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171mm 32.2mm “Richard Gray’s real achievement is somehow to have compressed more than 400 years of thrillingly rich literary history between two covers.” Literary Review “Highly readable, jargon-free, and engaging.” A HISTORY OF American Literary Scholarship First published in 2004, A History of American Literature is one of the most popular and critically acclaimed surveys of American literature from pre-Columbian times to the present available today This widely anticipated second edition features a wealth of fresh updates and new material, including a detailed survey of the fiction, drama, and poetry written in response to 9/11 and the “war on terror.” Other additions include coverage of the cultural consequences of the new era in American politics ushered in by the election of President Obama, and the development of new literary and cultural movements such as the New Formalists Second Edition Richard Gray is Professor of Literature at the University of Essex and former Distinguished Visiting Professor at a number of universities in the United States.€He is the first specialist in American literature to be elected a Fellow of the British Academy and has published over a dozen books on the topic, including the award-winning Writing the South: Ideas of an American Region (1986)€and The Life of William Faulkner: A Critical Biography (1994) His History of American Literature (Blackwell, 2004) is widely considered to be one of the standard works on the subject Second Edition 246mm Compelling and authoritative, A History of American Literature, Second Edition, continues its tradition of representing an unparalleled introduction to the full breadth and diversity of the American literary tradition literature literature Written in an informed and approachable style by Richard Gray, one of the leading authorities in the field, this survey helps the reader develop a deeper understanding of and insight into the immense breadth of American literary traditions within the context of American social and cultural history While focusing on the full range of fiction, poetry, drama, and non-fiction that has been incorporated into the mainstream literary canon, Gray also considers popular American literary traditions such as oral literature, folktales, spirituals, Westerns, detective stories, thrillers, and science fiction A HISTORY OF “How Gray managed to so captivatingly capture the depth and breadth of so complex a literature in under a thousand pages is worth considering […] Richard Gray possesses the most balanced scholarship of the entire range of American literature I ever read […] This is the first history of American literature fully worthy of the multi-dimensionality of its subject.” Norman Weinstein, Boise State University Cover image: Plowed by Rob Browning, acrylic, 28” x 30” www.robbrowningart.com Cover design by www.cyandesign.co.uk GRAY Praise for the First Edition: 171mm RICHARD GRAY Gray_bindex.indd 916 8/1/2011 7:55:08 AM A HISTORY OF amerıcanliterature Gray_ffirs.indd i 8/1/2011 7:52:43 AM Gray_ffirs.indd ii 8/1/2011 7:52:43 AM A HISTORY OF amerıcanliterature Second Edition RICHARD GRAY A John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Publication Gray_ffirs.indd iii 8/1/2011 7:52:43 AM This edition first published 2012 © 2012 Richard Gray Edition history: Blackwell Publishers Ltd (1e, 2004) Blackwell Publishing was acquired by John Wiley & Sons in February 2007 Blackwell’s publishing program has been merged with Wiley’s global Scientific, Technical, and Medical business to form Wiley-Blackwell Registered Office John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK Editorial Offices 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148–5020, USA 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford, OX4 2DQ, UK The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK For details of our global editorial offices, for customer services, and for information about how to apply for permission to reuse the copyright material in this book please see our website at www.wiley.com/wiley-blackwell The right of Richard Gray to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance with the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names, service marks, trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective owners The publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in regard to the subject matter covered It is sold on the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be sought Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Gray, Richard J A history of American literature / Richard Gray – 2nd ed p cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 978-1-4051-9229-3 (hardback) – ISBN 978-1-4051-9228-6 (paper) American literature–History and criticism I Title PS88.G73 2011 810.9–dc23 2011026044 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is published in the following electronic formats: ePDF: 9781444345674; ePub: 9781444345681; Wiley Online Library: 9781444345704; Mobi: 9781444345698 Set in 10.5/13pt Minion by SPi Publisher Services, Pondicherry, India Gray_ffirs.indd iv 2012 8/1/2011 7:52:44 AM To Sheona Gray_ffirs.indd v 8/1/2011 7:52:44 AM Gray_ffirs.indd vi 8/1/2011 7:52:44 AM Contents Acknowledgments xi The First Americans: American Literature Before and During the Colonial and Revolutionary Periods Imagining Eden Native American Oral Traditions Spanish and French Encounters with America Anglo-American Encounters Writing of the Colonial and Revolutionary Periods Puritan narratives Challenges to the Puritan oligarchy Some colonial poetry Enemies within and without Trends toward the secular and resistance Toward the Revolution Alternative voices of Revolution Writing Revolution: Poetry, drama, fiction Inventing Americas: The Making of American Literature, 1800–1865 Making a Nation The Making of American Myths Myths of an emerging nation The making of Western myth The making of Southern myth Legends of the Old Southwest 88 88 92 92 95 105 109 Contents Gray_ftoc.indd vii 14 21 27 28 32 36 44 48 60 69 75 vii 8/1/2011 7:32:28 PM The Making of American Selves The Transcendentalists Voices of African-American identity The Making of Many Americas Native American writing Oral culture of the Hispanic Southwest African-American polemic and poetry Abolitionist and pro-slavery writing Abolitionism and feminism African-American writing The Making of an American Fiction and Poetry The emergence of American narratives Women writers and storytellers Spirituals and folk songs American poetic voices Reconstructing the Past, Reimagining the Future: The Development of American Literature, 1865–1900 Rebuilding a Nation The Development of Literary Regionalism From Adam to outsider Regionalism in the West and Midwest African-American and Native American voices Regionalism in New England Regionalism in the South The Development of Literary Realism and Naturalism Capturing the commonplace Capturing the real thing Toward Naturalism The Development of Women’s Writing Writing by African-American women Writing and the condition of women The Development of Many Americas Things fall apart Voices of resistance Voices of reform The immigrant encounter Making It New: The Emergence of Modern American Literature, 1900–1945 Changing National Identities Between Victorianism and Modernism viii Gray_ftoc.indd viii 114 114 126 133 134 139 141 145 154 161 171 171 190 196 199 219 219 224 224 231 233 235 239 255 255 259 269 281 281 284 290 290 293 295 299 308 308 320 Contents 8/1/2011 7:32:28 PM The Real Life of Sebastian Knight (Nabokov), 745 realism 19th-century drama, 420–422 19th-century novels, 224, 255–281 dirty realism, 568, 702–704, 806–808 domestic realism, in postwar drama, 679–684, 690–691, 692–693 Hansberry on, 663 and New Journalists, 700–703 reality Nabokov on, 746 Stevens on, 380–381 Reaper, 626 Rebel Angels, 623, 624 The Rebels (Child), 154 “Recipe” (Mirikitani), 772 Recollections of a Forest Life (Copway), 136 The Red Badge of Courage (Crane), 276–277 Red Rock (Page), 241 Redburn (Melville), 184, 185 The Redeemed Captive Returning to Zion (Williams), 45–46 redemption: literary treatments Crane, 395 Delany, 739 Fugitives, 431, 440–441 Grey, 505 Merrill, 623 O’Connor, 591–592 Occom, 72 Welch, 788 The Redskins (Cooper), 99 Redwood (Sedgwick), 102 Reed, Ishmael, 528, 657–659, 824 Reed, John, 454 Reed, Lou, 793 Reeve, F D., 824 regionalism African-American and Native American, 233–235 definition, 231 Fugitives and traditionalists, 431–445 New England, 235–239 South, 239–255 Twain, 224–231 West and Midwest, 231–233 religion in 18th-century works, 57–60 in 19th-century works, 171, 173, 199 African-American services, 153–154 and Baldwin, 653–654 in colonial poetry, 36–38, 42–44 Douglass on, 130 in early 20th-century literature, 272, 626–627 Edwards on emotion’s place in, 59 Emerson on, 114, 115 evangelical writings, 18th century, 71–72 evangelism, 49, 58–60, 90 and Foote, 282 and King, 657 and Lowell, 555 Melville on faith, 187–188, 189, 190 Native American, 35, 296–297 and O’Connor, 591–592 and O’Neill, 426–427, 430 and Puritan writings, 28–31, 35, 37, 39–44 Stevens on, 382–383 and Tate, 438 see also Buddhism; Catholicism; Christianity; Islam; spirituality Index Gray_bindex.indd 899 The Reluctant Fundamentalist (Hamid), 800, 802–804, 805, 809 “Remember” (Harjo), 781 Remember to Remember (Miller), 636 renewal: literary treatments Douglass, 130 Native American stories, 13 naturalists, 274 Thoreau, 125 repetition and Everson, 607 and Faulkner, 415–419 Hejinian on, 722 and Le Sueur, 461 and Olson, 600 and Stein, 399 and Welch, 787 and Whitman, 212 The Repository (Murray), 70 repression: literary treatments Gilman, 289–290 Glasgow, 331–332 Thurber, 511 Wharton, 329 Requiem for a Nun (Faulkner), 415 “Requiem for the Spanish Dead” (Rexroth), 450 Reservation Blues (Alexei), 792, 793–794 reservations: literary treatments, 792, 793–794 Resolutions (Edwards), 58 “A Respectable Woman” (Chopin), 244 “The Return of the Private” (Garland), 270 revenge: literary treatments, 179, 181 Review of the Debate in the Virginia Legislature (Dew), 150 “The Revolt of ‘Mother’” (Freeman), 238–239 The Revolt of the Cockroach People (Acosta), 756 899 8/1/2011 7:55:07 AM “The Revolution Will Not Be Televised” (Scott-Heron), 647 Revolutionary Road (Yates), 572 Rexroth, Kenneth, 363, 449–451, 503, 611 Reynolds, J N., 185 Reznikoff, Charles, 363, 365 “Rhapsody” (O’Hara), 618 Rhea, Miranda (“The Old Order”), 401 Rice, Elmer, 423–424, 512 Rich, Adrienne, 535, 537, 539–540, 827–828 influence, 759 and Vietnam, 546, 547 Rich, Robert, 24, 346–347 Richardson, Samuel, influence, 85 Riders of the Purple Sage (Grey), 504–505 Ridge, John Rollin, 134–135, 472 Ridge, Lula, 449 Riding, Laura, 432, 720 (Riding) Jackson, Laura, 392, 394–395 The Rights of Man (Paine), 65 Riley, James Whitcomb, 233, 234 Rimbaud, Arthur, 106 rime-breaking, 386 “Rip Van Winkle” (Irving), 93–94 Ripley, George, 119 Ripley novels (Highsmith), 729 Ripostes (Pound), 368 The Rise of David Levinsky (Cahan), 301 The Rise of Silas Lapham (Howells), 255, 256–259 The Rising Glory of America (Freneau and Brackenridge), 77 “Rites of Ancient Ripening” (Le Sueur), 460 Rituals of Survival (Mohr), 760 river life: literary treatments, 111, 224–227 900 Gray_bindex.indd 900 Rivera, Tomás, 751–752, 755 Rivers, Larry, 615, 616 Rives, Amélie, 224 The Road (McCarthy), 800 The Road to Tamazunchale (Arias), 756 “Roan Stallion” (Jeffers), 356–358 The Robber Bridegroom (Welty), 589 Roberts, Elizabeth Madox, 400, 401–402 Robeson, Paul, 663 Robinson, Edwin Arlington, 345–350, 623–624 Robinson, Marilynne, 597, 598 rock and roll, 522 Rockefeller, John D., 222 Roderick Hudson (James), 262 Rodgers, Richard, 679 Roethke, Theodore, 540, 552–554 Rolfe, Edwin, 449, 826 Romance, Norris on, 273 A Romance of the Republic (Child), 155 The Romantic Comedians (Glasgow), 331 Ronyoung, Kim, 775 Roosevelt, Theodore, 302, 318, 346 Rope and Faggot (White), 479 Roper, Moses, 164 Rose, Wendy, 779–780 Rosenberg, Julius and Ethel: literary treatments, 576, 717 Rosewater, Eliot, 740 Roth, Henry, 313 Roth, Philip, 580–581 Rothko, Mark, 620 Roughing It (Twain), 224, 225 Rowlandson, Mary White, 44–45 Rowson, Susanna Haswell, 81, 82–83, 85 Ruffin, Edmund, 149, 150 Rukeyser, Muriel, 392–394 A Rumor of War (Caputo), 704 Running Sketches of Men and Places (Copway), 137 Runyan, Damon, 694 rural communities: literary treatments 19th century, 235–239, 240, 243, 270–271 20th century, 316, 348, 464–466 in Modernist works, 366, 401–402, 415–420 postwar novels, 575–576, 593 Rushing, Jimmy, 496 Ruth Hall (Fern), 159 A Sabine Woman (Moody), 272 Saffin, John, 36 Salem witch trials, 46, 48 and Hawthorne, 178 literary treatments, 100, 682 Salinger, J D., 522, 631, 636–638 Salmagundi (Irving), 93 Salter, Mary Jo, 624, 625, 629 Salute to Spring (Le Sueur), 461 “The Same Old Jazz” (McClure), 608 San Francisco Renaissance, 606–610 San Francisco Talk Series, 722 Sanchez, Sonia, 524, 645, 646, 648 Sanders, Ed, 749 Sandburg, Carl, 343, 446–447, 825 Santayana, George, 382 Santiago, Esmerelda, 760 Santos, Bienvenido, 776 Sappho, 359 Saroyan, William, 424 Sartoris (Faulkner), 416–417 Sartre, Jean-Paul, 502, 621 Satan in Gusay (Singer), 740 Index 8/1/2011 7:55:07 AM Satanstoe (Cooper), 99 satire 17th century, 33, 55 19th century, 93, 206, 228–230 Revolutionary period, 77, 84–85 satire: 20th century early and mid-, 331–332, 340–342, 478–479, 509–510 postmodern novels, 715, 718 postwar novels, 569, 572, 577, 620, 661, 701 radicals, 453 science fiction as, 736–740 Satires Against the Tories (Freneau, Brackenridge, and Madison), 77 Saturday Evening Post, 505 Savage Night (Thompson), 728 Scannell, Tim, 816 The Scarlet Letter (Hawthorne), 178–183 Schaefer, Jack, 504 Schnackenberg, Gjertrud, 624, 625–626 Schneck, Stephen, 717 Schomburg, Arthur A., 477 “School Day in Man Quang” (Knight), 546 Schoolcraft, Henry Rowe, 135, 137, 203 Schoolcraft, Jane Johnston, 135 “The Schooldays of an Indian Girl” (Bonnin), 297 Schulberg, Budd, 407 Schuyler, George, 479, 492 Schuyler, James, 618, 619 Schwartz, Delmore, 536, 541–542 literary treatments, 580 Schwartz, Lynne Sharon, 798–799 science, Adams on, 291 science fiction, 568, 569, 735–740 early African-American, 283 Native American, 791–792 Scopes trial, 313, 433 Scott, Sir Walter, influence on Cooper, 95 on Douglass, 128 on Irving, 93, 94 on Norris, 273 on Parkman, 102 Scott-Heron, Gil, 647 Scoundrel Time (Hellman), 458 sea novels Cooper, 95, 96, 99 and Johnson, 662 London, 279–281 Melville, 184, 185–189 Norris, 273 sea poems, 396 “The Seafarer” (Pound), 368–369 The Searching Wind (Hellman), 457 “Season of Death” (Rolfe), 449 “Seasons of the Soul” (Tate), 438 The Sea-Wolf (London), 273, 279–281 “Second Fig” (Millay), 389 Second Great Awakening, 90 Second World War, see World War II secret histories and Hongo, 773 and language poets, 722, 726 slavery, 146, 147 The Secret History of the Dividing Line (Byrd), 52 Sedgwick, Catharine Maria, 102–104 Segregation (Warren), 439 Seidman, Hugh, 821 Selby, Hubert, 703 self: literary treatments Aiken, 366 Ammons, 544 Austin, 299 Index Gray_bindex.indd 901 Bellow, 579 Berryman, 558–559 Dickinson, 212–218 Eliot, 373–374 Faulkner, 416–420 Fitzgerald, 403 H D., 362–363 James, 265 Kincaid, 678 Lowell, 555–557 Malamud, 576–577 Plath, 560–563 Porter, 400–401 postmodernists, 710 postwar poetry, 534–540, 567–568 Roethke, 552 Stevens, 383–385 Walker, 694 see also individualism self-help Douglass on, 130 Emerson on, 114–119 Fitzgerald on, 406 Franklin on, 61, 63 Fuller on, 119–121 Thoreau on, 121–126 selling: literary treatments, 680, 694 see also commodity culture; consumerism; materialism The Selling of Joseph (Sewall), 48 Seneca Falls Convention, 157 Sent for You Yesterday (Wideman), 661 Sentences (Grenier), 723 “September Twelfth, 2001” (X J Kennedy), 823 Seraph on the Sewanee (Hurston), 482 A Sermon Preached by Samson Occom, Minister of the Gospel (Occom), 71–72 sermons, 18th century, 59–60 The Serpent (van Itallie), 689 Seth, Vikram, 624, 627–628 901 8/1/2011 7:55:07 AM Seuss, Diane, 823 Seven Arts, 343 The Seven League Boots (Murray), 661 Seventeen Syllables (Yamamoto), 770 Several Poems Compiled with Great Variety of Wit and Learning (Bradstreet), 40–41 Sewall, Samuel, 48 sex and sexuality: literary treatments African-American novels, 168 blues songs, 497 Broumas, 567 Cain, 509 Chopin, 244–247 cummings, 391–392 Delany, 739 Ginsberg, 613 Harryman, 724 Miller, 635 Native American stories, 11, 12 Peacock, 625 slave narratives, 128, 132 Wylie, 388–389 sex and sexuality, plantation life, 153 Sexton, Anne, 535, 537, 539, 560, 625 sexual harassment: literary treatments, 695 Sexual Perversity in Chicago (Mamet), 694 Sexus (Miller), 636 Shadows on the Rock (Cather), 335 Shakespeare, William, influence, 185 Shalako, 13 Shane (Schaefer), 504–505 Shange, Ntozake (Paulette Williams), 650–651 Shapiro, Harvey, 820 Shapiro, Karl, 494, 532, 535, 537–538 902 Gray_bindex.indd 902 Shaplin, Adriano, 813, 814–816 Shaw, Irwin, 424 The Shawl (Ozick), 743, 744 Sheldon, Edward, 421 Shelley, Percy Bysshe, 388 The Sheltered Life (Glasgow), 331 Shepard, Sam, 689, 691–693, 811–813 Sheridan, Gen Philip: literary treatments, 794 Sheridan, Richard Brinsley, influence, 80 Sherwood, Robert, 422 Sherwood Anderson & Other Famous Creoles (Faulkner), 344 Shigekuni, Julie, 774 Ship of Fools (Porter), 401 The Shipping News (Proulx), 598 Shinn, Christopher, 813–814 A Short Narration of my Last Journey to the Western Country (Aupaumut), 71 short stories earliest, 93 first African-American, 162 short stories: 19th century early, 93–95 late, 231–232, 238–239, 240–241, 243, 247–249, 251–254, 259–260, 267, 268 immigrant, 301 mid-, 178–179, 183, 189, 192, 193, 195–196 women, 286–287, 289–290 short stories: 20th century African-American, 478–479, 486, 640–641, 653, 660, 662 Asian-American, 766–767, 769–770 Chicana, 755–756, 757–760 comic, 511–512 early, 277, 306–307, 343–344, 466–467, 471 immigrant, 306–307, 343–344, 466–467, 471, 740, 741–742 Latina, 759, 760 Modernist, 400–401, 403–404, 407, 410–412 Native American, 475–476, 782, 790, 793 naturalist, 277 postmodern, 705–706, 711 post-9/11, 795, 800–802, 804 postwar, 573, 574, 638, 703 radicals, 456, 459–461 science fiction, 737 women, 589, 593–596 Show Boat (Kern and Hammerstein), 678 Sightseeing (Lapcharoensap), 804 The Sign in Sidney Brustein’s Window (Hansberry), 664 “The Significance of a Veteran’s Day” (Ortiz), 779 Sigourney, Lydia Howard Huntley, 199–200 “Silence Dogood” papers (Franklin), 62 The Silence of the Lambs (Harris), 735 The Silent Partner (Phelps), 287 The Silent South (Cable), 250 Silko, Leslie Marmon, 782, 785–786 Silliman, Ron, 722, 723, 724 Simic, Charles, 566 Simms, William Gilmore, 149–150, 151 Simon, Neil, 696–697 “Simple Autumnal” (Bogan), 390 “Simple Stories” (Hughes), 488 Simpson, Louis, 532, 535, 537–538 “since feeling is first” (cummings), 391 Index 8/1/2011 7:55:07 AM Sinclair, Upton, 302–305 Singer, Isaac Bashevis, 740–741 Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God (Edwards), 59 Sioux people Cooper on, 97 history and folklore, 298 stories, 4–5, 7–8, 10, 11 Sippi (Killens), 661 Sir Rohan’s Ghost (Spofford), 286 Sister Carrie (Dreiser), 336, 337, 338 Six Nations, 134 The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon, Gent (Irving), 93–94 Sketches of Southern Life (Harper), 162–163 Slaughterhouse-Five (Vonnegut), 569 “The Slave Mother” (Harper), 162 “The Slave Ship” (Whittier), 148 slavery conversion to Christianity as justification, 75 Crèvecoeur on, 64–65 Dwight on, 78–79 early 19th-century conditions, 89–90 Franklin on, 62 Freneau on, 78 Fuller on, 120 Jefferson on, 67–68, 70 plantation owners’ attitude, 51, 53 pro-slavers’ writings, 149–154 Puritan writers on, 47, 48 spirituals, 196–197 Washington on, 321–322 and women, 128–129, 130–133, 152–154, 154–157, 166–167 Woolman on, 57 see also African-Americans slavery: abolition and abolitionism 19th century, 89, 90–91, 145–148, 154–157, 160, 162 abolition achieved, 220, 221 African-American writers on, 73–77, 141–144, 160–161, 162 and Emerson, 118 and feminism, 156 and Harper, 162 and Stowe, 171, 172–173 and Thoreau, 125–126 slavery: literary treatments 18th century, 54 19th century, 166–176, 206, 228, 251–254 20th-century fiction, 487–488, 499, 512–514, 663, 670–672 20th-century science fiction, 739 African-American 19th-century fiction, 161–171 secret histories, 146, 147 slave narratives, 73–74, 76, 126–134, 160, 164 slave narratives, modern versions, 659, 661–662, 670, 676 slave writings, 54 “Slavery’s Pleasant Homes” (Child), 155 “Slim in Hell” (Brown), 492 Slinger (Dorn), 604–605 Sloan, John, 337 “A Small, Good Thing” (Carver), 703 Smart Set, 506 Smiley, Jane, 597–598 Smith, Aaron, 822 Smith, Bessie, 497, 667 Smith, Dave, 565 Smith, Edward Elmer (“Doc”), 736 Index Gray_bindex.indd 903 Smith, Captain John, 25–27, 28 Smith, Lee, 595, 596 Smith, Lillian, 457 snakes, in Native American stories, 11 Snelling, Paula, 457 Snodgrass, W D., 535, 537, 538 Snow-Bound (Whittier), 148 “The Snow-Storm” (Emerson), 118 Snow White (Barthelme), 713–714 “The Snows of Kilimanjaro” (Hemingway), 412 Snyder, Gary, 609–610, 611 social change and Christianity, 90–91, 145 early 20th century, 310–311 social change: literary treatments early 20th century, 327–328 Jewett, 235–238 Twain, 226–229 social convention and conditioning: literary treatments Austin, 299 Chopin, 244–247 Corso, 615 Heinlein, 736 Herbert, 737 James, 263, 264–267 Kesey, 639–640 Lewis, 340–342 Twain, 227–229 Wharton, 327, 328–329 socialism: literary treatments early 20th century, 318, 425 naturalists, 271–272, 274–275, 278–279 Sinclair, 302, 303–305 society Doctorow on, 576 Faulkner on, 416 pro-slavers on, 150–151 see also community 903 8/1/2011 7:55:07 AM Society of Friends, see Quakers Sociology for the South (Fitzhugh), 149 Sojourner Truth (Truth), 160 Soldier’s Pay (Faulkner), 416 “Soliloquy of a Housemaid” (Fern), 158 solipsism and Poe, 107 and Stevens, 382 solitude and Hawthorne, 178 and Hemingway, 411–412 and Poe, 107 and Thoreau, 123–125 see also loneliness Solomon, Carl, 613 Solstice (Oates), 594 Some Kind of Love Story (Miller), 683 “Some Trees” (Ashbery), 621 “Somebody Blew Up America” (Baraka), 816, 817–818 “Someone is Harshly Coughing as Before” (Schwartz), 542 “Something Whispered in the Shakukachi” (Hongo), 773 “somewhere i have never travelled, gladly beyond” (cummings), 391 A Son of the Forest (Apess), 136 A Son of the Middle Border (Garland), 270–271 Sondheim, Stephen, 679 Sone, Monica, 770–771 Song (M Butterfly), 699 Song, Cathy, 764–765 The Song of Hiawatha (Longfellow), 203 “Song of Myself ” (Whitman), 209–210, 211, 212 Song of Solomon (Morrison), 669 The Song of the Lark (Cather), 333–334 904 Gray_bindex.indd 904 songs corridos, 293–294 folksongs, 197–199 Johnson, 325 musicals, 678–679 Native American, 294, 298 spirituals, 196–197, 325 Sontag, Susan, 596–597 Sophie’s Choice (Styron), 573, 743 Sorrentino, Gilbert, 717 The Sot-Weed Factor (Barth), 711 The Sot-weed Factor (Cook), 55–56 Soto, Gary, 749 Soto, Hernando De, 20 The Soul of the Indian (Eastman), 297 Soul on Ice (Cleaver), 640 The Souls of Black Folk (Du Bois), 314, 322–324, 326 sound, and Zukofsky, 363 The Sound and the Fury (Faulkner), 415, 417–420 South freed slaves, condition of, 221 slavery, attitudes to, 89–90 see also slavery South: literary treatments, 18th century, 52–53 South: literary treatments, 19th century, 105–114, 149–154, 224–231 regionalists, 239–255 Southern Gothic, 105, 107–108 South: literary treatments, 20th century African-American, 485–487, 499–500, 660, 673, 675 Agrarians, 434 early, 316, 319, 327, 330–333, 340 Fugitives, 431, 432–434, 436–439, 442–444 Modernist, 401, 415–420 plantation romances, 512–514 postmodern novels, 718 post-9/11, 797 postwar drama, 684–687, 697 postwar novels, 573, 587, 588–596, 595–596, 673 postwar poetry, 565 radicals, 457 traditionalists, 442–444 South Today, 457 Southern, Terry, 718 Southwest: literary treatments 19th century, 109–114 20th century, 327, 333–334 corridos, 293–294 oral traditions, 139–141 Southwest humorists, 111–114 and Caldwell, 456 and nostalgia, 242–243 and Twain, 228 Southworth, E D E N., 92 The Sovereignty and Goodness of GOD (Rowlandson), 44 Spanish Civil War literary treatments, 449 Parker on, 512 Spanish explorers, 14–16, 17–21 speech language poets on, 722 see also vernacular, use of Speed-the-Plow (Mamet), 695 Spencer, Anne, 492, 493 Spicer, Jack, 608 Spider Man (Sioux character), 4, 10 Spider Woman (Navajo character), Spillane, Micky, 727–728 Spires, Elizabeth, 566, 821, 822 Spirit House, 645 Spirit of the Times, 110, 113 spirituality Emerson on, 114–119 and Shepard, 692 Index 8/1/2011 7:55:07 AM Taylor’s poetry, 42–44 Thoreau on, 121–126 Very’s poetry, 205–206 spirituals, 196–197, 325 Spofford, Harriet, 286–287 Spokane people, 793–794 Spoon River Anthology (Masters), 448 The Sportswriter (Ford), 586 Spring and All (Williams), 363, 378 The Spy (Cooper), 95–96 The Spyglass Tree (Murray), 661 St John, David, 822 Stackpole, Henrietta (The Portrait of a Lady), 265 Stafford, William, 542, 543, 547 Standing Bear, 294 Standish, Miles, 33 Stanton, Elizabeth Cady, 91, 157 “Stanzas” (Bogan), 390 Stark, Willie (All the King’s Men), 441–442 steel industry, 222 “The Steeple-Jack” (Moore), 385–387 Steere, Richard, 36 Steffens, Lincoln, 302–303 Stegner, Wallace, 574 Stein, Gertrude, 397–400 on Europe, 311 influence, 412, 621, 720, 724 Steinbeck, John, 319, 464–466 Stenhouse, Shelley, 820 Stevens, Wallace, 363, 380–385, 418, 621 Stickney, Trumbull, 271 Sticks and Bones (Rabe), 696 Stieglitz, Alfred, 337 Stock, Norman, 820 Stockton, Annis Boudinot, 54 Stockton, Frank R., 223 Stoddard, Elizabeth, 190, 192–193 Stoddard, Richard, 192 The Stoic (Dreiser), 338 Stone, Robert, 704 Stone, Ruth, 825, 827 “Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening” (Frost), 351–352 The Stories of John Cheever (Cheever), 572 “The Storm” (Chopin), 244–245 The Story of Avis (Phelps), 287–288 The Story of Margaretta (Murray), 83 Stout, Rex, 729 Stowe, Calvin, 171 Stowe, Harriet Beecher, 91, 92, 171–176 and abolitionism, 91 influence, 151, 161 on Truth, 160 Straight Cut (Bell), 586 Strange Fruit (Smith), 457 Stranger in a Strange Land (Heinlein), 736–737 Strangers on a Train (Highsmith), 729 Strasberg, Lee, 424 stream of consciousness, in Bierce, 260 Streamers (Rabe), 696 The Street (Petry), 498 “Street Corner College” (Patchen), 453 street life, and rap, 647 street life: literary treatments Brooks, 495–496 Bullins, 665, 666 detective stories, 505–507 Fearing, 452 Patchen, 453 see also city life; New York City Street Scene (Rice), 423 A Streetcar Named Desire (Williams), 685–686, 688 “Strong Men” (Brown), 492 Stryk, Lucien, 823 Index Gray_bindex.indd 905 Studs Lonigan trilogy (Farnell), 456 Styron, William, 573, 676, 743 suburban life: literary treatments postwar novels, 573, 583–584, 593, 620 postwar poetry, 566 success, see American dream Suddenly Last Summer (Williams), 687 Suermondt, Tim, 820 suffrage New England, 48 women, 312 Sugimoto, Etsu, 470 Sui Sin Far, see Eaton, Edith Sukenick, Ronald, 717 Sula (Morrison), 669 A Summary View of the Rights of British America (Jefferson), 66 Summer on the Lakes (Fuller), 119, 121 “Summer Storm” (Gioia), 630 The Sun Also Rises (Hemingway), 411, 413–415 “Sunday Morning” (Stevens), 382–383 Sundown (Matthews), 474 surrealism and Arenas, 763 and Kennedy, 664 and New York poets, 616–621 and postwar novels, 568, 569 and postwar poetry, 608 and Shepard, 813 and West, 515 and Wright, 501 The Surrounded (McNickle), 472–473, 474 Sut Lovingood (Harris), 113–114 Swallow Barn (Kennedy), 107, 151 Sweet Medicine (Cheyenne character), 8, 905 8/1/2011 7:55:07 AM Swift, Jonathan: literary treatments, 722 The Sword and the Distaff (Simms), 149 symbolism in Bullins, 666 in Hawthorne, 177, 180 in Hemingway, 414 in Jeffers, 357 in postwar drama, 681, 684, 687 reasons for prevalence, 29 in Rukeyser, 393 in Shepard, 691 Symbolism (movement), 372, 451 Symonds, William, 23, 24 Symons, Arthur, 324 The System of Dante’s Hell (Baraka), 643 Taggard, Genevieve, 449 Take It Or Leave It (Federman), 719 The Talented Mr Ripley (Highsmith), 729 Tales of a Traveller (Irving), 94 Tales of Soldiers and Civilians (Bierce), 259–260 Tales of the Jazz Age (Fitzgerald), 404 Tan, Amy, 765–766, 769 Tar Baby (Morrison), 669 Tarbell, Ida, 302 Tate, Allen, 394, 437–438 on capitalism, 319 on Fugitive movement, 432 on Glasgow, 332 influence, 440, 555 and New Criticism, 434 Taylor, Bayard, 232 Taylor, Edward, 39, 41–44 Taylor, Peter, 587 Tayo (Ceremony), 786–787 technology and Crane, 397 Merrill on, 623 and science fiction, 735, 737, 738 906 Gray_bindex.indd 906 telephones, spread of, 309 Tell Me a Riddle (Olsen), 742–743 Temple House (Stoddard), 193 The Temple of My Familiar (Walker), 674 Tender Buttons (Stein), 399 Tender is the Night (Fitzgerald), 319, 407 Tennyson, Alfred Lord, 207 The Tenth Muse Lately Sprung Up in America (Bradstreet), 39 Terence, influence, 76 Terrorist (Updike), 583, 799–800 Terry, Lucy, 54, 75 Testimony (Reznikoff), 365 “Thanatopsis” (Bryant), 202, 203 theater, see drama El Theatre Campesino, 525 Their Eyes Were Watching God (Hurston), 481–482 Them (Oates), 593 “Theory of Flight” (Rukeyser), 393 There is a Tree More Ancient than Eden (Forrest), 662 Theroux, Paul, 703 They Shoot Horses, Don’t They? (McCoy), 509 They Stooped to Folly (Glasgow), 331 The Things They Carried (O’Brien), 704 The Third Life of Grange Copeland (Walker), 673 “Thirteen Ways of Looking at a Blackbird” (Stevens), 384 This, 722 “This Age of Conformity” (Howe), 520 “This is my letter to the World” (Dickinson), 212–213 “This Place in the Ways” (Rukeyser), 393 This Side of Paradise (Fitzgerald), 403, 404 Thomas, Augustus, 421 Thomas, Edward, 350 Thomas and Beulah (Dove), 650 Thompson, Jim, 727, 728 Thompson, John, 164 Thomson, James, 56 Thoreau, Henry David, 121–126 and abolitionism, 91 and Emerson, 115 and Hawthorne, 179 and Snyder, 610 on writers, 557 Thoreau, John, 122 Thorpe, Thomas Bangs, 110, 111–112 A Thousand Acres (Smiley), 598 Three Lives (Stein), 399 “Three Moves” (Logan), 538 Three Soldiers (Dos Passos), 408 Three Years in Europe (Brown), 165 thrillers, 728–734 magazines, 727 postmodern, 719 see also crime novels Through the Eye of the Needle (Howells), 259 Thurber, James, 511 Thurman, Wallace, 478, 484 “Thursday” (Millay), 389 “Thy Brother’s Blood” (Very), 205 The Ticket that Exploded (Burroughs), 635 Tierra (Rivera), 752, 754 Till the Day I Die (Odets), 425 The Time of Man (Roberts), 402 The Time of Our Singing (Powers), 804 Timoleon (Melville), 190 Timrod, Henry, 239, 240 Tiny Alice (Albee), 691 Index 8/1/2011 7:55:07 AM The Titan (Dreiser), 337, 338 Tjanting (Silliman), 724 To a God Unknown (Steinbeck), 464 “To a Waterfowl” (Bryant), 202–203 To Be of Us (Piercy), 744 To Have and Have Not (Hemingway), 319, 411–412 “To Helen” (Poe), 106–107 “To my baby Paul” (Zukofsky), 364 “To the Hopi in Richmond (Santa Fe Village)” (Rose), 780 “To the Negro People” (Taggard), 449 “To the Town of Providence” (Williams), 34 To What Strangers, What Welcomes (Cunningham), 444–445 tobacco, in Native American stories, 7, 9, 11 Tocqueville, Alexis de, 123 Todd, Almira (The Country of the Pointed Firs), 236–237 Todd, Mabel L., 214 The Token, 178 Toklas, Alice B., 399, 400 Tolson, Melvin B., 493, 494 Tolstoy, Leo, influence, 258 Tom Sawyer, The Adventures of (Twain), 226–227 The Tombs of Atuan (Le Guin), 738 Tompson, Benjamin, 36 Toole, John Kennedy, 718 Toomer, Jean, 316, 342, 477, 478, 484–486 The Tooth of Crime (Shepard), 691–692 The Torch Song Trilogy (Fierstein), 698 The Torrents of Spring (Hemingway), 344 A Tour of the Prairie (Irving), 95 La Tourista (Shepard), 691, 692 Toussaint L’Ouverture, 487 “Toussaint L’Ouverture” (Phillips), 146 “Toward Proletarian Art” (Gold), 454 Towle, Tony, 823 Tracks (Erdrich), 789–790 tradition Asian-American writers on, 764–765, 773 and Fugitives, 431–433, 434, 435, 436–445 Native American writers on, 472–476, 779–795 see also nostalgia; past “The Traditional History and Characteristic Sketches of the Ojibway Nation” (Copway), 137 The Tragedy of Pudd’nhead Wilson (Twain), 230, 231 Trail of Tears, 90, 139 Train Whistle Guitar (Murray), 661 Trakl, Georg, 537 A Tramp Abroad (Twain), 224 “Trans-National America” (Bourne), 453–454 Transcendental Wild Oats (Alcott), 285 Transcendentalists, 114–126 Hawthorne on, 177 literary treatments, 285 and science fiction, 737 transformation (acting technique), 689 transportation, early 19th century, 89 transrational language, 720 travel writings 15th and 16th centuries, 14–27 17th and 18th centuries, 49–54, 64–65 19th century, 101–102, 224, 225, 256 Index Gray_bindex.indd 907 20th century, 269–270, 459, 703 first African-American, 165 Native American, 137 A Traveler from Altruria (Howells), 258–259 Travesty (Hawkes), 714 Treat, Lawrence, 729 A Treatise Concerning Religious Affections (Edwards), 58–59 A Treatise on Sociology (Hughes), 150 Tree of Smoke (Johnson), 805 Tribute to the Angels (H D.), 362 tricksters in 20th-century Native American writings, 782, 790–792 in Melville, 189 in Native American stories, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 475–476 in Reed, 659 in Uncle Remus stories, 241 Trilling, Diana, 611 Trinidad, David, 749 Tripmaster Monkey (Kingston), 769 Triton (Delany), 739 Tropic of Cancer (Miller), 635 Trout Fishing in America (Brautigan), 638 The True Travels, Adventures, and Observations of Captain John Smith (Smith), 25 A True Relation of Virginia (Smith), 25, 26 True West (Shepard), 692–693 Truth, Sojourner, 159–161, 176 Tsimshian people, Tsukiyama, Gail, 774 Tucker, George, 151 Tucker, Nathaniel Beverley, 151 Tuckerman, Frederick Goddard, 206, 207 907 8/1/2011 7:55:07 AM “Tulips” (Plath), 561–562 Turell, Jane Colman, 54 Turgenev, Ivan, 262 “The Turn of the Screw” (James), 268 Turner, Frederick Jackson, 220 Turner, Nat, 89, 147, 176, 573 Turow, Scott, 735 Tuskegee Institute, 321, 651 Twain, Mark (Samuel Langhorne Clemens), 113, 224–231 and Howells, 256 on humor, 509 precursors, 155 Twentieth-Century Cycle (Bullins), 666 Twice-Told Tales (Hawthorne), 178–179 twins, in Native American stories, Twilight of the Superheroes (Eisenberg), 795, 800–802, 804, 809 Two Dissertations (Edwards), 59 Two Men (Stoddard), 193 “The Two Offers” (Harper), 162 Two Trains Running (Wilson), 667 Two Wings Veil My Face (Forrest), 662 Tyler, Anne, 594–595 Tyler, Royall, 80–81, 420 Typee (Melville), 184, 190 Typical American (Jen), 766 typography and cummings, 392 and Marquis, 391 Ulysses (Joyce), 313 Un-American Activities Committee, see House Un-American Activities Committee Uncle Remus stories (Harris), 241–242 908 Gray_bindex.indd 908 Uncle Tom’s Cabin (Stowe), 92, 151, 161, 171–176 Uncle Tom’s Children (Wright), 500, 501 “Uncle Wellington’s Wives” (Chesnutt), 253 Uncommon Women (Wasserstein), 697 The Underground Stream (Maltz), 456 “Underground Water” (Wideman), 780 Underworld (DeLillo), 586 Unfinished Painting (Salter), 625 “Unfold! Unfold!” (Roethke), 553 Unholy Loves (Oates), 594 Unholy Sonnets (Jarman), 626–627 The Universal Baseball Association (Coover), 586 Unspeakable Practices, Unnatural Acts (Barthelme), 712, 713 Up From Slavery (Washington), 321 “Up-State Depression Summer” (Taggard), 448 “Up the Coulé” (Garland), 270–271 Updike, John, 583–585, 799–800 “Upon a Spider Catching a Fly” (Taylor), 41 “Upon Wedlock, & Death of Children” (Taylor), 42 urbanization 19th century, 220 20th century, 309 and rise of nostalgia, 231 see also city life USA, see America U.S.A (Dos Passos), 408, 409–410 utopian communities, 119, 179, 285 utopian literature 19th century, 258–259 early English colonists, 22, 24, 31 feminist, 288 V (Pynchon), 707–709 Valdez, Luis, 525 The Valley (Hinojosa), 754–755 The Valley of Decision (Wharton), 327 The Valley of Shenandoah (Tucker), 151 Valentine, Jean, 820, 822 Van Vechten, Carl, 480, 488 Vandover and the Brute (Norris), 273, 279 “Vapor Trail Reflected in a Frog Pond” (Kinnell), 547 Vãsquez, Richard, 756 veritism, 270 vernacular, use of Berger, 715 Brooks, 495 Brown, 492 Bullins, 666 Chesnutt, 252, 253 Dunne, 299–300 Higgins, 731 Hurston, 481 Leonard, 731 Miller, 679, 681 regionalists, 232–233, 238–239, 252–253 Southwest heroes, 109–114 Twain, 225–231 Wilson, 667 Very, Jones, 122, 205–206, 207 The Victim (Bellow), 578 Vidal, Gore, 569 Vietnam War, 526, 527 literary treatments, 595, 650, 695–696, 704, 738 protest poems, 546–547, 613–614 Vietnamese-Americans: writings, 776–777 A View from the Bridge (Miller), 681 Index 8/1/2011 7:55:07 AM Vigier, Rachel, 823 “The Village Blacksmith” (Longfellow), 204 “A Village Dressmaker” (Spofford), 286–287 Villagrá, Gaspar Pérez de, 19 Villanueva, Alma Luz, 756 Villarreal, José Antonio, 750–751 Villaseñor, Victor, 756 violence African-American protest writing, 640–651, 656 Capote, 701–702 “hardboiled” novels, 507–509 O’Connor, 590–592 postmodern novels, 714–715 postwar novels, 703, 704, 727–728 see also protest; war The Violent Bear It Away (O’Connor), 591 Violi, Paul, 825 Viramontes, Helena Maria, 757 Virgil, influence on Cather, 334–335 on Lewis, 56 on Longfellow, 203 on Mather, 48 on Villagrá, 19 Virgin, Adams on, 291, 292 Virgin of Guadalupe, 56–57, 140 Virginia 18th century, 50–52 exploration and colonization, 21–27 slavery, 89 Virginia (Hawkes), 714 Virginia Company, 25–27 The Virginian (Wister), 504–505 “Vision” (Hinojosa), 781 The Vision of Columbus (Barlow), 55, 79 The Vision of Sir Launfal (Lowell), 206 Vizenor, Gerald, 782–783, 790–792 A Voice from the South (Cooper), 295–296 Vonnegut, Kurt, 569, 735–736 Vorticism, 359 “Voyages” (Crane), 396 Wadsworth, Rev Charles, 214 Wagner, Richard, 665 Wah’kon-tah (Matthews), 474 Waiting for Lefty (Odets), 425 Waiting for the Verdict (Davis), 196 Waiting to Exhale (McMillan), 676 “Wakefield” (Hawthorne), 178 “Waking Early Sunday Morning” (Lowell), 547 Wakoski, Diane, 566, 567 Walden (Thoreau), 121–126 Walker, Alice, 482, 672–675, 759 Walker, David, 142–144 Walker, Margaret, 487, 497, 498–499 Wall Street Crash, 317 Wallace, David Foster, 588, 717–718 Wallace, Lew, 223 The Walls Do Not Fall (H D.), 362 Walter, Eugene, 421 The Wapshot Chronicle (Cheever), 572 war: literary treatments 19th-century prose, 259–260 Chesnut, 152–154 Crane, 276–277 Dos Passos, 408 Ginsberg, 526, 547, 611, 613 Harper, 163 Hemingway, 412, 413 Japanese-American writers, 770–772 Komunyakaa, 650 Le Guin, 738 Lowell, 526, 547, 555 Index Gray_bindex.indd 909 Mailer, 569, 570 Mason, 595 Miller, 682 Mitchell, 512–514 Moody, 272 postwar novels, 568–571, 704 postwar poetry, 532–534 Pynchon, 708 Rabe, 695–696 regionalists, 239–240 Styron, 573 Tate, 437–438 Vietnam War protest poetry, 546–547 Whitman, 208 Ward, Diane, 724 Warner, Charles Dudley, 225 Warner, Susan, 92 Warren, Mercy Otis, 54 Warren, Robert Penn, 432, 438–442 Warshawski, Victoria Iphigenia (Paretsky character), 731–732 Washington, Booker T., 320–323 Washington, Madison, 163–164 Wasserstein, Wendy, 697–698 The Waste Land (Eliot), 373–374 allusiveness, 204, 367, 373 and Fugitives, 437 and Pound, 367 publication, 363 and the sea, 372 Williams on, 376 Watch on the Rhine (Hellman), 457 Waters, Frank, 574 Waters, Muddy, 645 The Waterworks (Doctorow), 576 Watten, Barrett, 722, 723 The Way to Rainy Mountain (Momaday), 783 The Way to Wealth (Franklin), 62 909 8/1/2011 7:55:07 AM “We Real Cool” (Brooks), 495–496 wealth, individual 19th century, 222–223 20th century, 317–318, 523–524 “Weaving” (Larcom), 202 The Web and the Rock (Wolfe), 463 Webber, George (Wolfe character), 463 A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers (Thoreau), 122 Weill, Kurt, 424 Weiner, Hannah, 724 Weird Tales, 736 Welch, James, 782, 787–788, 792 Welcome to Hard Times (Doctorow), 576 Weld, Angelina Grimké, 155–157 Wells, H G., 276 Welty, Eudora, 588–590, 730 West Arican right to settle, 232–233 West: literary treatments, 19th century, 95–98, 99, 101–104, 190–191, 200, 231–232 West: literary treatments, 20th century detective novels, 734 early, 298–299, 316, 327, 333–336, 342, 465 musicals, 678–679 poetry, 356–359, 444, 537, 553 postmodern novels, 715 postwar drama, 692–693 postwar novels, 573–574, 576, 587–588, 597–598 postwar poetry, 604–605 Westerns, 503–506, 730 West, Dorothy, 497–498 West, Nathanael, 319, 515–517 910 Gray_bindex.indd 910 West Indians: literary treatments, 676–677 “The Western Emigrant” (Sigourney), 200 Western Story, 505 Westerns, 503–506, 730 Westward Ho! (Miller), 232 Weyden, Humphrey Van (The Sea-Wolf), 280 Whalen, Philip, 608–609, 611, 827 Wharton, Edith, 327–330 What I Believe Transpiration/ Transpiring Minnesota (Grenier), 723 What Maisie Knew (James), 267–268 “What mystery pervades a well!” (Dickinson), 214–215, 353 what the hell for you left your heart in san francisco (Santos), 776 Wheatley, Phillis, 72, 75–77 Wheatley, Susanne, 75 “When de Saints Go Ma’ching Home” (Brown), 492 “When the Frost is on the Punkin” (Riley), 233 “Where Are You Going, Where Have You Been?” (Oates), 594 Where Do We Live (Shinn), 813–814 Where is Vietnam? American Poets Respond, 546 “Where Knock is Open Wide” (Roethke), 553 Whitaker, Alexander, 23 White, E B., 511 White, Hayden, x White, Walter, 478–479 “White Foolscap” (Howe), 726 White-Jacket (Melville), 185 White Jazz (Ellroy), 731 “The White Negro” (Mailer), 571 White Noise (DeLillo), 585–586 Whitecloud, Thomas S., 472–473, 474 whites, in Native American stories creation of, 4, 6–7 encounters with Native Americans, 3–4, 5, 8, 10, 17 Whitman, Walt, 207–212 on America, 78, 80, 207–212, 448 on the Civil War, 220 Cunningham on, 444 Eberhart on, 445 and Eliot, 374–375 and Gold, 455 and Hughes, 489–490 Ignatow on, 543 influence, 612, 616, 635, 825–826 Kafka on, 318 and newspapers, 91–92 Stein on, 398 Whittemore, Reed, 534, 549 Whittier, John Greenleaf, 147–148 “Who Among You Knows the Essence of Garlic?” (Hongo), 773 Who Speaks for the Negro? (Warren), 439 Who’s Afraid of Virginia Woolf? (Albee), 690–691 Why Are We in Vietnam? (Mailer), 570 “Wichita Vortex Sutra” (Ginsberg), 613 The Wide, Wide World (Warner), 92 Wideman, John Edgar, 661–662 Wideman, Robert Hill, 780 Wieland (Brown), 85–86, 87 Wieners, John, 602 Wife (Mukherjee), 777 The Wife of His Youth (Chesnutt), 251, 253 Index 8/1/2011 7:55:07 AM Wigglesworth, Michael, 37 Wilbur, Richard, 507, 534, 548, 623 Wild Fruits (Thoreau), 126 “The Wild Honey Suckle” (Freneau), 78 Wild Tree Press, 673 Wilder, Thornton, 423 wilderness Twain on, 228, 229 see also clearing vs wilderness Williams, C K., 825 Williams, Edward, 22, 23 Williams, John, 45–46 Williams, John A., 661 Williams, Jonathan, 603 Williams, Oscar, 532 Williams, Paulette, see Shange, Ntozake Williams, Roger, 32, 34–36 Williams, Sherley Anne, 482, 676 Williams, Tennessee, 665, 678–680, 684–688, 690 Williams, Terry Tempest, 823, 826 Williams, William Carlos, 319, 363, 376–380 on the bomb, 548 on creative process, 360, 376 on Ginsberg, 611–612 influence, 543, 555, 616, 628, 825 Moore on, 385 and Objectivism, 363 and Pound, 359 on Rexroth, 450, 451 Willis, Nathaniel Parker, 157–158 Willis, Sarah Payson, see Fern, Fanny Wilner, Eleanor, 826–827 Wilson, August, 665, 666–667 Wilson, Edmund, 443, 458, 746 Wilson, Harriet E., 169–170, 326 Wilson, Lanford, 689, 694 Wilson, Woodrow, 311 Windy McPherson’s Son (Anderson), 343 Winesburg, Ohio (Anderson), 343–345 Winona (Hopkins), 283 Winter in the Blood (Welch), 787 “Winter Remembered” (Ransom), 435 Winters, Yvor, 389, 444 Winterset (Anderson), 424 Winthrop, John, 28, 30–32, 34, 36, 39 Wise Blood (O’Connor), 591–592 “Wiser than a God” (Chopin), 244 Wister, Owen, 504–505 witchcraft Franklin on, 62 see also Salem witch trials The Witches of Eastwick (Updike), 584 With Shuddering Fall (Oates), 593 Wittgenstein, Ludwig, 710, 720 A Wizard of Earthsea (Le Guin), 738 Wolfe, Hugh (“Life in the Iron Mills”), 195 Wolfe, Thomas, 462–464, 471 Wolfe, Tom, 640, 700–701, 702, 705 Woman in the Nineteenth Century (Fuller), 120–121 “Woman Poem” (Giovanni), 648 The Woman Warrior (Kingston), 767–768 The Woman Within (Glasgow), 330 women and abolitionism, 156–157 Adams on feminine force, 290, 291–292 Byrd on, 52 Index Gray_bindex.indd 911 colonial expectations of, 39–40 Fuller on, 119–121 Hawthorne on, 182 housekeeping manuals, 154, 157 Hwang on male perceptions, 699–700 and slavery, 130–133, 152–154, 154–157, 165–166 see also feminism women: conditions 18th century, 54 19th century, 91, 158–159, 223–224, 235–238 20th century, 312–313 Austin on, 298–299 frontier life, 190–191 Hopkins on, 283–284 plantation life, 152–154 women: literary treatments 19th century, 81–82, 103–104 African-American, 486, 663–664 Hispanic folklore, 140–141 marginalized subjects, 722 Mexican-American, 449 Modernist prose, 417–420 Native American stories, 11 postwar drama, 684–686 see also women: writings women: rights and Adams, 290 African-American women, 295–296 Asian immigrants, 470 and Alcott, 285–286 James on, 267 Le Sueur on, 459–461 Revolutionary period, 69–70, 85 and Smith, 457 voting, 312 women: writings first autobiography by Native American, 297–298 911 8/1/2011 7:55:08 AM women: writings (cont’d) first novel by AfricanAmerican, 169–170 first novel by AfricanAmerican to sell million-plus, 498 first novel by Native American, 475 mutual support networks, 327 writing style and attitude to, 92 women: writings, 17th and 18th centuries, 39–41, 53–54, 69, 81–84 women: writings, 19th-century novels, 92, 102–103, 190–194, 283–288 short stories, 286–287, 289–290 women: writings, 20th century African-American drama, 663–665 African-American novels, 477, 480–486, 498–499, 668–678 African-American poetry, 491, 495–496, 498–499 African-American protest writing, 640–641, 642, 645–648 Asian-American, 305–307, 764–769, 770–771, 772–773, 774–775, 777–779 Chicana, 749, 755–757 comic, 514 crime and mystery novels, 729, 731–732 early, 297–298, 327–336 immigrants, 301–302, 466–467, 470, 741–743, 744–745 language poetry, 722, 724, 726–727 Latina, 759–762, 762–763 912 Gray_bindex.indd 912 Modernist poetry, 359–363, 365–366, 385–397 Modernist prose, 397–403 Native American, 475–476, 780–781, 782, 786–787, 788–789 popular novels, 512–518 populist, 449 post-9/11, 795, 797, 798–799, 800–802, 809–810, 816, 819–828 postwar drama, 697–698 postwar novels, 588–599 postwar poetry, 539–540, 549–552, 560–563, 619, 624–626 radicals, 457–462 science fiction, 738–739 short stories, 589, 590–599 Women and Economics (Gilman), 288 The Women of Brewster (Naylor), 675 Women of Silk (Tsukiyama), 774 Women’s Suffrage Association, 147 Wonderland (Oates), 594 The Wonders of the Invisible World (Mather), 46 Wong, Jade Snow, 469–470 Wong, Shawn, 769, 770 “Woodchucks” (Kumin), 566 Woodcraft (Simms), 149 Woolf, Virginia, 312, 724 Woolman, John, 57 Woolrich, Cornell, 509 The Word for World Forest (Le Guin), 738 Wordsworth, William, 114, 211, 493 Work (Alcott), 285–286 work ethic Depression’s effect, 317–318 late 19th century, 222–223 Puritan origins, 60 “The Working-Girls of New York” (Fern), 158–159 Works Progress Administration (WPA), 318, 320, 498 World Anti-Slavery Convention (1840), 157 World War I effects, 311 literary treatments, 408, 412, 413 World War II: literary treatments Japanese-American writers, 770–772 novels, 568–570, 574, 708 poetry, 532–534, 555 see also Holocaust World’s Columbian Exposition, Chicago (1893), 308 World’s Fair (Doctorow), 576 Wounded Knee massacre, 295, 297, 525 WPA, see Works Progress Administration Wright, C D., 825 Wright, Charles, 563 Wright, Col George: literary treatments, 794 Wright, James, 536–537 Wright, Jay, 566 Wright, Richard, 319, 325, 482, 497–503, 651 writing, see creative process The Writing of Fiction (Wharton), 328 The Writing on the Wall (Schwartz), 798–799, 804 Writing/Talks, 722 Wurlitzer, Rudolph, 717 Wylie, Elinor, 388–389 Yakima people, Yamamoto, Hisaye, 770 Yates, Richard, 572 Yeats, W B., influence, 558 Yekl (Cahan), 300–301 “Yellow Light” (Hongo), 773 “The Yellow Wall-Paper” (Gilman), 289–290 Index 8/1/2011 7:55:08 AM The Yemassee (Simms), 149 Yerby, Frank, 676 Yerkes, Charles T., 338 Yezierska, Anna, 466–467 “Yittischer Charleston” (Pound), 363 Yokohama, California (Mori), 770 Yonnondio (Olsen), 742 “You, Andrew Marvell” (MacLeish), 451–452 “You are my friend” (Niedecker), 366 You Can’t Go Home Again (Wolfe), 463 You Must Remember This (Oates), 594 Young, Starke, 433 “Young Sycamore” (Williams), 376–377 The Young Woman Citizen (Austin), 299 Youngblood (Killens), 661 “Yourself ” (Very), 205–206 Yuchi people, Yuma people, 6–7 Index Gray_bindex.indd 913 Yutang, Lin, 764 Yvernelle (Norris), 273 zaum, 720 Zen Buddhism, 610 Zitkala-Sa, 297–298 Zola, Émile, 272, 273 The Zoo Story (Albee), 690 Zukofsky, Louis, 363–364, 720 Zuni people and Spanish, 14–15 stories, 12–13, 14 913 8/1/2011 7:55:08 AM ... Making of American Selves The Transcendentalists Voices of African -American identity The Making of Many Americas Native American writing Oral culture of the Hispanic Southwest African -American. .. had begun the attack by walking “at a slow pace,” “with a dignity and assurance which greatly amused me,” Champlain recalls For the Native American, warfare was a ceremony, brutal but full of. .. such as Coyote, Rabbit, and Spider Man There are, invariably, tales of love and war, animals and spirits, mythic versions of a particular tribal history and mythic explanations of the geography,