000,000 $200,000,000 Receipts to the producer at 40% $ 80,000,000 $ 80,000,000 Total costs: Fixed costs, requirement 1 65,000,000 50,000,000 Variable costDrift's salary 5% 4,000,000 20% _ 16,000,000 Total costs 69,000,000 66,000,000 Income to the producer $11,000,000 $14,000,000 226 3. $100,000,000 Equate the returns to Drift under the two schemes. Let X = receipts to the producer N = $20,000,000 + 5%X S = $5,000,000 + 20%X $20,000,000 + 5%X = $5,000,000 + 20%X 15%X = $15,000,000 X = $100,000,000 Note to the Instructor: Variations and extensions of this problem appear in 244 and 326. The extension in 244 introduces additional products in the form of TV and foreign distribution rights and the extension in Chapter 3 delves further into the indifference analysis 244 Multiple ProductsMovie Company (Continuation of 243) (2025 minutes) Note to the Instructor: It is not easy to see that this is multiple product problem. It is also not easy to derive the correct percentages in the sales mix. 1. $64,283,374 rounded, ($45,000,000 + $10,000,000)/85.56% Theater _ TV Mix percentage* 8/9ths 1/9th Contribution margin percentage 85% 90% Weighted average 75.56% + 10% = 85.56% * TV rights are 1/8 of theater receipts, so theater receipts are 1/1.125 and TV rights are .125/1.125 Some students will set up a formula such as the one below Receipts Fixed costs Variable costs = Profit R $55,000,000 [(.15 x 8/9 x R) + (.10 x 1/9 x R)] = $0 R .1444R = $55,000,000 R = $64,282,374 2. $68,421,052, ($45,000,000 + $20,000,000)/95% Note that because only one variable cost percentage applies to both types of business, there is no need to be concerned with product mix 3. $63,218,390 ($45,000,000 + $10,000,000)/87.0% Theater _ TV Foreign Mix percentage* 75.7% 9.4% 15.1% Contribution margin percentage 85.0% 90.0% 95.0% Weighted average 64.2% 8.5% 14.3% 87.0% * Foreign receipts are 20% of domestic theater receipts, so theater receipts are 1/1.325, TV rights are .125/1.325, and foreign sales are .20/1.325 Again, some students will set up a formula such as the one below 227 Receipts Fixed costs Variable costs = Profit R $55,000,000 [(.15 x .755R) + (.10 x .094R) + (.05 x .151R )] = $0 R .130R = $55,000,000 R = $63,218,390 245 Conversion of Income Statement to Contribution Margin Basis (20 minutes) 1. Rudolf Company Budgeted Income Statement Sales (20,000 units) $300,000 Variable costs Materials $40,000 Labor 20,000 Factory overhead 50,000 Selling and administrative 38,000 Total variable costs 148,000 Contribution margin 152,000 Fixed costs: Factory overhead 100,000 Selling and administrative 70,000 Total fixed costs 170,000 Expected income (loss) $( 18,000) 2. About 22,369 units Selling price per unit ($300,000/20,000 units) $15.00 Variable cost per unit of sales ($148,000/20,000 units) 7.40 Contribution margin per unit $ 7.60 Breakeven point ($170,000/$7.60) 22,369 rounded 3. Other things equal, the campaign is wise because the company will go into the black. The additional contribution of $60,800 (8,000 units at $7.60 per unit) exceeds the $30,000 advertising cost by $30,800, bringing the company to a $12,800 profit ($18,000 loss + $30,800 additional profit) 246 Occupancy Rate as Measure of Volume (2530 minutes) 1. (a) $6,000,000 $4,200,000/70% (b) 60% $6,000,000/$100,000 2. $1,050,000 [($100,000 x 75) x 70%] $4,200,000 3. 70% ($4,200,000 + $700,000)/($100,000 x 70%) 4. Yes, profit would increase by $40,000. Increase in contribution margin (2 x $100,000 x 70%) $140,000 Less increased fixed costs 100,000 Increase in profit $ 40,000 228 Note to the Instructor: This assignment uses a different measure of volume. Some students will fail to see that a percentage point is 1.0, not 01, and therefore make some calculational errors. The assignment allows students to work with a volume measure other than the usual units of product 247 Changes in Variables (2025 minutes) 1. Sales (given) $442,800 Variable costs 259,200 Contribution margin 183,600 Fixed costs 114,000 Income (given) $ 69,600 Expected income was $46,000 on sales of $400,000. Expected contribution margin was $160,000, 40% of sales, expected profit $46,000, so that expected fixed costs were $114,000 ($160,000 $46,000). Once fixed costs are known, we can calculate contribution margin as income plus fixed costs. Total variable costs are then $259,200, sales of $442,800 less contribution margin of $183,600 2. (a) 10,800 units. Unit variable costs are $24, so that $259,200/$24 = 10,800. With a 60% variable cost ratio (100% 40% contribution margin ratio) and volume of $400,000, expected variable costs were $240,000, or $24 per unit (60% x $40) (b) $41 $442,800/10,800 3. The title of the assignment suggests that changes in variables are the source of the difference. The memo should make the following points Thompson's actual contribution margin percentage was 41.5% [($41 $24)/ $41], rather than 40%. The $1 selling price increase increased both the contribution margin per unit and the contribution margin percentage. Had we known of the change in the selling price before the year had begun, we would have prepared the following planned income statement Sales (10,000 x $41) $410,000 Variable costs (10,000 x $24) 240,000 Contribution margin 170,000 Fixed costs 114,000 Profit $ 56,000 Then, we would have told Ms. Thompson that increases in dollar sales (at the $41 price) would increase income by 41.5% of the sales increase. Accordingly, Increase in sales ($442,800 $410,000) $32,800 Increase in profit, 41.5% x $32,800 $13,600 (rounded) Planned profit at $41 price and 10,000 units 56,000 Actual profit $69,600 We should tell Ms. Thompson that our analysis depended on the stability of the values of price, variable cost, and fixed costs. Had we known the actual values we could have forecast income correctly. 229 248 Cost Structure (40 minutes) The first step is to analyze the results at the different levels Selected Sales Volumes (in thousands) Outside representatives: Sales $600 $1,000 $1,200 Variable costs at 50% 300 500 600 Contribution margin 300 500 600 Additional fixed costs 80 80 80 Additional profit $220 $ 420 $ 520 Inside salespeople: Sales $600 $1,000 $1,200 Variable costs at 35% 210 350 420 Contribution margin 390 650 780 Additional fixed costs 200 200 200 Additional profit $190 $ 450 $ 580 The indifference point is $800,000. Profit with outside representatives = Profit with inside salespeople 50%S $80,000 = 65%S $200,000 15%S = $120,000 S = $800,000 If Wink's managers can reasonably expect sales to exceed $800,000 with either type of sales effort, they should employ inside salespeople. However, at least two other factors are important. First, is it likely that sales will be the same either way? The outside representatives must rely on commissions and might therefore be more motivated. However, because they handle other lines, they might ease up on Wink's products if they do not have immediate success. Even if they do push Wink products, outside reps might sell less than Wink's own salespeople because the inside salespeople sell nothing else and are more familiar, and more comfortable, with Wink products. The outside reps might also have already developed customers who could be expected to buy Wink's products, while Wink's salespeople would have to develop customers from scratch. Thus, this problem might not be amenable to indifference analysis because volumes could differ under the two arrangements and indifference analysis applies when the alternatives will not affect the variable being analyzed (volume in this case) 249 Opening a Law Office (2530 minutes) 1. $1,146,520 Revenues $2,700,000 Variable costs, 18,000 x $4 72,000 Contribution margin 2,628,000 Fixed costs 1,481,480 Income $1,146,520 Revenues: Number of clients, 50 x 360 18,000 Initial consulting fee $30 230 Revenue from consulting fees $ 540,000 Revenue from judgments, 18,000 x 20% x $2,000 x 30% 2,160,000 Total revenue $2,700,000 Fixed costs: Advertising $ 500,000 Rent, 6,000 x $28 168,000 Property insurance 22,000 Utilities 32,000 Malpractice insurance 180,000 Depreciation, $60,000/4 15,000 Wages, ($25 + $20 + $15 + $10) x 16 x 360 403,200 Fringes at 40% of wages 161,280 Total fixed costs $1,481,480 2. About 10,150 visits $1,481,480/$146 = 10,147, Expected contribution margin per visit, $2,628,000/18,000 = $146 3. The memo should make the following points To: Don Masters From: Student Date: Today The venture appears to be profitable, with an expected income of $1,146,250 in the first year. The breakeven point expressed as visits to the office is 10,150, which is well below the 18,000 expected visits, giving a good margin of safety. The principal risk is that the fixed costs are high, so that any unfavorable deviation from the expectations will have serious effects on the expected profit. The estimate of the percentage of clients whose cases will result in favorable judgments is an example. 250 A Concessionaire (35 minutes) 1. The royalty that Newkirk can pay, as a percentage of sales, and still make a profit of $180,000 is no greater than 14.9%. A reasonable analysis follows Hot Soft Dogs Drinks Total Selling price $1.50 $1.00 $2.50 Variable costs: Hot dog and roll 0.46 0.46 Condiments 0.02 0.02 Soft drink and ice 0.22 0.22 Commission (20% of sales) 0.30 0.20 0.50 Total variable cost 0.78 0.42 1.20 Contribution margin $0.72 $0.58 $1.30 231 Sales expected for the season: College games, (30,000/2) x 7 105,000 Professional games, (60,000/2) x 7 210,000 Total expected sales (1 hot dog and 1 drink) 315,000 Times CM per unit $1.30 Total expected contribution margin $409,500 Fixed costs: Cost per game $ 8,000 Number of games 14 112,000 Expected profits before royalty 297,500 Desired profit 180,000 Available to pay royalty $117,500 Sales at this level of profit (315,000 x $2.50) $787,500 Percentage of royalty to sales ($117,500/$787,500) 14.9% An income statement at the expected rate of sales proves the above answer Sales (315,000 units at $2.50) $787,500 Variable costs: Materials and sales commissions (315,000 units at $1.20 per unit) $378,000 Royalty ($787,500 x 14.9%, rounded) 117,338 Total variable costs 495,338 Contribution margin 292,162 Fixed costs ($8,000 x 14 games) 112,000 Income (difference due to rounding) $180,162 2. With a bid of 12% royalty, expected income is $203,000 Sales (315,000 units at $2.50) $787,500 Variable costs: Materials and commissions, as above $378,000 Royalty ($787,500 x 12%) 94,500 472,500 Contribution margin 315,000 Fixed costs 112,000 Income $203,000 The expected profit is larger than the $180,000 stated in requirement 1, which is consistent with the 12% royalty being smaller than the 14.9% rate previously determined to produce a $180,000 profit 3. (a) Selling price per unit, hot dog and drink $2.50 Variable costs: Originally stated $1.20 Royalty at 12% 0.30 Total variable costs 1.50 Contribution margin $1.00 Breakeven units ($112,000/$1.00) 112,000 Required attendance (112,000 x 2) 224,000 Attendance must be only 36% (224,000/630,000) of expected for Newkirk to break even, which gives a considerable margin of safety of 64% 232 (b) Breakeven as percentage of expected attendance: Expected attendance (30,000 x 7) + (60,000 x 7) 630,000 Percentage of people who must buy a unit (112,000/630,000) 17.8% 4. At a minimum, Newkirk wants the same kind of information available for his bid for football games: the number of scheduled games, the average attendance per game, and some idea of the estimated number of sales in terms of average attendance. In addition, because baseball games are more dependent upon the weather (attendance may be hurt, or the game not played at all or cut short), he would probably want some idea of the number of games normally canceled and the probabilities associated with that number. Sales of soft drinks may be influenced by the weather as well as the attendance; hence, it may not be possible to come up with an average sales per game in the simple form available for the football season Note to the Instructor: We believe that the interrelationships among the various disciplines in the business curriculum should be identified and emphasized early and often. You might want to take this opportunity to convey to students some indication of the ways in which statistics courses will help them in dealing with problems such as the one proposed in requirement 4. In fact, you can point out that some of the information already given (average attendance, relationship between attendance and sales) must have come from past analyses, perhaps through the use of statistical methods or through judgment based on experience. It is characteristic of most problems in managerial accounting to assume that a good deal of analysis has already been done so that the major problem remaining is determining the expected results. This is generally appropriate because the course is not intended to cover such other matters, but we believe it is helpful to point to the relationships with other courses wherever possible 5. The absence of the star quarterback might well cut into attendance at professional games. The effect of this drop in attendance on forecast profits is obvious (a drop) but the extent of the drop in sales, and hence profits, is debatable. This very possible contingency must be considered in developing a bid for royalties. Thus, the answer in requirement 1 might be an absolute maximum assuming no variation whatever from forecast conditions. The specified royalty percentage in requirement 2 allows for some contingencies. (This problem is an excellent example of the difficulties of relying on forecasts, the need to allow for contingencies, and the general problem of the business manager in having to deal with the future.) 233 251 Hockey Camp (3040 minutes) 1. $2,755, calculated as follows Revenue, 90 x $225 $20,250 Variable costs: Percamper costs, 90 x $83* $7,470 Payment to college, $20,250 x 10% 2,025 9,495 Contribution margin 10,755 Fixed costs: Coaches, (90/15) x $550 $3,300 Ice arena charge 1,000 Brochures, etc. 3,700 8,000 Profit $ 2,755 * Food, insurance and Tshirts, room ($50 + $15 + $18) Note to the Instructor: We classified coaches' salaries as fixed even though they are variable provided that campers come in multiples of 15 and Oldcraft can predict the number of campers so that there will not be an excess of coaches hired before the camp starts. This, of course, is one of Oldcraft's concerns 2. $231.67, calculated as follows Profit $ 4,000 Coaches, 7 x $550 * 3,850 Ice arena charge 1,000 Brochures, etc. 3,700 Variable costs per camper, 100 x $83 8,300 Required revenue net of 10% to college $20,850 divided by 90% equals total revenue required $23,167 divided by 100 campers equals price per camper $231.67 * 100/15 = 6.67, rounded up to 7. The number of coaches is deliberately not an integer amount 3. About 28.3%. One approach is to use the basic formula of revenue cost = profit and proceed as follows Revenue Percamper cost Coaches Ice charge Fee = Profit $20,250 $7,470 $3,300 $1,000 $20,250X = $2,755 $20,250X = $5,725 X = 28.3% Another approach is to determine the percentage that $3,700 (the costs to be assumed by the college) bears to $20,250 and add it to the 10%. Thus, $3,700/ $20,250 = 18.3% 4. The advantage to the college is the disadvantage to Oldcraft. If the camp is more successful than anticipated, the college will earn more than it otherwise would have, while Oldcraft will earn less. Of course, Oldcraft will earn more than she would have if the camp goes as planned. She will earn less than she would have with the $3,700 flat fee. The disadvantage to the college is also the advantage to Oldcraft. If the camp is less 234 successful than anticipated, the college will have a lower fee while Oldcraft will earn more than she otherwise would have Essentially, the proposed arrangement simply converts a fixed cost (revenue) for Oldcraft (college) to a variable cost (revenue). Oldcraft reduces her risk and gives up some potential profit, while the college does the reverse 235 ... 2. 7,333 units We can solve this using either total costs or total profit. Let Q = volume. Using total costs, Alternative #1, Total Costs = Alternative #2, Total Costs Fixed costs + variable costs = Fixed costs + variable costs... 2. $25, $5,000,000 allowable variable cost divided by 200,000 units Total allowable cost $14,000,000 Estimated fixed cost 9,000,000 Allowable total variable cost $ 5,000,000... 4. $1.00, $4,000/4,000 from the previous part. Or, read the value of total cost at any level above zero sales, subtract fixed costs of $2,000, and divide by unit sales 5. $1.00, same as in part 4. This question emphasizes the point that variable cost per unit remains constant throughout the relevant range