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A HISTORY OF americanliterature To Sheona A HISTORY OF americanliterature RICHARD GRAY Copyright © 2004 by Richard Gray 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148-5020, USA 108 Cowley Road, Oxford OX4 1JF, UK 550 Swanston Street, Carlton, Victoria 3053, Australia The right of Richard Gray to be identified as the Author of this Work has been asserted in accordance with the UK Copyright, Designs, and Patents Act 1988 All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs, and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher First published 2004 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Gray, Richard J A history of American literature / Richard Gray p cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 0-631-22134-4 (alk paper) – ISBN 0-631-22135-2 (pbk.: alk paper) American literature–History and criticism United States–Literatures– History and criticism I Title PS88.G73 2003 810.9–dc21 A catalogue record for this title is available from the British Library Set in 10.5/13pt Minion by Graphicraft Limited, Hong Kong Printed and bound in the United Kingdom by TJ International Ltd, Padstow, Cornwall For further information on Blackwell Publishing, visit our website: http://www.blackwellpublishing.com 2003004958 contents Preface and Acknowledgements ix The First Americans: American Literature Before and During the Colonial and Revolutionary Periods Imagining Eden Native American Oral Traditions Spanish and French Encounters with America Anglo-American Encounters Writing of the Colonial and Revolutionary Periods Puritan narratives Challenges to the Puritan oligarchy Some Colonial poetry Enemies within and without Trends towards the secular and resistance Towards the Revolution Alternative voices of Revolution Writing Revolution: Poetry, drama, fiction Inventing Americas: The Making of American Literature, 1800–1865 1 18 25 32 32 36 41 49 55 68 79 86 100 100 105 105 107 118 124 130 130 Making a Nation The Making of American Myths Myths of an emerging nation The making of Western myth The making of Southern myth Legends of the Old Southwest The Making of American Selves The Transcendentalists Contents v Voices of African American identity The Making of Many Americas Native American writing Oral culture of the Hispanic Southwest African American polemic and poetry Abolitionist and pro-slavery writing Abolitionism and feminism African American writing The Making of an American Fiction and Poetry The emergence of American narratives Women writers and storytellers Spirituals and folk songs American poetic voices Reconstructing the Past, Reimagining the Future: The Development of American Literature, 1865–1900 Rebuilding a Nation The Development of Literary Regionalisms From Adam to outsider Regionalism in the West and Midwest African American and Native American voices Regionalism in New England Regionalism in the South The Development of Literary Realism and Naturalism Capturing the commonplace Capturing the real thing Towards naturalism The Development of Women’s Writing Writing by African American women Writing and the condition of women The Development of Many Americas Things fall apart Voices of resistance Voices of reform The immigrant encounter Making it New: The Emergence of Modern American Literature, 1900–1945 Changing National Identities Between Victorianism and Modernism The problem of race Building bridges: Women writers Critiques of American provincial life vi Contents 144 151 152 158 160 164 174 182 194 194 214 220 224 245 245 250 250 258 259 261 265 282 282 286 296 309 309 312 318 318 321 323 327 336 336 348 348 355 364 Poetry and the search for form The Inventions of Modernism Imagism, Vorticism and Objectivism Making it new in poetry Making it new in prose Making it new in drama Traditionalism, Politics and Prophecy The uses of traditionalism Populism and radicalism Prophetic voices Community and Identity Immigrant writing Native American voices The literature of the New Negro movement and beyond Mass Culture and the Writer Western, detective and hardboiled fiction Humorous writing Fiction and popular culture Negotiating the American Century: American Literature since 1945 Towards a Transnational Nation Formalists and Confessionals From the mythological eye to the lonely ‘I’ in poetry From formalism to freedom in poetry The uses of formalism Confessional poetry New formalists, new confessionals Public and Private Histories Documentary and dream in prose Contested identities in prose Crossing borders: Some women prose writers Beats, Prophets and Aesthetes Rediscovering the American voice: The Black Mountain writers Restoring the American vision: The San Francisco renaissance Recreating American rhythms: The beat generation Reinventing the American self: The New York poets Resisting orthodoxy: Dissent and experiment in fiction The Art and Politics of Race Defining a new black aesthetic Defining a new black identity in prose Defining a new black identity in drama Telling impossible stories: Recent African American fiction Contents 373 388 388 397 429 453 463 463 478 495 499 499 505 509 537 537 544 546 553 553 564 564 573 581 587 596 600 600 608 619 629 629 637 641 645 654 663 663 674 686 691 vii Realism and its Discontents Confronting the real, stretching the realistic in drama New Journalists and dirty realists Language and Genre Watching nothing: Postmodernity in prose The actuality of words: Postmodern poetry Signs and scenes of crime, science fiction and fantasy Creating New Americas Dreaming history: European immigrant writing Remapping a nation: Chicano/a and Latino/a writing Improvising America: Asian American writing New and ancient songs: The return of the Native American Further Reading Index viii 701 701 723 728 728 742 749 762 762 771 786 802 818 845 Contents preface and acknowledgements In this history of American literature, I have tried to be responsive to the immense changes that have taken place over the past thirty to forty years in the study of literature in general and American literature in particular: changes that, among other things, have put the whole issue of just what is American and exactly what constitutes literature into contention Interdisciplinary studies, gender, ethnic and popular culture studies, critical and cultural theory have all complicated and problematized our notion of what literature is And the debates initiated by these newly developed fields of study have, very often, gathered around and found their focus in American books I have also tried to tell a story: about the continued inventing of communities, and the sustained imagining of nations, that constitute the literary history of the part of the American continent which came to be known as the United States My story has had to be a selective one Most readers will soon discover some authors to whom I have given less than their due, in terms of attention and discussion, and others to whom I have not even managed to give a mention Apart from apologizing for this, pleading the excuse all literary historians have eventually to give – the excuse, that is, which Herman Melville famously summarized as the limited draughts of time, strength, cash and patience on which all mortals draw – I should perhaps add one thing While necessarily being selective, I have nevertheless tried to be as true as I can be to the whole range of American diversity and difference: the multiple and often conflicting communities that have been involved in writing their region or nation What I have been after here, in short, is to tell a tale of an ongoing series of texts resistant to any simply totalizing vision: to write, not so much the literary history as the literary histories of America Another way of putting this might be to say that my aim here – shaped by the emphasis recent American literary scholarship has placed on the authority of difference – has been to ‘uninvent’ the reading of American literature that sees America in monolithic and millennial terms, and that restricts attention to literature in the sense of the published and widely distributed poem, fiction and play The more widely available and canonical material of course constitutes a substantial and Preface and Acknowledgements ix significant element in what I look at, but it is not the only one I have tried to be responsive to the fundamentally plural character of American history and culture by acknowledging and talking about other powerful traditions, some of them oral, political or popular, others marginalized and denied publication until recently My hope is that what the reader will find here, as a result, is the story of a literature that is, and always has been, multiple, conflicted But what he or she will also find here, if I have had any success at all in realizing my aims, is the story of a vast number of individuals and communities animated by a connected series of aims and by the sense of a past held, however cruelly or painfully, in common This history, while aimed at unravelling any simple, singular notion of its subject, has also been driven by a related set of arguments – and, more particularly, by an interest in that process by which communities and nations continually remake themselves My debts here are vast, to generations of scholars in the field and, in particular, to all those who have enlarged the materials and the meanings of American literature over the past three or four decades To that extent, this book situates itself as one fragment, one small voice in a much larger and continuing debate But for the preliminary critical model for the whole story I am trying to tell, I have specific debts to acknowledge, since it is based on the premise that, as Fredric Jameson has argued, historical epochs are not monolithic integrated social formations On the contrary, they are complex overlays of different methods of production that serve as the bases of different social groups and classes and, consequently, of their world views It is because of this that, in any given epoch, a variety of antagonisms can be discerned, conflicts between different interest groups One culture may well be dominant, but there will also be – to borrow Raymond Williams’s useful terms – a residual culture, formed in the past but still active in the cultural process, and an emergent culture, prescribing new meanings and practices Writers, according to this model, like any other members of society, are not the victims or agents of some totalizing structure, since – to quote Williams – ‘no dominant culture ever in reality includes or exhausts all human practices, human energy and human intention’ So they are able, and perhaps even obliged, to insert themselves in the space between warring interests and practices and then dramatize the contradictions the conflict engenders Throughout their work, by means of a mixture of voices, a free play of various languages (and sometimes even genres), they can represent the reality of their culture as multiple, complex and internally antagonistic They can achieve a realization of both synchrony and diachrony: a demonstration both of the continuities between past and present and of the processes by which those continuities are challenged, dissolved and reconstituted They consequently have more chance than most members of their society of realizing what Hayden White has called ‘the human capacity to endow lived contradictions with intimations of their possible transcendence’ They have the opportunity, in other words, of getting ‘into’ history, participating in its processes, and, in a perspectival sense at least, of getting ‘out’ of it too – enabling us, the readers, to begin to understand just how those processes work x Preface and Acknowledgements progress Southern regionalists on, 267 and US economy, 246 and Westerns, 538, 539 prohibition, 343–4 projectivist poetry, see Black Mountain writers proletarian literature, 487, 488 The Promised Land (Antin), 329 protest, postwar, 559–61 African American writing, 663–74, 688–90 literary treatments, 604 Proulx, E Annie, 628, 629 Proust, Marcel, 432 Providence, Rhode Island, 39 Provincetown Players, 434, 459, 488 provincial life: literary treatments, 368–73, 471 ‘Prufrock, The Love Song of J Arthur’ (Eliot), 403, 404 Prynne, Hester (The Scarlet Letter), 203, 204, 205 Pseudopodia, 490 psychosis: literary treatments, 750–1 see also mental illness The Public Burning (Coover), 740–1 Public Theatre, 722 publishing industry 19th century, 104, 249, 268, 537 20th century, 539–40, 750, 753 Pudd’nhead Wilson, The Tragedy of (Twain), 256 Puerto Rican Obituary (Pietri), 780–1 Puerto Rican Americans: writings, 780–3 pulp magazines, 539–40, 750 Purdy, James, 617 Puritans and Puritanism captivity narratives, 50–2 and Catholicism, 51–2 challenges to, 36–41 conspiracy theory, 52 and Hawthorne, 200, 201, 203, 204, 206 and Lowell, 587, 588 on poetry, 41 poetry by, 42–4, 47–9 values, 68–9 waning of influence, 55–6 writings, 32–6, 52–4 ‘Putting the good things away’ (Piercy), 767 Puyat, Pauline (Tracks), 812 Pynchon, Thomas, 729–33, 742 Quakers, 65, 167 Queen, Ellery (Frederic Dannay), 541 Queenborough trilogy, 359–60 Queer (Burroughs), 656 Queneau, Raymond, 741 Quicksand (Larsen), 516–17 Quiet Odyssey (Lee), 798 Quinney, John Wannuaucon, 156 Quotations from Chairman Mao (Albee), 714 Rabbit novels (Updike), 614, 616 Rabe, David, 719 race issues and relations 1919 riots, 510, 512–13 early 20th century, 342, 344 lynching, 512 South, 19th century, 247 race issues and relations: literary treatments Albee, 713 detective novels and thrillers, 755–7 Douglas, 627 Lewis, 371 Index Mitchell, 547, 548–9 Oates, 625 Sheldon, 454 Smith, 490 Southern regionalists, 268, 270 Twain, 254 Warren, 471–2 see also African Americans; Hispanics; immigrant experience; Mexican Americans; Native Americans; slavery racial stereotyping in Hopkins, 311 in Poe, 118–19 in Stowe, 198–9 radicalism, 20th century, 481–95 radio, spread of, 337–8 Ragtime (Doctorow), 608 railroads initial effects, 101 late 19th century, 246 literary treatments, 301–2 Rain of Gold (Villaseñor), 779 Rainey, Ma, 526, 531 Raining Backwards (Fernandez), 786 A Raisin in the Sun (Hansberry), 687 Rakosi, Carl, 393 Ransom, John Crowe, 344, 419, 464, 466, 467–9 and Hecht, 582 and Tate, 470 and Warren, 473 rapping, 669, 670 Rauschenberg, Robert, 647 Rave (Broumas), 600 ‘The Raven’ (Poe), 120, 123 Raven the Great (Tsimshian character), Rawlings, Marjorie Kinnan, 355 Rawlins, Ezekiel ‘Easy’ (Mosley character), 756 Ray (Hannah), 727 885 Ray (Home to Harlem), 513 readers, authors’ relationship with Barth, 733 Barthelme, 736–7 language poets, 743–4 McClure, 639 Morrison, 693–4 Nabokov, 770 O’Hara, 647 postwar poets, 567 Whitman, 235–7 Wieners, 633 Reagan, Ronald, 554, 561 The Real Life of Sebastian Knight (Nabokov), 768 realism 19th-century drama, 453–4 19th-century novels, 250, 282–6 dirty realism, 601, 726–8 domestic realism, in postwar drama, 702–12, 713–14, 716–17 Hansberry on, 686 and New Journalists, 723–5 reality Nabokov on, 768–9 Stevens on, 411–12 The Rebels (Child), 175 ‘Recipe’ (Mirikitani), 795 Recollections of a Forest Life (Copway), 155 The Red Badge of Courage (Crane), 304–5 Red Rock (Page), 267 Redburn (Melville), 208, 209 The Redeemed Captive Returning to Zion (Williams), 51 redemption: literary treatments Crane, 427 Delany, 761 Fugitives, 464, 472–5 Grey, 539 Merrill, 653 886 O’Connor, 621–3 Welch, 811 The Redskins (Cooper), 112 Redwood (Sedgwick), 115–16 Reed, Ishmael, 562, 680–2 Reed, John, 487 Reed, Lou, 815 regionalism African American and Native American, 259–61 definition, 257 Fugitives and traditionalists, 463–77 New England, 261–5 South, 265–81 Twain, 250–7 West and Midwest, 258–9 religion in 18th-century works, 65–8 in 19th-century works, 195, 196, 224 African American services, 174 and Baldwin, 676–7 in colonial poetry, 42–4, 48–9 Douglass on, 146–7 in early 20th-century literature, 299 Edwards on emotion’s place in, 67 Emerson on, 130, 133, 135 evangelical writings, 18th century, 82–3 evangelism, 55, 65–7, 102 and Foote, 309–10 and King, 680 and Lowell, 588 Melville on faith, 211–12, 213, 214 Native American, 40, 324–5 and O’Connor, 621–3 and O’Neill, 458–9, 462 and Puritan writings, 33–6, 42, 50–4 Stevens on, 413–14 Index and Tate, 470–1 see also Buddhism; Catholicism; Christianity; Islam; spirituality ‘Remember’ (Harjo), 804 Remember to Remember (Miller), 658 renewal: literary treatments Douglass, 147 Native American stories, 16–17 naturalists, 302 Thoreau, 142 repetition and Everson, 638 and Faulkner, 447–53 Hejinian on, 744–5 and Le Sueur, 494 and Olson, 631 and Stein, 431 and Welch, 810 and Whitman, 233–4 The Repository (Murray), 81 repression: literary treatments Gilman, 316–18 Glasgow, 359–60 Thurber, 545 Wharton, 357–8 Requiem for a Nun (Faulkner), 447 ‘Requiem for the Spanish Dead’ (Rexroth), 483 Reservation Blues (Alexei), 815, 816–17 reservations: literary treatments, 815–16 Resolutions (Edwards), 66 ‘A Respectable Woman’ (Chopin), 271 ‘The Return of the Private’ (Garland), 297 revenge: literary treatments, 203, 205–6 Review of the Debate in the Virginia Legislature (Dew), 170 ‘The Revolt of “Mother” ’ (Freeman), 264, 265 The Revolt of the Cockroach People (Acosta), 779 ‘The Revolution Will Not Be Televised’ (ScottHeron), 670 Rexroth, Kenneth, 393, 482–4, 537, 641 Reynolds, J N., 209 Reznikoff, Charles, 393, 395–6 ‘Rhapsody’ (O’Hara), 648–9 Rhea, Miranda (‘The Old Order’), 432–3 Rice, Elmer, 455–6, 546 Rich, Adrienne, 568, 570, 572–3 influence, 782 and Vietnam, 579, 580 Rich, Robert, 28 ‘Richard Cory’ (Robinson), 375–6 Richardson, Samuel, influence, 96 Riders of the Purple Sage (Grey), 538, 539 Ridge, John Rollin, 152–3, 505 Ridge, Lula, 482 Riding, Laura, 464, 742 (Riding) Jackson, Laura, 424, 425–6 The Rights of Man (Paine), 75 Riley, James Whitcomb, 259, 261 Rimbaud, Arthur, 121 rime-breaking, 417 ‘Rip Van Winkle’ (Irving), 106 Ripley, George, 135 Ripley novels (Highsmith), 752 Ripostes (Pound), 399 The Rise of David Levinsky (Cahan), 328–9 The Rise of Silas Lapham (Howells), 282, 283–5 The Rising Glory of America (Freneau and Brackenridge), 88 ‘Rites of Ancient Ripening’ (Le Sueur), 493 Rituals of Survival (Mohr), 783 river life: literary treatments, 125, 250–6 Rivera, Tomás, 774–5, 776–7 Rivers, Larry, 645, 646, 647 Rives, Amélie, 250 The Road to Tamazunchale (Arias), 779 ‘Roan Stallion’ (Jeffers), 385–7 The Robber Bridegroom (Welty), 620 Roberts, Elizabeth Madox, 432, 433–4 Robeson, Paul, 687 Robinson, Edwin Arlington, 374–9 rock and roll, 556 Rockefeller, John D., 248 Roderick Hudson (James), 289 Rodgers, Richard, 702 Roethke, Theodore, 573, 585–7 Rolfe, Edwin, 482 Romance, Norris on, 300–1 A Romance of the People (Child), 176 The Romantic Comedians (Glasgow), 359–60 Ronyoung, Kim, 798 Roosevelt, Theodore, 330, 346, 374 Rope and Faggot (White), 512 Roper, Moses, 185 Rose, Wendy, 803–4 Rosenberg, Julius and Ethel: literary treatments, 608, 740–1 Rosewater, Eliot, 762 Roth, Henry, 347 Roth, Philip, 613–14 Index Rothko, Mark, 651 Roughing It (Twain), 250, 251 Rowlandson, Mary White, 50–1, 52 Rowson, Susanna Haswell, 92, 93–4 Ruffin, Edmund, 168, 169, 170 Rukeyser, Muriel, 424–5 A Rumor of War (Caputo), 728 Running Sketches of Men and Places (Copway), 155–6 Runyon, Damon, 718 rural communities: literary treatments 19th century, 261–5, 266–7, 269, 297–8 20th century, 344, 376–9, 497–9 in Modernist works, 396, 433–4, 447–53 postwar novels, 607–8, 624 Rushing, Jimmy, 531 Ruth Hall (Fern), 180–1 A Sabine Woman (Moody), 299 Saffin, John, 41 Salem witch trials, 52, 54 and Hawthorne, 201–2 literary treatments, 112, 705–6 Salinger, J D., 556, 654, 659–61 Salmagundi (Irving), 105 Salute to Spring (Le Sueur), 494 ‘The Same Old Jazz’ (McClure), 639 San Francisco Renaissance, 637–40 San Francisco Talk Series, 745 Sanchez, Sonia, 558, 668, 669, 671 Sandburg, Carl, 371, 479–80 887 Santayana, George, 413 Santiago, Esmerelda, 783 Santos, Bienvenido, 799 Sappho, 389 Saroyan, William, 457 Sartoris (Faulkner), 449 Sartre, Jean-Paul, 536, 651 Satan in Gusay (Singer), 763 Satanstoe (Cooper), 112 satire 17th century, 38, 63 19th century, 105, 231–2, 254–6 Revolutionary period, 88–9, 95–6 satire: 20th-century early and mid-, 359–60, 369–71, 511–12, 544–5 postmodern novels, 738, 741 postwar novels, 601–2, 604–5, 609, 650, 684, 724 radicals, 484, 486 science fiction as, 759–62 Satires Against the Tories (Freneau, Brackenridge and Madison), 88 Saturday Evening Post, 540 Savage Night (Thompson), 751 The Scarlet Letter (Hawthorne), 201, 202, 203–6 Schaefer, Jack, 538, 539 Schneck, Stephen, 740 Schomburg, Arthur A., 511 ‘School Day in Man Quang’ (Knight), 579 Schoolcraft, Henry Rowe, 153, 155, 228 Schoolcraft, Jane Johnston, 153–4 ‘The Schooldays of an Indian Girl’ (Bonnin), 325 Schulberg, Budd, 439 Schuyler, George, 512, 526 888 Schuyler, James, 649, 650 Schwartz, Delmore, 568, 574–5 literary treatments, 612 science, Adams on, 318–19, 320 science fiction, 601, 602, 758–62 early African American, 310 Native American, 814–15 Scopes trial, 341, 465–6 Scott, Sir Walter, influence on Cooper, 108 on Douglass, 145 on Irving, 106 on Norris, 300 on Parkman, 115 on Prescott, 113 Scott-Heron, Gil, 670 Scoundrel Time (Hellman), 491 sea novels Cooper, 108, 111, 112 and Johnson, 685 London, 307–8 Melville, 208, 209–13 Norris, 300 sea poems, 428 The Sea-Wolf (London), 300, 306, 307–8 ‘The Seafarer’ (Pound), 398–9 The Searching Wind (Hellman), 491 ‘Season of Death’ (Rolfe), 482 ‘Seasons of the Soul’ (Tate), 471 ‘Second Fig’ (Millay), 420 Second Great Awakening, 102 Second World War: literary treatments Japanese American writers, 793–5 novels, 601–3, 606, 732 poetry, 564–6, 588 see also Holocaust Index secret histories and Hongo, 796 and language poets, 744, 749 slavery, 165, 166 The Secret History of the Dividing Line (Byrd), 59 Sedgwick, Catharine Maria, 115–18 Segregation (Warren), 472 Selby, Hubert, 727 self: literary treatments Aiken, 396–7 Ammons, 577 Austin, 327 Bellow, 611 Berryman, 592–3 Dickinson, 237–44 Eliot, 404–6 Faulkner, 448–53 Fitzgerald, 435 H D., 391–2 James, 292 Kincaid, 701 Lowell, 587–90 Malamud, 609–10 Plath, 593–6 Porter, 432–3 postmodernists, 734 postwar poetry, 567–73, 599–600 Roethke, 585 Stevens, 414–16 Walker, 697 see also individualism self-help Douglass on, 147 Emerson on, 130–5 Fitzgerald on, 438 Franklin on, 69–71 Fuller on, 136–8 Thoreau on, 138–44 selling: literary treatments, 703–5, 718 see also commodity culture; consumerism; materialism The Selling of Joseph (Sewall), 54 Seneca Falls Convention, 179 Sent for You Yesterday (Wideman), 685 Sentences (Grenier), 746 Seraph on the Sewanee (Hurston), 515 sermons, 18th century, 68 The Serpent (van Italie), 712 Seven Arts, 372 The Seven League Boots (Murray), 684 Seventeen Syllables (Yamamoto), 793 Several Poems Compiled with Great Variety of Wit and Learning (Bradstreet), 45 Sewall, Samuel, 54 sex and sexuality plantation life, 173–4 sex and sexuality: literary treatments African American novels, 190 blues songs, 531 Bogan, 421 Broumas, 600 Cain, 543 Chopin, 271–4 cummings, 423 Delany, 762 Ginsberg, 644 Harryman, 747 Miller, 658 Native American stories, 10, 13 slave narratives, 146, 150 Wylie, 419–20 Sexton, Anne, 568, 570, 572, 593–4 sexual harassment: literary treatments, 718 Sexual Perversity in Chicago (Mamet), 717–18 Sexus (Miller), 658 Shadows on the Rock (Cather), 364 Shakespeare, William, influence, 209–10 Shalako, 16 Shane (Schaefer), 538, 539 Shange, Ntozake (Paulette Williams), 673–4 Shapiro, Karl, 528, 565, 567, 570–1 Shaw, Irwin, 457 The Shawl (Ozick), 766, 767 Sheldon, Edward, 454 Shelley, Percy Bysshe, 420 The Sheltered Life (Glasgow), 359–60 Shepard, Sam, 713, 714–17 Sheridan, Gen Philip: literary treatments, 817 Sheridan, Richard Brinsley, influence, 91 Sherwood, Robert, 454, 455 Sherwood Anderson & Other Famous Creoles (Faulkner), 373 Shigekuni, Julie, 797 Ship of Fools (Porter), 433 The Shipping News (Proulx), 629 A Short Narration of my Last Journey to the Western Country (Aupaumut), 81–2 short stories earliest, 106 first African American, 183 short stories: 19th century early, 121–3 late, 258, 264–5, 267–8, 270, 274–6, 278–81, 286–7, 295, 297 immigrant, 328 mid-, 201–2, 206–7, 213–14, 216–17, 219–20 women, 314–15, 316–18 short stories: 20th century African American, 512, 520, 663–4, 676, 683, 685 Asian American, 789, 792–3 Chicana, 778–9, 779–80 Index comic, 545–6 early, 305, 334, 372–3, 499–500, 504 immigrant, 334, 372–3, 499–500, 504, 763, 764–5 Latina, 782, 783 Modernist, 432–3, 435–6, 439–40, 442–4 Native American, 509, 805, 814, 815–16 naturalist, 305 postmodern, 729–30, 734, 735–6, 740 postwar, 605, 606, 659, 661, 726, 727 radicals, 489, 492–3, 494 science fiction, 760 women, 619, 622–9 Show Boat (Kern and Hammerstein), 702 The Sign in Sidney Brustein’s Window (Hansberry), 687 ‘The Significance of a Veteran’s Day’ (Ortiz), 802 Sigourney, Lydia Howard Huntley, 224–5 ‘Silence Dogood’ papers (Franklin), 71 The Silence of the Lambs (Harris), 757–8 The Silent Partner (Phelps), 315 The Silent South (Cable), 277 Silko, Leslie Marmon, 805, 808–9 Silliman, Ron, 745, 746 Simic, Charles, 598 Simms, William Gilmore, 168–9, 170 Simon, Neil, 719–20 ‘Simple Autumnal’ (Bogan), 421–2 ‘Simple Stories’ (Hughes), 522 Simpson, Louis, 565, 568, 570–1 889 ‘since feeling is first’ (cummings), 422 Sinclair, Upton, 329–32 Singer, Isaac Bashevis, 763–4 Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God (Edwards), 68 Sioux people Cooper on, 109–10 history and folklore, 324 stories, 5, 6–7, 9–10, 12, 13, 14 ’Sippi (Killens), 684 Sir Rohan’s Ghost (Spofford), 314 Sister Carrie (Dreiser), 365–6, 367 Six Nations, 152 The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon, Gent (Irving), 106 Sketches of Southern Life (Harper), 184 Slaughterhouse-Five (Vonnegut), 602 ‘The Slave Mother’ (Harper), 183 ‘The Slave Ship’ (Whittier), 167 slavery conversion to Christianity as justification, 86 Crèvecoeur on, 74 Dwight on, 89–90 early 19th-century conditions, 101–2 Franklin on, 72 Freneau on, 89 Fuller on, 136–7 Jefferson on, 78, 80 plantation owners’ attitude, 58, 60 pro-slavers’ writings, 168–73 Puritan writers on, 53, 54 spirituals, 220–2 Washington on, 349 and women, 146, 148–51, 173–4, 177–8, 186–7 890 Woolman on, 65 see also African Americans slavery: abolition and abolitionism 19th century, 101, 103, 104, 164–8, 175–8 abolition achieved, 245, 247 African American writers on, 83–8, 160–4, 181–2, 183–4 and Emerson, 135 and feminism, 178 and Harper, 183–4 and Stowe, 195, 196–7 and Thoreau, 143 slavery: literary treatments 18th century, 62 19th century, 194–200, 231–2, 254, 278–81 20th-century fiction, 520–2, 533, 546–9, 686, 693–4, 694–5 20th-century science fiction, 762 African American 19thcentury fiction, 184–93 secret histories, 165, 166 slave narratives, 84–5, 86, 144–51, 181, 185–6 slave narratives, modern versions, 682, 685, 693, 699 slave writings, 62 ‘Slavery’s Pleasant Homes’ (Child), 176 ‘Slim in Hell’ (Brown), 526 Slinger (Dorn), 635 Sloan, John, 365 ‘A Small, Good Thing’ (Carver), 726 Smart Set, 540 Smiley, Jane, 628–9 Smith, Bessie, 531, 690 Smith, Dave, 598 Smith, Edward Elmer (‘Doc’), 759 Smith, Captain John, 29–31 Smith, Lee, 626, 627 Index Smith, Lillian, 490 snakes, in Native American stories, 14–15, 152 Snelling, Paula, 490 Snodgrass, W D., 568, 570, 571 Snow-Bound (Whittier), 167 ‘The Snow-Storm’ (Emerson), 135 Snow White (Barthelme), 736–7 ‘The Snows of Kilimanjaro’ (Hemingway), 444 Snyder, Gary, 639–40, 641 social change and Christianity, 102–3, 164 early 20th century, 338–9 social change: literary treatments early 20th century, 355–6 Jewett, 261–4 Twain, 250–7 social convention and conditioning: literary treatments Austin, 327 Chopin, 270–4 Corso, 645 James, 289, 291–4 Heinlein, 759 Herbert, 760 Kesey, 662–3 Lewis, 369–71 Twain, 254–7 Wharton, 356, 357–8 socialism: literary treatments early 20th century, 347, 456 naturalists, 298–9, 301–3, 305–6 Sinclair, 330, 331–2 society Doctorow on, 608 Faulkner on, 448 pro-slavers on, 170–1 see also community Society of Friends, see Quakers Sociology for the South (Fitzhugh), 168 Sojourner Truth (Truth), 181 Soldier’s Pay (Faulkner), 448–9 ‘Soliloquy of a Housemaid’ (Fern), 179 solipsism and Poe, 121 and Stevens, 413 solitude and solitariness and Hawthorne, 202 and Hemingway, 442–7 and Poe, 121 and Thoreau, 140–2 see also loneliness Solomon, Carl, 643 Solstice (Oates), 625 Some Kind of Love Story (Miller), 706 ‘Some Trees’ (Ashbery), 652 ‘Someone is Harshly Coughing as Before’ (Schwartz), 575 ‘Something Whispered in the Shakukachi’ (Hongo), 796 ‘somewhere i have never travelled, gladly beyond’ (cummings), 423 A Son of the Forest (Apess), 154 A Son of the Middle Border (Garland), 297–8 Sondheim, Stephen, 702 Sone, Monica, 793–4 Song (M Butterfly), 722–3 Song, Cathy, 787–8 The Song of Hiawatha (Longfellow), 228 ‘Song of Myself ’ (Whitman), 234–5, 236, 237 Song of Solomon (Morrison), 692 The Song of the Lark (Cather), 362 songs corridos, 321–2 folksongs, 222–4 Johnson, 353 musicals, 702 Native American, 322, 326 spirituals, 220–2, 353 Sontag, Susan, 627–8 Sophie’s Choice (Styron), 606, 766 Sorrentino, Gilbert, 740 The Sot-Weed Factor (Barth), 735 The Sot-weed Factor (Cook), 63 Soto, Gary, 772 Soto, Hernando De, 24 The Soul of the Indian (Eastman), 324–5 Soul on Ice (Cleaver), 663 The Souls of Black Folk (Du Bois), 342, 350–1, 352 sound, and Zukofsky, 393 The Sound and the Fury (Faulkner), 447, 450–2 South freed slaves, condition of, 247 slavery, attitudes to, 101–2 see also slavery South: literary treatments, 18th century, 58–60 South: literary treatments, 19th century, 118–24, 168–74, 250–7 regionalists, 265–81 Southern Gothic, 118, 122–3 South: literary treatments, 20th century African American, 518–22, 533–5, 683, 696, 699 Agrarians, 466 early, 344, 347, 355, 358–61, 368 Fugitives, 464, 465–6, 468–75 Modernist, 432–3, 448–53 plantation romances, 546–9 postmodern novels, 741 Index postwar drama, 707–10, 720 postwar novels, 605, 618, 619–24, 626–7, 696 postwar poetry, 598 radicals, 490 traditionalists, 475–7 South Today, 490 Southern, Terry, 741 Southwest: literary treatments 19th century, 124–9 20th century, 355, 362–4 corridos, 321–2 oral traditions, 158–60 Southwest humorists, 125–8 and Caldwell, 489–90 and nostalgia, 268 and Twain, 254 Southworth, E D E N., 104 The Sovereignty and Goodness of god (Rowlandson), 50–1 Spanish Civil War literary treatments, 482, 483 Parker on, 546 Spanish explorers, 18–20, 21–5 speech language poets on, 745 see also vernacular Speed-the-Plow (Mamet), 718 Spencer, Anne, 526, 527 Spicer, Jack, 638–9 Spider Man (Sioux character), 6–7 Spider Woman (Navajo character), Spillane, Micky, 750 Spires, Elizabeth, 598, 599 Spirit House, 667 Spirit of the Times, 125 spirituality Emerson on, 130–5 and Shepard, 715 Taylor’s poetry, 47–9 Thoreau on, 138–44 Very’s poetry, 230–1 891 spirituals, 220–2, 353 Spofford, Harriet, 314–15 Spokane people, 816–17 Spoon River Anthology (Masters), 481 The Sportswriter (Ford), 617, 618 Spring and All (Williams), 393, 409 The Spy (Cooper), 108 The Spyglass Tree (Murray), 684 Stackpole, Henrietta (The Portrait of a Lady), 292–3 Stafford, William, 575, 576, 580 Standing Bear, 322 Standish, Miles, 37, 38 Stanton, Elizabeth Cady, 103, 178 ‘Stanzas’ (Bogan), 421 Stark, Willie (All the King’s Men), 474–5 steel industry, 248 ‘The Steeple-Jack’ (Moore), 416–17, 418 Steere, Richard, 41 Steffens, Lincoln, 330 Stegner, Wallace, 606–7 Stein, Gertrude, 429–32 on Europe, 339 influence, 445, 651, 742, 746 Steinbeck, John, 347, 497–9 Stevens, Wallace, 393, 411–16, 451, 651 Stickney, Trumbull, 298 Sticks and Bones (Rabe), 719 Stieglitz, Alfred, 365 Stockton, Annis Boudinot, 61 Stockton, Frank R., 249 Stoddard, Elizabeth, 215, 217–19 Stoddard, Richard, 217 The Stoic (Dreiser), 366–7 Stone, Robert, 727–8 892 ‘Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening’ (Frost), 379–81 The Stories of John Cheever (Cheever), 605 Storm, Hyemeyohsts, 805 ‘The Storm’ (Chopin), 271 The Story of Avis (Phelps), 315–16 The Story of Margaretta (Murray), 94 Stout, Rex, 752 Stowe, Calvin, 195 Stowe, Harriet Beecher, 104, 194–200 and abolitionism, 103 influence, 172, 183 on Truth, 181 Straight Cut (Bell), 617, 618 Strange Fruit (Smith), 490 Stranger in a Strange Land (Heinlein), 759 Strangers on a Train (Highsmith), 751–2 Strasberg, Lee, 456 stream of consciousness, in Bierce, 287 Streamers (Rabe), 719 The Street (Petry), 532 ‘Street Corner College’ (Patchen), 486 street life, and rap, 670 street life: literary treatments Brooks, 529–30 Bullins, 688, 689 detective stories, 540–2 Fearing, 485 Patchen, 486 see also city life; New York City Street Scene (Rice), 456 A Streetcar Named Desire (Williams), 708–10 ‘Strong Men’ (Brown), 526 Studs Lonigan trilogy (Farnell), 490 Styron, William, 605–6, 699, 766 Index suburban life: literary treatments postwar novels, 605, 615–16, 624, 650 postwar poetry, 598 success, see American dream Suddenly Last Summer (Williams), 710 suffrage New England, 55 women, 340 Sugimoto, Etsu, 503–4 Sui Sin Far, see Eaton, Edith Sukenick, Ronald, 740 Sula (Morrison), 692 A Summary View of the Rights of British America (Jefferson), 76 Summer on the Lakes (Fuller), 136, 138 The Sun Also Rises (Hemingway), 443–4, 445–7 ‘Sunday Morning’ (Stevens), 414 Sundown (Matthews), 508 surrealism and Arenas, 786 and Kennedy, 688 and New York poets, 646, 648, 649, 650, 652 and postwar novels, 601, 603 and postwar poetry, 638–9 and West, 549 and Wright, 535 The Surrounded (McNickle), 506, 507 Sut Lovingood (Harris), 128–9 Swallow Barn (Kennedy), 171 Sweet Medicine (Cheyenne character), 10, 11–12 Swift, Jonathan: literary treatments, 744 The Sword and the Distaff (Simms), 169 symbolism in Bullins, 689 in Hawthorne, 201, 205 in Hemingway, 446 in Jeffers, 386–7 in postwar drama, 703, 704, 710 reasons for prevalence, 34 in Rukeyser, 425 in Shepard, 715 Symbolism (movement), 403, 484 Symonds, William, 28 Symons, Arthur, 352 The System of Dante’s Hell (Baraka), 666 Taggard, Genevieve, 481, 482 Take It Or Leave It (Federman), 741 The Talented Mr Ripley (Highsmith), 752 Tales of a Traveller (Irving), 107 Tales of Soldiers and Civilians (Bierce), 286–7 Tales of the Jazz Age (Fitzgerald), 435, 436 Tan, Amy, 788–9 Tar Baby (Morrison), 692–3 Tarbell, Ida, 330 Tate, Allen, 425–6, 469–71 on capitalism, 347 on Fugitive movement, 464, 465 on Glasgow, 361 influence, 473, 588 and New Criticism, 466 Taylor, Bayard, 258–9 Taylor, Edward, 44, 46–9 Taylor, Peter, 618 Tayo (Ceremony), 809 technology and Crane, 429 Merrill on, 653 and science fiction, 758, 760, 761 telephones, spread of, 337 Tell Me a Riddle (Olsen), 764–5 Temple House (Stoddard), 217 The Temple of My Familiar (Walker), 697 Tender Buttons (Stein), 431 Tender is the Night (Fitzgerald), 347, 439 Tennyson, Alfred Lord, 232 The Tenth Muse Lately Sprung Up in America (Bradstreet), 44–5 Terence, influence, 87 Terry, Lucy, 62, 86 Testimony (Reznikoff ), 396 ‘Thanatopsis’ (Bryant), 227, 228 theatre, see drama El Theatre Campesino, 559 Their Eyes Were Watching God (Hurston), 514–15 Them (Oates), 624–5 ‘Theory of Flight’ (Rukeyser), 425 There is a Tree More Ancient than Eden (Forrest), 686 Theroux, Paul, 727 They Shoot Horses, Don’t They? (McCoy), 543 They Stooped to Folly (Glasgow), 359–60 The Things They Carried (O’Brien), 727 The Third Life of Grange Copeland (Walker), 696 ‘Thirteen Ways of Looking at a Blackbird’ (Stevens), 415 This, 745 ‘This Age of Conformity’ (Howe), 554 ‘This is my letter to the World’ (Dickinson), 237–8 ‘This Place in the Ways’ (Rukeyser), 425 This Side of Paradise (Fitzgerald), 435, 436 Index Thomas, Augustus, 454 Thomas, Edward, 379 Thomas and Beulah (Dove), 673 Thompson, Jim, 750–1 Thompson, John, 185 Thomson, James, 63 Thoreau, Henry David, 138–44 and abolitionism, 103 and Emerson, 131 and Hawthorne, 203 and Snyder, 640 on writers, 590 Thoreau, John, 139 Thorpe, Thomas Bangs, 125, 126 A Thousand Acres (Smiley), 629 Three Lives (Stein), 431 ‘Three Moves’ (Logan), 571 Three Soldiers (Dos Passos), 440 Three Years in Europe (Brown), 186 thrillers, 751–8 magazines, 750 postmodern, 742 see also crime novels Through the Eye of the Needle (Howells), 285–6 Thurber, James, 545 Thurman, Wallace, 511–12 ‘Thursday’ (Millay), 420 ‘Thy Brother’s Blood’ (Very), 230 The Ticket that Exploded (Burroughs), 657 Tierra (Rivera), 774–5, 776–7 Till the Day I Die (Odets), 457 The Time of Man (Roberts), 433–4 Timoleon (Melville), 214 Timrod, Henry, 265–6 Tiny Alice (Albee), 714 The Titan (Dreiser), 365, 366–7 893 Tjanting (Silliman), 746 To a God Unknown (Steinbeck), 497 ‘To a Waterfowl’ (Bryant), 227–8 To Be of Us (Piercy), 767–8 To Have and Have Not (Hemingway), 347, 444 ‘To Helen’ (Poe), 120–1 ‘To my baby Paul’ (Zukofsky), 394 ‘To the Hopi in Richmond (Santa Fe Village)’ (Rose), 803 ‘To the Negro People’ (Taggard), 482 ‘To the Town of Providence’ (Williams), 39 To What Strangers, What Welcomes (Cunningham), 477 tobacco, in Native American stories, Tocqueville, Alexis de, 140 Todd, Almira (The Country of the Pointed Firs), 262–3 Todd, Mabel L., 239 The Token, 202 Toklas, Alice B., 431, 432 Tolson, Melvin B., 528 Tolstoy, Leo, influence, 285 Tom Sawyer, The Adventures of (Twain), 252–3 The Tombs of Atuan (Le Guin), 761 Tompson, Benjamin, 41 Toole, John Kennedy, 741 Toomer, Jean, 344, 371, 510, 512, 518–20 The Tooth of Crime (Shepard), 715–16 The Torch Song Trilogy (Fierstein), 721–2 The Torrents of Spring (Hemingway), 373 A Tour of the Prairie (Irving), 107 La Tourista (Shepard), 715 894 Toussaint L’Ouverture, 520 ‘Toussaint L’Ouverture’ (Phillips), 165 ‘Toward Proletarian Art’ (Gold), 487 Tracks (Erdrich), 812–13 tradition Asian American writers on, 787–8, 796 and Fugitives, 464–6, 467, 469–75 Native American writers on, 505–9, 802–17 see also nostalgia; past ‘The Traditional History and Characteristic Sketches of the Ojibway Nation’ (Copway), 155 The Tragedy of Pudd’nhead Wilson (Twain), 256 Trail of Tears, 102–3, 157–8 Train Whistle Guitar (Murray), 684 Trakl, Georg, 570 A Tramp Abroad (Twain), 250 ‘Trans-National America’ (Bourne), 487 Transcendental Wild Oats (Alcott), 313 Transcendentalists, 130–44 Hawthorne on, 200 literary treatments, 313 and science fiction, 760 transformation (acting technique), 712 transportation, early 19th century, 100–1 transrational language, 742 travel writings 15th and 16th centuries, 18–31 17th and 18th centuries, 55–60, 73–4 19th century, 113–15, 250, 251, 283 20th century, 296, 492, 727 first African American, 186 Native American, 155–6 Index A Traveler from Altruria (Howells), 285–6 Travesty (Hawkes), 737 Treat, Lawrence, 751 A Treatise Concerning Religious Affections (Edwards), 67 A Treatise on Sociology (Hughes), 169–70 Tribute to the Angels (H D.), 391–2 tricksters in 20th-century Native American writings, 805, 813–15 in Melville, 214 in Native American stories, 5, 6, 7, 12–14, 509 in Reed, 682 in Uncle Remus stories, 267–8 Trilling, Diana, 642 Trinidad, David, 772 Tripmaster Monkey (Kingston), 791–2 Triton (Delany), 762 Tropic of Cancer (Miller), 658 Trout Fishing in America (Brautigan), 661 True West (Shepard), 716–17 Truth, Sojourner, 181–2, 200 Tsimshian people, Tsukiyama, Gail, 797 Tucker, George, 171 Tucker, Nathaniel Beverley, 172 Tuckerman, Frederick Goddard, 231, 232 ‘Tulips’ (Plath), 594–5 Turell, Jane Colman, 62 Turgenev, Ivan, 289 ‘The Turn of the Screw’ (James), 295 Turner, Frederick Jackson, 246 Turner, Nat, 101, 166, 199, 605–6 Turow, Scott, 757 Tuskegee Institute, 349–50, 674 Twain, Mark (Samuel Langhorne Clemens), 128, 250–7 and Howells, 283 on humour, 544 precursors, 176 Twentieth-Century Cycle (Bullins), 689 Twice-Told Tales (Hawthorne), 202–3 twins, in Native American stories, 7–8 Two Dissertations (Edwards), 67 Two Men (Stoddard), 217 ‘The Two Offers’ (Harper), 183 Two Trains Running (Wilson), 690 Two Wings Veil My Face (Forrest), 686 Tyler, Anne, 625–6 Tyler, Royall, 91–2, 453 Typee (Melville), 208, 214 Typical American (Jen), 789 typography and cummings, 424 and Marquis, 423 ‘The Ugliest Woman in the World’ (Rose), 803 Ulysses (Joyce), 341 Un-American Activities Committee, see House Un-American Activities Committee The Unbearable Heart (Hahn), 600 Uncle Remus stories (Harris), 267–8 Uncle Tom’s Cabin (Stowe), 104, 172, 183, 194–9 Uncle Tom’s Children (Wright), 534, 535 ‘Uncle Wellington’s Wives’ (Chesnutt), 280 Uncommon Women (Wasserstein), 721 The Underground Stream (Maltz), 489 ‘Underground Water’ (Wideman), 803 Underworld (DeLillo), 617 ‘Unfold! Unfold!’ (Roethke), 586 Unholy Loves (Oates), 625 The Universal Baseball Association (Coover), 618 Unspeakable Practices, Unnatural Acts (Barthelme), 735–6, 737 Up From Slavery (Washington), 349, 350 ‘Up-State Depression Summer’ (Taggard), 481 ‘Up the Coulé’ (Garland), 297–8 Updike, John, 614–16 ‘Upon a Spider Catching a Fly’ (Taylor), 47 ‘Upon Wedlock, & Death of Children’ (Taylor), 47–8 urbanization 19th century, 246 20th century, 337 and rise of nostalgia, 257 see also city life USA, see America U.S.A (Dos Passos), 440, 441–2 utopian communities, 135, 203, 313 utopian literature 19th century, 285–6 early English colonists, 29, 35 feminist, 316 V (Pynchon), 730–2 Valdez, Luis, 559 The Valley (Hinojosa), 777 The Valley of Decision (Wharton), 356 Index The Valley of Shenandoah (Tucker), 171 Van Vechten, Carl, 513, 522 Vandover and the Brute (Norris), 301 ‘Vapour Trail Reflected in a Frog Pond’ (Kinnell), 580 Vãsquez, Richard, 779 veritism, 297 vernacular, use of Berger, 739 Brooks, 529 Brown, 526 Bullins, 689 Chesnutt, 279, 280 Dunne, 327–8 Higgins, 753 Hurston, 515 Leonard, 753 Miller, 704 regionalists, 258–61, 264–5, 274 Southwest heroes, 124–9 Twain, 251–6 Wilson, 690 Very, Jones, 139, 230–1, 232 The Victim (Bellow), 610 Vidal, Gore, 601 Vietnam War, 560, 561 literary treatments, 626, 673, 719, 727–8, 761 protest poems, 579–80, 644 Vietnamese Americans: writings, 799–80 A View from the Bridge (Miller), 705 ‘The Village Blacksmith’ (Longfellow), 229 ‘A Village Dressmaker’ (Spofford), 314 Villagrá, Gaspar Pérez de, 23 Villanueva, Alma Luz, 779 Villareal, José Antonio, 773–4 Villaseñor, Victor, 779 895 violence African American protest writing, 663–74, 679–80 Capote, 724–6 ‘hardboiled’ novels, 541–4 O’Connor, 621–3 postmodern novels, 737–8 postwar novels, 727, 750–1 see also protest; war The Violent Bear It Away (O’Connor), 622–3 Viramontes, Helena Maria, 779–80 Virgil, influence on Cather, 363 on Lewis, 63 on Longfellow, 228 on Mather, 54 on Villagrá, 23 Virgin, Adams on, 318, 319–20 Virgin of Guadalupe, 64–5, 159 Virginia 18th century, 56–60 exploration and colonization, 25–30 slavery, 101 Virginia (Hawkes), 737 Virginia Company, 29–30 The Virginian (Wister), 538–9 ‘Vision’ (Hinojosa), 804 The Vision of Columbus (Barlow), 63, 90 The Vision of Sir Launfal (Lowell), 231 Vizenor, Gerald, 805, 813–15 A Voice from the South (Cooper), 323–4 Vonnegut, Kurt, 602, 758 Vorticism, 389 ‘Voyages’ (Crane), 428 Wadsworth, Rev Charles, 239 Wagner, Richard, 688 Wah’kon-tah (Matthews), 508 896 Waiting for Lefty (Odets), 457 Waiting for the Verdict (Davis), 220 Waiting to Exhale (McMillan), 699 ‘Wakefield’ (Hawthorne), 202 ‘Waking Early Sunday Morning’ (Lowell), 580 Wakoski, Diane, 599 Walden (Thoreau), 138–42 Walker, Alice, 516, 695–8, 782 Walker, David, 160–2 Walker, Margaret, 521, 531–2, 532–3 Wall Street Crash, 345 Wallace, David Foster, 619 Wallace, Lew, 249 The Walls Do Not Fall (H D.), 391–2 Walter, Eugene, 453 The Wapshot Chronicle (Cheever), 605 war: literary treatments 19th-century prose, 286–7 Chesnut, 173–5 Crane, 304–5 Dos Passos, 440 Ginsberg, 560, 579, 642, 644 Harper, 184 Hemingway, 444, 445 Japanese American writers, 793–5 Komunyakaa, 673 Le Guin, 761 Lowell, 560, 580, 588 Mailer, 602–3 Mason, 626 Miller, 706 Mitchell, 546–9 Moody, 299 postwar novels, 601–2, 727–8 postwar poetry, 564–6 Pynchon, 732 Rabe, 719 Index regionalists, 265–6 Styron, 606 Tate, 469–70 Vietnam War protest poetry, 579–80 Whitman, 233–4 Ward, Diane, 747 Warner, Charles Dudley, 251 Warner, Susan, 104 Warren, Mercy Otis, 62 Warren, Robert Penn, 464, 471–5 Warshawski, Victoria Iphigenia (Paretsky character), 754–5 Washington, Booker T., 348–51 Washington, Madison, 185 Wasserstein, Wendy, 720, 721 The Waste Land (Eliot), 404–5 allusiveness, 229, 397, 404 and Fugitives, 470 and Pound, 397 publication, 393 and the sea, 402 Williams on, 407 Watch on the Rhine (Hellman), 491 Waters, Frank, 606 Waters, Muddy, 668 The Waterworks (Doctorow), 608 Watten, Barrett, 745, 746 The Way to Rainy Mountain (Momaday), 806 The Way to Wealth (Franklin), 71 ‘We Real Cool’ (Brooks), 529–30 wealth, individual 19th century, 248–9 20th century, 345–6, 557–8 ‘Weaving’ (Larcom), 226 The Web and the Rock (Wolfe), 496–7 Webber, George (Wolfe character), 496–7 A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers (Thoreau), 139 Weill, Kurt, 457 Weiner, Hannah, 747 Weird Tales, 759 Welch, James, 805, 810–11 Welcome to Hard Times (Doctorow), 608 Weld, Angelina Grimké, 176–7 Wells, H G., 303 Welty, Eudora, 619–21, 752 West American right to settle, 258–9 West: literary treatments, 19th century, 107–11, 112–18, 215–16, 224–5, 258–9 West: literary treatments, 20th century detective novels, 756–7 early, 326–7, 344, 355, 362–4, 371, 499 musicals, 702 poetry, 384–7, 477, 570, 586 postmodern novels, 738–9 postwar drama, 716–17 postwar novels, 606–7, 608, 618–19, 628–9 postwar poetry, 634–5 Westerns, 537–40, 753 West, Dorothy, 531–2 West, Nathanael, 347, 549–52 West Indians: literary treatments, 700–1 ‘The Western Emigrant’ (Sigourney), 224–5 Western Story, 539 Westerns, 537–40, 753 Westward Ho! (Miller), 259 Weyden, Humphrey Van (The Sea-Wolf ), 307–8 Whalen, Philip, 639, 641 Wharton, Edith, 355–8 What I Believe Transpiration/ Transpiring Minnesota (Grenier), 746 What Maisie Knew (James), 295 ‘What mystery pervades a well!’ (Dickinson), 240, 382 what the hell for you left your heart in san francisco (Santos), 799 Wheatley, Phillis, 78, 83, 86–8 Wheatley, Susanne, 86 ‘When de Saints Go Ma’ching Home’ (Brown), 526 ‘When the Frost is on the Punkin’ (Riley), 259 ‘Where Are You Going, Where Have You Been?’ (Oates), 625 Where is Vietnam? American Poets Respond, 579 ‘Where Knock is Open Wide’ (Roethke), 586 Whitaker, Alexander, 27, 28 White, E B., 545 White, Hayden, x White, Walter, 512 ‘White Foolscap’ (Howe), 749 White Jazz (Ellroy), 753–4 ‘The White Negro’ (Mailer), 603, 604 White-Jacket (Melville), 209 White Noise (DeLillo), 616–17 Whitecloud, Thomas S., 506–7 whites, in Native American stories creation of, 8, 10 encounters with Native Americans, 4, 5–7, 11, 12, 13–14 Whitman, Walt, 232–7 on America, 89, 232–7, 481 Index on the Civil War, 246 Cunningham on, 477 Eberhart on, 478 and Eliot, 405–6 and Gold, 488 and Hughes, 524–5 Ignatow on, 576 influence, 642, 646, 658 Kafka on, 346 and newspapers, 104 Stein on, 430 Whittemore, Reed, 567, 582 Whittier, John Greenleaf, 166–8 ‘Who Among You Knows the Essence of Garlic?’ (Hongo), 796 Who Speaks for the Negro? (Warren), 472 Who’s Afraid of Virginia Woolf ? (Albee), 713–14 Why Are We in Vietnam? (Mailer), 603 ‘Wichita Vortex Sutra’ (Ginsberg), 644 The Wide, Wide World (Warner), 104 Wideman, John Edgar, 684–5 Wideman, Robert Hill, 803 Wieland (Brown), 96, 97–8 Wieners, John, 632–3 Wife (Mukherjee), 800 The Wife of His Youth (Chesnutt), 278, 280–1 Wigglesworth, Michael, 42 Wilbur, Richard, 542, 566–7, 581 Wild Fruits (Thoreau), 143–4 ‘The Wild Honey Suckle’ (Freneau), 89 Wild Tree Press, 696 Wilder, Thornton, 456 wilderness Twain on, 255 see also clearing vs wilderness Williams, Edward, 26, 27 897 Williams, John, 51–2 Williams, John A., 684 Williams, Jonathan, 632 Williams, Oscar, 565 Williams, Paulette, see Shange, Ntozake Williams, Raymond, x Williams, Roger, 37, 39–41 Williams, Sherley Anne, 516, 699 Williams, Tennessee, 688, 702–3, 707–11, 714 Williams, William Carlos, 347, 392, 406–11 on the bomb, 581 on creative process, 390, 408 on Ginsberg, 642 influence, 576, 589, 646 Moore on, 416 and Objectivism, 393 and Pound, 388 on Rexroth, 483, 484 Willis, Nathaniel Parker, 179 Willis, Sarah Payson, see Fern, Fanny Wilson, August, 688, 690–1 Wilson, Edmund, 475, 491, 769 Wilson, Harriet E., 193–4, 354 Wilson, Lanford, 713, 717 Wilson, Woodrow, 339 Windy McPherson’s Son (Anderson), 372 Winesburg, Ohio (Anderson), 371, 372–3 Winona (Hopkins), 310 Winter in the Blood (Welch), 810 ‘Winter Remembered’ (Ransom), 467, 468 Winters, Yvor, 421, 477 Winterset (Anderson), 456 Winthrop, John, 32, 35–7 Wise Blood (O’Connor), 622–3 ‘Wiser than a God’ (Chopin), 271 898 Wister, Owen, 538–9 witchcraft Franklin on, 72 see also Salem witch trials The Witches of Eastwick (Updike), 615 With Shuddering Fall (Oates), 624 Wittgenstein, Ludwig, 733, 742 A Wizard of Earthsea (Le Guin), 761 Wolfe, Hugh (‘Life in the Iron Mills’), 220 Wolfe, Thomas, 495–7, 504 Wolfe, Tom, 663, 723–4, 728 Woman in the Nineteenth Century (Fuller), 136–8 ‘Woman Poem’ (Giovanni), 670–1 The Woman Warrior (Kingston), 789–91 The Woman Within (Glasgow), 358, 360 women and abolitionism, 178 Adams on feminine force, 318, 319–20 Byrd on, 59 colonial expectations of, 44–5 Fuller on, 136–8 Hawthorne on, 206 housekeeping manuals, 175, 179 Hwang on male perceptions, 722–3 and slavery, 146, 148–51, 173–4, 177–8, 186–7 see also feminism women: conditions 18th century, 61 19th century, 103, 179–80, 249–50, 261–5 20th century, 340–1 Austin on, 326–7 frontier life, 215–16 Hopkins on, 310–12 plantation life, 173–4 Index women: literary treatments 19th century, 92–3, 117 African American, 519, 688 Hispanic folklore, 159 marginalized subjects, 744 Mexican American, 482 Modernist prose, 450–2 Native American stories, postwar drama, 708–10 see also women: writings women: rights and Adams, 318 African American women, 323–4 Asian immigrants, 503–4 and Alcott, 313–14 James on, 294 Le Sueur on, 493–4 Revolutionary period, 79–81, 96 and Smith, 490 voting, 340 women: writings first autobiography by Native American, 325–6 first novel by African American, 193–4 first novel by African American to sell million-plus, 532 first novel by Native American, 509 mutual support networks, 355 writing style and attitude to, 104 women: writings, 17th and 18th centuries, 44–6, 61–2, 93–5 women: writings, 19th century novels, 214–16, 217–20, 309, 310–14, 315–16 short stories, 314–15, 316–18 women: writings, 20th century African American drama, 686–8 African American novels, 510, 514–18, 532–3, 691–701 African American poetry, 525, 529–30, 532–3 African American protest writing, 663–4, 665, 668–74 Asian American, 332–5, 787–92, 793–4, 795–6, 797–8, 800–1 Chicana, 772–3, 778–80 comic, 546 crime and mystery novels, 751–2, 754–5 early, 326, 355–64 immigrants, 329, 499–500, 503–4, 764–5, 766–8 language poetry, 744–5, 746–7, 749 Latina, 782–4, 785–6 Modernist poetry, 389–3, 396–7, 416–22, 424–6 Modernist prose, 429–34 Native American, 508–9, 803–4, 805, 808–9, 811–13 popular novels, 546–9 populist, 482–3 postwar drama, 720–1 postwar novels, 619–29 postwar poetry, 572–3, 581–5, 593–600, 649 radicals, 490–5 science fiction, 760–1, 762 short stories, 619, 622–9 Women and Economics (Gilman), 316 The Women of Brewster (Naylor), 698 Women of Silk (Tsukiyama), 797 Women’s Suffrage Association, 166 Wonderland (Oates), 625 The Wonders of the Invisible World (Mather), 52 Wong, Jade Snow, 502 Wong, Shawn, 793 ‘Woodchucks’ (Kumin), 599 Woodcraft (Simms), 169 Woolf, Virginia, 340, 747 Woolman, John, 65 Woolrich, Cornell, 543 The Word for World Forest (Le Guin), 761 Wordsworth, William, 130, 236, 527 Work (Alcott), 313–14 work ethic Depression’s effect, 345–6 late 19th century, 248–9 Puritan origins, 68–9 Work Projects Administration (WPA), 346, 348 ‘The Working-Girls of New York’ (Fern), 179–80 Works Progress Administration (WPA), 346, 532 World Anti-Slavery Convention (1840), 178 World War I, see First World War World War II, see Second World War World’s Columbian Exposition, Chicago (1893), 336 World’s Fair (Doctorow), 608 Wounded Knee massacre, 322, 325, 559 WPA, see Work Projects Administration; Works Progress Administration Wright, Charles, 596 Wright, Col George: literary treatments, 817 Wright, James, 569–70 Wright, Jay, 598, 599 Wright, Richard, 347, 353, 515, 532–7, 674 writing, see creative process Writing/Talks, 745 The Writing of Fiction (Wharton), 356 Index Wurlitzer, Rudolph, 740 Wylie, Elinor, 419–20 Yakima people, Yamamoto, Hisaye, 793 Yeats, W B., influence, 591 Yekl (Cahan), 328 ‘Yellow Light’ (Hongo), 796 ‘The Yellow Wall-Paper’ (Gilman), 316–18 The Yemassee (Simms), 168 Yerby, Frank, 699 Yerkes, Charles T., 366 Yezierska, Anna, 499–500 ‘Yittischer Charleston’ (Pound), 393 Yokohama, California (Mori), 793 Yonnondio (Olsen), 764 ‘You, Andrew Marvell’ (MacLeish), 484–5 ‘You are my friend’ (Niedecker), 396 You Can’t Go Home Again (Wolfe), 496–7 You Must Remember This (Oates), 625 Young, Starke, 466 ‘Young Sycamore’ (Williams), 407–8 The Young Woman Citizen (Austin), 326 Youngblood (Killens), 684 ‘Yourself ’ (Very), 230–1 Yuchi people, Yuma people, 7–9 Yutang, Lin, 787 Yvernelle (Norris), 300 zaum, 742 Zen Buddhism, 640 Zitkala-Sa, 325–6 Zola, Émile, 300, 301 The Zoo Story (Albee), 713 Zukofsky, Louis, 393–4, 742 Zuni people and Spanish, 18–19 stories, 9, 15–18 899 ... The Transcendentalists Contents v Voices of African American identity The Making of Many Americas Native American writing Oral culture of the Hispanic Southwest African American polemic and poetry... process of mythmaking, but a text set in the apparent authority and fixity of print What we read now is also the result of an act of translation: any version we have of a Native American tale is... vision – and, for that matter, of that idea of the writing into life of a New Eden that has tended to monopolize readings of American literature At some moments, the pace of change may accelerate