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academic skills & Learning cEntre essay writing STRATEGIES www.academicskills.anu.edu.au the academic Skills & learning Centre The Academic Skills and Learning Centre provides free individual consultations, workshops and online materials to all ANU students with the purpose of developing student academic skills and strategies The ASLC is located on the lower ground floor of the Pauline Griffin Building, adjacent to Melville Hall and across the lawn from the entrance to the Chifley Library Appointments for individual consultations can be made in person or by telephone (02) 6125 2972 You can enrol in our range of workshops online through our website: http://academicskills.anu.edu.au Academic Skills Advisers will read your essay and provide feedback to assist you develop your research and writing skills Essays can be submitted in person or online through our website: http:// academicskills.anu.edu.au STRATEGIES page What markers want? 2 How you write an essay? Analysing the question Researching the essay – finding sources 10 Researching the essay – reading strategies 11 Writing your introduction 14 – Example of essay structure and outline 16 Developing argument through paragraphs 18 Control of academic language 21 Using evidence 24 10 Writing your conclusion 26 11 Acknowledging sources 27 12 Beyond editing and proofreading 29 13 ANU Grading System 32 14 Marking criteria 33 All cartoons created by and used with the permission of Judy Horacek © Copyright Judy Horacek www.horacek.com.au Introduction This handbook is designed to take the bewilderment out of essay writing for undergraduates by providing targeted and timely strategies to move through each stage of the essay writing process You can read it as a whole to gain an appreciation of what is expected of a university essay and how to craft the essay You can also read it in part when the challenges of constructing an introduction or ordering an argument confront you This material is grounded in our experience of providing advice for undergraduate students across the range of courses and disciplines at the ANU A number of past and present colleagues have written books and materials over many years that have also been distilled in this stand-alone handbook The Academic Skills and Learning Centre (ASLC) provides courses on essay writing for undergraduate students and this handbook provides the core material for our current essay writing workshops Over time, the way essay writing courses have been run has changed significantly as student demand has grown and changed Essays are now set as assessment tasks across all ANU Colleges, in economics, business and accounting; in the sciences, engineering and computer science; in law; in medical science; in actuarial studies; as well as in the arts, humanities and Asian studies courses There are many reasons for setting the essay as an assessment task, but one common to all areas is that the research and communication skills learnt through writing an essay are at the core of what it means to think critically, that is, to analyse, critique and evaluate a range of often competing academic ideas, work out where you stand on a particular question and explain why These research and communication skills will be useful for you long after the content of a particular essay has been forgotten The ASLC also recognizes that students are more time poor than has been evident in the past because of the diversity of student backgrounds, access modes and financial needs Therefore both Essay Writing Strategy Workshops (Workshop 1: Researching the Essay, and Workshop 2: Writing the Essay) are offered as two-hour sessions multiple times in each semester Please check the ASLC website for session times: http://academicskills.anu.edu.au and enrol online www.academicskills.anu.edu.au 1 What markers want? No matter what course you are doing, it is designed with two specific goals in mind: • to provide you with some knowledge of a particular subject • to equip you with skills in thinking and communication The first point is about the subject matter: if you are studying commerce, you will learn the significance of a debt to equity ratio and how to read a company’s financial statements The second point is more complicated: these skills in thinking and communication are often not acknowledged explicitly in your courses, but improving these skills is the purpose of this handbook In developing your knowledge about the subject— whatever subject it is—you will need to: • develop a questioning and academically critical mind • develop reading skills to order, test and evaluate ideas and evidence; assess the relationships of these ideas to other ideas and evidence; formulate questions about these ideas and evidence • become an increasingly independent learner • develop a nuanced, coherent position which can be substantiated with evidence • learn writing and communication skills in order to express your position with clarity and precision With this list in mind, markers assess your ability as it is demonstrated in your assignment This assessment can be considered as four areas of competence: focus; wide and critical reading; argument; and presentation Focus In order to demonstrate your questioning and critical mind, it is expected that your essay focuses clearly on the issues of the question you have been given This involves several tasks: • understanding the question(s) or task(s) you have been given: what knowledge or skill are you being required to demonstrate? • identifying relationships between ideas: are these ideas in opposition with each other, in support of each other, or somewhere in between? • what, in a nutshell, are the most significant elements that you need to explore to answer the question? Marker comment This is one of the best essays I’ve read, and I have little in the way of criticism You skilfully compare your various subjects, while offering some worthwhile insights on urban and rural experience You usefully integrate additional research material (your bibliography indicates a wide reading, although it is not always clear how this is employed) Your writing style is clear and concise, need I go on? [This was a High Distinction essay.] Wide and Critical Reading Of all the skills developed at university, reading is perhaps the most important Reading involves a set of skills discussed in further detail throughout this handbook Reading widely—from a variety of sources, authors and points of view—enables you to understand the spectrum of points of view relevant to the topic Whatever the topic, it is likely that there is a range of views which take different positions, contradict each other, support each other, use alternative evidence, refute the positions of others and so on As you read widely, your ideas will be tested, your assumptions may be made clearer to you, and this will help you to develop a coherent argument for your essay Reading “critically” means reading for strengths and weaknesses to gain a deeper understanding of a point of view rather than necessarily accepting the writer’s position Ask yourself: • • • • • • what is the writer’s argument? what evidence is used to substantiate the argument? what are the limitations to the argument? what are the assumptions used by the writer? what evidence might refute or question the writer’s argument? how does this writer’s argument relate to other arguments? Argument The “argument” in this sense is not a dispute Your argument is a combination of reason, analysis and evidence constructed coherently and logically, intended to persuade the reader to this position The argument of your essay is your answer to the question and is a demonstration of your academic point of view A reasoned argument requires: Marker comment We are not interested in your opinion but in a wellfounded argument based on wide reading Your bibliography shows that you have consulted only one major source apart from the main text: this is clearly insufficient • coherence: its parts fit logically together; the argument announced in your introduction develops through your paragraphs and is confirmed in your conclusion • explanation: background, theories, specialist terminology, evidence and conclusions are clearly identified and framed so that the reader gains a better understanding of the topic • evidence: examples, source documents, the arguments of others and results of experiments from your wide and critical reading are explored so that they explain, support and develop your point of view, or refute the point of view of others • reason: logical connections are made between actions or phenomena and results or implications, so that the reader better comprehends your argument Argument is the key to a successful essay, but it is important to realise that your argument relies on the focus of your essay, the wide and critical reading you demonstrate, and the presentation of your essay Presentation Presentation takes time and attention to detail If your argument is not clearly articulated, concise, appropriately referenced, easy to comprehend, and does not follow the formatting requirements of your course, the attention of the marker will be drawn to your presentation and away from your argument You will be rewarded by the time you set aside for reading your essay Ensure your essay uses appropriate academic language, and that your punctuation and spelling are correct; check that your referencing is consistent and accurate These expectations are not simply an unnecessary burden: the elements of presentation are fundamental to articulating a clear and concise—and therefore more powerful—argument Marker comment Stylistically and organisationally, this is much too incoherent to pass Your problems with expression are serious Too many of your sentences are grammatical fragments, like quickly jotted down notes rather than complete units, and you havent organised your materials effectively Paragraphs seem to be conglomerations of only vaguely related ideas, not logically unified series of sentences The raw material for a better essay is apparent But it is unshaped, and the shaping process (i.e organisation and expression) is an essential aspect of logical and critical thinking www.academicskills.anu.edu.au How you write an essay? Writing an essay is a messy, complex, often frustrating process that, nevertheless, can be ordered and managed in several stages Remember that it is usually a circular rather than a linear process: your argument will help develop your writing, and the process of writing will develop your argument and your use of evidence Analyse and define the topic or question • While an essay question will always have a topic, your first hurdle is to identify and then explore the underlying question/debate/ problem within that topic that is central to your course For example, a Political Science question such as: “What were the causes of the Second World War?” is not asking for a list of causes that you then describe It is asking: in what way or to what extent did various factors contribute and how were they interrelated? Understanding how the task is situated within your discipline/ field/courses is crucial to developing a comprehensive answer Identify some key ideas • Remember that any essay question does not stand alone: its purpose is to assess how well you understand some key concepts, theories or conflicts in your current course Consider these concepts, theories or conflicts while you are preparing your essay Look at course outlines, lecture notes, seminar readings to identify key themes of the course • Use brainstorming or mind-mapping techniques to identify key ideas The first literature search • Initially it is often difficult to find readings: search library catalogues, abstracts and databases for material (do a course in the library to learn how) However, when you find sources the amount of reading is often overwhelming Ask yourself: what is relevant?; what is more central and what is less important? Marker comment This appears to be a mish-mash of facts, assembled for no obvious purpose In effect this is not your work but that of the various authors you have photocopied You have not developed an argument from the material In future, organise your thoughts: think what the whole essay title means, and how the relevant facts fit together and in what order, to provide an answer to the problem • Think strategically: who are the key writers in the field?; how can you identify these? Do the course readings contain useful articles? Start with the key writers in the field that your lecturer recommends, and then progress to articles, books and journals as you narrow your search for more specific or specialised material Read • Initially, one of the greatest challenges at university and in essay writing is learning how to read academically When you read, read for a specific purpose: what is the writer’s argument (in the research phase)?; how does this writer refute the position of another writer (later in the research phase)?; are the elements of grammar correct in my essay (in the later stages of editing)? • Consciously select and apply a reading strategy (see section 5) Read to obtain an overview of what people are writing on the topic: where are the debates within this topic? What are the key issues of these debates? Are there any key theorists writing on the topic? What evidence is being used to justify each position or interpretation of the topic? • Consciously select and apply a note taking strategy (see section 5) Work towards constructing an argument • Try to express your argument or position in one clear sentence Often called the “thesis statement” this sentence is your answer to the question; it is the hook on which your argument hangs See “Writing an Introduction” for further details • Select, from your readings, evidence and ideas that might support your argument • Next, consider what things you need to to persuade the reader of your position Will you need to define key terms, compare and contrast, critically evaluate the literature, provide background context, analyse a case study, and so on? Once you have thought of the things you will do, this is called the structure of your argument and it provides a potential outline of the main sections of the essay Construct your argument around an outline • The first division of your topic into parts represents your view of what is important in these debates: this is your preliminary analysis Remember this may change as you write, as you read more, and as your essay evolves • Keeping the required length of the essay in mind, transfer key ideas and supporting ideas from the brainstorm session to a linear structure (outline) This outline is the bare bones of the essay • Prepare a more detailed outline with a section and sub-section plan • Expand or contract the outline to suit the length required Add or delete main points, supporting points, the evidence you will use to explain and support them, potential responses to counterarguments or challenges to your position • Remember: you may need to read more in order to flesh out your ideas Write the first draft • The purpose of this draft is to work out what you think about the question, in relation to what you have read While what you have read may support your argument or refute the argument of others, the foundation of your essay will rely on your thinking and your analysis Follow your outline Resist the temptation to just summarise the ideas you have read by excessively quoting Rather, use these ideas to answer your question In the first draft not be too concerned about the order of paragraphs or the quality of the writing—these aspects will develop www.academicskills.anu.edu.au • Focus on one section of your essay at a time You can have a go at writing your Introduction but come back and rewrite it after your first draft Do some more focused reading • Identify where you need more information It is easy sometimes to find a position and just follow that argument in your essay Read more critically than this: what are the different positions or the strengths and weaknesses of each? Identify where you need more information • Widen/extend/narrow your literature search for more material Find examples to support your main points Take a break • Put some critical distance and time between yourself and your work This will help you to return to your essay with fresh eyes 10 Revise your first draft; work on a second draft • As you write your first draft, your ideas and arguments clarify and often the focus of your argument comes together in the last sections of the essay or in the conclusion In your second draft make sure your argument also appears in your introduction and builds consistently throughout the sections of your essay • Give this draft to someone else for comments and feedback, for example, a friend, your partner, a fellow student, or an ASLC adviser Take note of their comments 11 Edit Marker comment An integrated essay involves (1) stating what in your mind the main issues are, i.e how you are going to attack the question asked; (2) developing your main points into paragraphs – expanding on your most important arguments with data; (3) tying each section (and paragraph) together with some linking statement; and (4) finishing with a conclusion which brings together the main threads of your argument with a clear statement of what you think, based on your previous discussion • Use a checklist for editing the final draft which incorporates formatting requirements as well as things you know you often have problems with e.g referencing, expression etc 12 Hand it in and reward yourself! Analysing the question The academic task in writing an essay is to create an argument that answers the question Developing a line of reasoning—that is, an essay plan—will help in this process As your research and writing continues, not be afraid to alter your plan Your essay plan should: • coherently develop your argument • be clearly identifiable by the marker, so s/he can see how it develops your argument The diagram in the centre of this handbook is a map of an essay plan It also shows how each part of the planning and research becomes part of an essay, and it highlights how developing an argument is based on a clear understanding of the question Understanding your task— the discipline/field The best place to start is the course outline, available on the web, which outlines the important elements, concepts and theories of your course You will need to demonstrate an understanding of some or all of these in your essay, so it is worth reading very closely Now spend some time analysing the question and identifying the components of your task Read the question several times, very carefully What is the question asking you to do? How many questions or tasks are involved? What are the key ideas, themes and theories that this course is designed to cover? Marker comment The second major fault in the essay is that far too much of it is not immediately relevant to the topic you chose The task before you was quite specific and clear Instead of tackling the task directly and without delay, you discuss at large around the topic for page after page Even your discussion of Y is not made relevant to the central question of X Why not go directly to your evidence, especially the evidence of the texts (of which you make very limited use), asking yourself: “What does this tell me in answer to the question before me?” Consider this question from a first year International Relations course: What is the “world food crisis”? What are the political causes of it and what might be the political responses to it? (2000 words) While you are reading the following three paragraphs on subject, angle and process, think about how they apply to the question above Subject/Angle/Process Analysing the question in terms of subject/angle/process helps you identify the task in preparation to developing a plan Step 1: What am I being asked to investigate? The subject of your essay is the broad field or topic—it is the “what” your topic is about: ask yourself, “What I have to demonstrate knowledge about?” The subject corresponds to the “focus” discussed in “What markers want?” In the essay question above, the subject of the essay question above is the “world food crisis.” Note that while the question requires an in depth knowledge of the “world food crisis,” simply describing this crisis is not sufficient Step 2: Why am I being asked to investigate this subject matter? The angle of your essay is the controversy or debate that is at the heart of the subject—“why” you should examine this topic: ask yourself, “What questions I have to answer?” The angle corresponds to the “wide and critical reading” discussed in “What markers want?” In this question, the angle for International www.academicskills.anu.edu.au Relations is to identify what the “world food crisis” is, the political causes of it and the possible political responses to it Step 3: How should I approach the topic? The process is the “how” your essay is going to proceed in answering the “what” and the “why”: ask yourself, “How should I answer?” The process corresponds to the “argument” discussed in “What markers want?” The process is the way in which you demonstrate your academic point of view, using evidence to develop your answer to the question The process involves explaining the politics of trade and the inequalities of wealth, and some suggestion of how these might be overcome Now you are in a position (though this will evolve) to develop an argument: ask yourself, “What I want to persuade (with evidence) the reader to think?” Make a plan What is the “world food crisis”? What are the political causes of it and what might be the political responses to it? (2000 words) (This is not the answer to this essay question: this is an example of how your thinking might develop into an answer).There are two questions, but answering the second question requires answering the first i.e in identifying the causes and responses to the “world food crisis,” you will need to explain what the “world food crisis is However, the second question really has two parts which the course convenor has identified for you as being important to explain in your answer: “political causes” and “political responses.” From the lectures, tutorials and reading in your course so far, think first about the political causes of the “world food crisis”: • trade, barriers and tariffs (power relations between countries) • over-population (the politics of migration policies) • environmental degradation • purchasing powers of rich v poor countries • food distribution and the price of transportation Now think about possible political responses: • trade, barriers and tariffs—power relations in free trade agreements • over-population—increasing standards of living, power relations of health technology • bio-fuels, environmental degradation—Kyoto Protocol? • purchasing powers of rich v poor countries—IMF, structural adjustment procedures • food distribution and the price of transportation—greater commitment from food surplus countries You now have a better idea of what to look for in your research Refine your plan After some preliminary research, you then decide that two of your causes—trade issues and relative purchasing powers—are really both problems to with the inequities of power between countries, so these can be addressed together You also decide, given the limited word length, to combine over-population and environmental degradation into a section on the politics of resources Finally, your reading uncovers an issue you knew nothing about: the influence of food aid on domestic markets With these changes, you now have the core of your essay plan It is a 2000 word essay—this means about 1418 paragraphs—so your plan might now look like this: There is another paragraph of evidence supporting his position; the paragraph and the argument are then brought to a (mini) conclusion neither they [journalists] nor their opinions are welcome The next topic sentence brings together the evidence and the historical background to establish an important line of argument: The reincarnation of Eyewitness in a slouch hat demonstrates an important, if dispiriting, truth about contemporary war reporting: namely, that its development has not traced a linear path towards increased liberalisation but a circular arc that has taken us back to the norms and expectations of the past Now he is in a position to develop his argument regarding the history of military influence in the media: How did the Australian military come to embargo objective reporting in Afghanistan and what are the consequences for the public’s understanding of and responses to the conflict there? This paragraph then develops the argument outlining how the Australian military accepted the conclusions of the US military, and concludes: However questionable the validity of this conclusion, militaries around the world paid heed to the US defence establishment’s analysis This neatly leads into the next paragraph, which develops this argument through a detailed analysis of British military operations: In Britain, as early as 1970, the Director of Defence Operations proposed that next time the UK’s forces went to war, ‘we would have to start saying to ourselves, are we going to let the television cameras loose on the battlefield?’iii To summarise the development of his argument, Foster introduced some historical background over two paragraphs He then developed the context for this argument in the next paragraph Notice how he first put the side of the argument with which he disagreed: having mapped the debate, and he sett up his next paragraph which forcefully rejected this argument, using the military’s own evidence as his own Note how these examples resist the temptation to introduce the main idea of the next paragraph but create a logical connection to that idea As an exercise in exploring how academics write paragraphs and in identifying the flow of an argument, read only the topic sentence of each paragraph in a journal article Do this in your own writing as well and, if it makes sense, you have a clear line of argument (Footnotes) i The best of these academic studies are Daniel Hallin, “The Media, the War in Vietnam and Political Support: A Critique of the Thesis of an Oppositional Media,” Journal of Politics, vol 46 no 1, pp 2-24, and William Hammond, Reporting Vietnam: Military and Media at War (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1998) Carlyle Thayer offers a useful survey of the arguments on both sides in his “Vietnam: A Critical Analysis,” in Defence and the Media in Time of Limited War, ed Peter Young (London: Frank Cass, 1992), pp 89-115 [this footnote appears in the original text] ii Kevin Foster, “‘Eyewitness’ in a Slouch Hat,” Overland, no 193 (Summer 2008), pp 14-18 iii Foster, “‘Eyewitness’ in a Slouch Hat,” pp 14-16 20 Control of academic language Essays are academic documents and, as such, use academic language rather than the more informal language of normal speaking, diaries, emails or even presentations One of the reasons for this more formal language is the requirement to engage with the ideas of other writers, which not only have to be referenced, but analysed, critiqued and evaluated before arriving at a reasoned argument While essays will always contain facts and information, the ordering and arrangements of these around key ideas and issues is as important as the information itself The goal is to be as precise as possible and as concise as possible, that is, to be accurate in your expression with an economy of language The more you fill up your essay with description, the less space you have to develop your argument—where most of the reward will come your way Thus the control and use of academic language signals to your marker the depth or level at which you are writing Think about the terms listed below: Analysis Critique your ability to clearly identify the key issues to be dealt with to answer the question Marker comment What you say is reasonable enough but the way in which you say it is simply inadequate Your essay is full of vague, awkward and misconstructed sentences I’m afraid you won’t pass this subject until you learn to express yourself more clearly and precisely your ability to engage with those issues in terms of the strengths and weaknesses of the different positions on those issues Evaluation your ability to reach a conclusion, to derive an argument based on an assessment of those perspectives for each issue www.academicskills.anu.edu.au 21 Think about how you might communicate at each level of writing The words listed below are arranged, generally, according to the level of academic writing they imply Use them in your essays Analysing Critiquing Evaluating states contends affirms reports analyses agrees describes announces concurs claims cites confirms elaborates assumes makes clear indicates compares demonstrates makes the point considers shows defines contrasts justifies details theorises argues generalises speculates interprets proposes reconciles recommends presumes suggests challenges reckons on predicts affirms observes explains confirms notes accedes approves points out in the view of x contradicts posits concedes refutes postulates x conjectures evaluates comments x goes so far as to suggest advocates explores in x’s opinion dismisses investigates according to x puts forward x’s approach indicates that Words and phrases for developing discussions In the paragraph on politics, the military and the media (see “Coherent argument and paragraphing”), there were a number of words and phrases used by the writer to control and order the logic of the paragraph This changes the paragraph from a summary of other people’s ideas to an analysis of those ideas and a development of the writer’s argument A list of possible words to use in this way is presented on the next page Marker comment This essay is all over the place You start off talking about “society” as aggregates of human beings, i.e sociologically, and end up using the word to mean something like “high society” or a collection of aunts in Jane Austen’s drawing-room 22 To list, or show ‘time’ relationships First/second/third etc Previously Now After that Last/finally Afterwards When Next Meanwhile Before Earlier Presently or currently Another reason/ factor/ point is Also Similarly Besides As well Hence Due to Thus Because of this It follows then For As a result… The ‘if/then’ construction In summary In conclusion To summarise It can be inferred that To sum up It can be concluded that This implies/suggests/ indicates/ shows/ establishes/ demonstrates Ultimately To add information Furthermore In addition Moreover To show a logical relationship So Since this is so Therefore Consequently To draw a ‘conclusion’ To clarify a previously stated idea In other words By this I mean That is To put this another way Put succinctly In effect (Or simply restate the idea in a different way) To introduce a ‘contrasting’ or ‘qualifying’ idea In contrast Conversely But However Nevertheless Although Even so On the other hand Alternatively Unlike Yet Whereas … (then contrast) …, including …, such as To illustrate To provide an ‘example’ For example For instance www.academicskills.anu.edu.au 23 Using Evidence The way to a marker’s heart is to have a strong argument; and a strong argument is one which is persuasive and is clearly presented One of the most important elements of creating a persuasive argument is to use evidence Generally, you use evidence to: • map the debate • signal where your argument fits into the debate Specifically, you can use evidence in a number of ways: • to distinguish one point of view from another • to create a link between a cause and an effect • to refute someone else’s argument Marker comment Bibliography and footnotes are excellent Apart from a few minor slips, you use scholarly apparatus well and it is gratifying to find a student who gives it careful treatment • to substantiate your logic or claim • to compare one thing with another, from which your argument can be furthered There are several ways to differentiate positions in the debate, including your own Read the extract below which analyses the interstate rivalry between Victoria and South Australia Observe how the writer maps the debate and signals how her argument fits within that debate: Explanations for the longstanding rivalry between Victorians and South Australians have traditionally focused on economic factors, but recent research suggests cultural or artistic factors have played a greater role The work of Coupe,3 Chugg,4 and Smythe and Brown,5 which compared and contrasted company profitability, employment rates, and rates of investment between the two states, concluded that “economic envy”6 was the basis for the rivalry This conclusion, however, has been challenged by two studies that focus on cultural differences Gibbons, for example, argues that the desire to be seen as “the pre-eminent arts community of Australia”7 is the cause for the rivalry, citing the rancorous debates over which state has the better Arts Festival, World Music festival, wines, art galleries and museums The work of Belle,8 too, notes the importance of this desire for cultural dominance between the two states More suggestively, she proposes that this desire becomes more pronounced during the football season In an analysis of Question Time debates in the South Australian parliament from 1991-2002, Belle demonstrates that all politicians become increasingly parochial about the greatness of the arts in South Australia Belle argues that: Teddy W Coupe, “Company Profitability: a tale of two states,” The Economic Development of Australia, ed Robyn Wagon (Melbourne: Clark Press, 1951), 34-70 Selwyn Chugg, “An Analysis of Employment Rates in Victoria and South Australia, 1901-1950,” Journal of Australian Economic History and Theory 34 (1968): 131-167 Mike Smythe and Jo Brown, “Winning Economic Glory: a Historical and Psychological Study of Interstate Rivalry,” Australian Historicalpsychological Studies 55 (1979): 1-29 Chugg, 134 Paul Gibbons, Adelaide: the Arts Capital of Australia, Maybe the World (Sydney: Murdoch Press, 2002), Tallulah Belle, Victorian Bitter? You Bet (Adelaide: Flinders University Press, 2004) 24 It is no coincidence that when the Adelaide Crows won two premierships in the late 1990s, funding for the arts in general increased and new arts initiatives were announced The National Wine Centre and the National Centre for Artistic Values were both launched during this time.9 The writer begins by referring to several authors who all consider economic indicators in their assessments She then signals that the map of this debate also includes cultural issues By providing more space for the cultural side of the debate, the writer signals that, in her view, the cultural issues arguments are more persuasive Notice how the writer uses words such as “however,” “challenged” and “demonstrates” to signal her position Finally, in focusing on the work of Tallulah Belle, the writer signals her agreement with Belle that “all politicians become increasingly parochial about the greatness of arts in South Australia.” Quotations As you map the debate, it is essential that you identify your position from the positions in the spectrum of the argument This is done in several ways: • the argument of a person is summarised and his/her name is mentioned There is then a reference recorded so that this person’s position can be verified or considered in greater detail by the reader In the essay above, this is done with “the work of Chugg,* Coupe* and Smythe and Brown.*” • a short quotation is used to summarise an argument, as in the case of Gibbons’ “the pre-eminent arts community of Australia.” A short quotation like this must be the exact words of the author and representative of their argument Marker comment I suspect that the main reason why your essay is misdirected is that instead of setting your own objectives and pursuing them by your own examination of relevant evidence, you have allowed your own ideas and objectives to be dictated by the scholars you have read Since their questions are not identical with yours, by following them you were led away from your proper objectives You have obviously worked hard at reading your secondary sources The same amount of work put into an analysis of thoroughly relevant primary sources would have paid better dividends Try to have confidence to your own thing in your own way, using secondary sources as critics of your ideas, stimuli to those ideas, and sources of information, rather than as guides to (or even substitutes for) the ideas you should have • when a writer’s position is important or captures an idea particularly well, a long quotation is very effective, especially if it becomes the springboard for further analysis In the essay above, the writer uses the work of Belle to support her argument Because the quotation is quite long—over 30 words or so—the writer has indented the quotation i.e decreased the margins on both sides For indented quotations, no quotation marks are needed Again, the wording must be exact Referencing styles are considered in section 11 ”Acknowledging Sources” Belle, 244-245 www.academicskills.anu.edu.au 25 10 Writing A conclusion Your conclusion is your last word on your question/issue/debate/problem, and potentially has great impact (second only to your Introduction in importance) in the way it: • states your position/argument, in your own words (preferably in one paragraph) • draws together all the key issues addressed in your essay in an ordered way • links your findings on these issues as components of your argument • draws out the implications of your finding(s)—for the topic of interest Do not add anything new to your argument Instead, use your argument to say something (maybe tentatively) about the consequences of your findings for the issues/debate central to your question In some disciplines, it may be appropriate to comment on problems /issues in method Think of a conclusion, not necessarily in this order, as being constructed in “three moves”: Move 1: Restate your argument In general terms, what is your position on the question, debate or issue at the heart of the essay question? Move 2: Review your line of argument Draw together each component of your argument in a logical and meaningful way Move 3: Draw out implications/consequences What are the implications or consequences of your conclusion to the field/discipline? How should your reader now be thinking differently about the topic? In this way your essay conveys to your reader, “You gave me an issue / problem / question to consider here is my response to that issue / problem / question and my response is significant etc because ,” although you wouldn’t word it this way! When you have written your conclusion, go back and read the question or assignment task Have you addressed the task? Does your conclusion agree with your Introduction? Example (first year Law assignment): Is there a place for programs such as the Koori Court in the Australian legal system? Should there be courts for other groups in our society? (1500 words) State your argument: The consideration of Indigenous people of Australia as deserving a unique position is widely accepted across social, cultural, legal and political spheres Specialist courts have long been accepted and have worked well, and the Koori Court in Victoria has been very successful and its practices provide a model for the wider court system Draw together your line of argument: The debate about courts for all minorities is misleading and based upon a misunderstanding of the philosophy underpinning the Koori Court It has created real benefits for Aboriginal people without the necessity for special pleading of all minorities or undermining any legal principles On the contrary, it has created a greater level of justice Implications for the debate: It is now time for the debate to move away from the “special pleading” argument towards the key issue: implementing changes to the legal system to improve justice outcomes for all people 26 11 Acknowledging sources Academic work involves the fundamental process of critically engaging with the work of others For most assessment tasks, you will be required to work with different sources Aside from searching for sources, the early part of the research process will involve evaluating sources, assessing their relevance, testing their reliability, looking for similarities or differences between sources, making connections, and so on Following this stage, you will then move into the most important part of the research process—“forging relationships for your own purpose” (Fowler & Aaron 673), that is, developing some new and original understanding based on the connections that you make between diverse sources Without references, it would be impossible to determine how original your work is In 2003, the Australian National University introduced its “Code of Practice for Student Academic Integrity,” [updated 2009] policy to make explicit its commitment to the principles of good scholarship Students will be expected in the course of their studies to demonstrate “the ability to critically engage their own thinking with that of others” (ANU 5) When to reference When writing an academic essay or a report, you will invariably draw upon the research of others, directly or indirectly, and incorporate it into your own work For example, you may choose to quote an author, paraphrase a section of an author’s work, or simply use an idea or information from a text In producing an essay, report, or dissertation, whenever you • QUOTE directly from another writer, • PARAPHRASE or SUMMARISE a passage from another writer, or • USE material (e.g., an idea, facts, statistics) directly based on another writer’s work, it is your responsibility to “identify and acknowledge your source in a systematic style of referencing” (Clanchy and Ballard 140) By doing this, you’re acknowledging that you are part of the academic community It is important to this so that your reader, the person assessing your work, can “trace the source of your material easily and accurately” (Clanchy and Ballard 140) The reader wants to know where your evidence or support for your argument(s) comes from Using the work of others, so long as it is acknowledged, is an accepted practice in academia The failure to appropriately acknowledge source materials could result in an accusation of plagiarism, i.e., “copying, paraphrasing or summarising, without appropriate acknowledgement, the words, ideas, scholarship and intellectual property of another person” (ANU College of Arts and Social Sciences) The charge of plagiarism could in turn lead to failure for the assignment, failure for the whole course, or, in dire cases, suspension or termination of your program or study Referencing systems In general, there are two main styles for acknowledging source materials: notes (footnotes, endnotes) and internal citations (commonly known as the Harvard system) Usually, your College, discipline, or school will indicate which referencing system they prefer; often this is stated in the course handout or on the College website www.academicskills.anu.edu.au 27 Sometimes you may be required to master both systems, particularly if you are enrolled in different Colleges “Different departments within the university may favour different styles, so it is essential that you check on the preferred format for each program in which you are studying” (Clanchy and Ballard 140) Students doing both Law and Psychology, for example, would have to use footnotes in Law and internal citations in Psychology Students doing Political Science can choose to use either system, so long as they choose one and use it consistently and not combine them Students doing English and Law would use footnotes, but the footnote system used in English, based on the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers, is not entirely similar to the system used in Law Quotations come from: Australian National University, “Code of Practice for Student Academic Integrity,” 2009; Australian National University College of Arts and Social Sciences, “Code of Practice for Student Academic Integrity,: Definitions of Breaches,” 2009; John Clanchy and Brigid Ballard, Essay Writing for Students: A Practical Guide, 3rd ed (Melbourne: Longman, 1997); and H Ramsey Fowler and Jane E Aaron, The Little, Brown Handbook, 8th ed (New York: Longman, 2001) The ASLC website http://academicskills.anu.edu.au/ contains articles on: Referencing Basics Should I use references? Writing an Annotated Bibliography Harvard Referencing Footnoting The ASLC website also contains links to guides for different referencing styles: Harvard Style Chicago Manual of Style Online American Psychological Association Australian Guide to Legal Citation Modern Language Association (MLA) Oxford Style Turabian Bibliographic Form Also refer to the ANU academic integrity site For further information also see Crasswell, G Writing for Success: A Postgraduate Guide (London: Sage, 2005) Rao, V., Chanock, K and L Krishnan A Visual Guide to Essay Writing (Sydney: Association for Academic Language and Learning, 2007); also available online at https://academicskills.anu.edu.au/ 28 12 Beyond editing & proofreading The purpose of your final draft is to ensure that the words on paper communicate the depth of your understanding of the question and your construction of a persuasive argument Make a conscious choice to read the words you have written through the eyes of the marker rather than through “your interpretation” of those words from your own perspective Use the strategies presented through this handbook to ensure that what you write is what you mean Expectation 1: analytical focus • Have you clearly identified and dealt with what the question is asking? • Do you spend too much time defining and describing, rather than analysing and critiquing? Expectation 2: wide and critical reading • Does your reference list reflect the different positions on these issues? • Has your argument dealt with the strengths and weaknesses you have found in the various positions taken on your question? Expectation 3: reasoned argument • Do you have an introduction, a conclusion and logical paragraphs? • Is your main idea located in your first sentence of each paragraph? • Do you support that idea with evidence and explanation? • Is your evidence supported by references? • Is there a logical link between each of your paragraphs? • Are there clear and signposted sections in the body of your essay? • Do these sections correspond to the structure of your argument signposted in your introduction? • Do you have a reasoned line of argument? Read your introduction, each topic sentence and your conclusion If they not agree or flow in a logical and sequenced manner then redraft them so that they • Does your introduction what it is supposed to do? The four moves of an introduction is one way to ensure that you frame your question and develop an argument in response to that question • Does your introduction and conclusion match? • Does your conclusion draw together the main components of your argument contained in the body of your essay, actually draw a conclusion based on these arguments, and consider some implications related to your question (three moves of a conclusion)? Expectation 4: style and presentation Markers expect competent style and presentation and often give detailed outlines of those expectations If you not use the required referencing system, or use it incorrectly, if you have not used the spellchecker to check your spelling, if you have submitted your essay with single line spacing when 1.5 spacing is required, or if you have submitted double sided pages when single is required, then you will lose marks Remember, your marker may have scores of essays to mark in a brief period of time and lack of care or attention stands out The more time markers spend noting errors the less time they have to notice the merits of your argument Do not give them a poor impression when they first read your essay www.academicskills.anu.edu.au 29 Note: The spellchecker only picks up some misspelt words It will not , for example, pick up “there” when you meant “their,” or “it’s” when you meant “its.” It is so easy to miss incorrectly used words, even when proofreading, for instance when “minuet” is used for “minute” or “testes” for “tests” (real examples) Suggestion: Ask someone not doing your course to read your essay and let you know where it does not make sense Basic proof-reading tips • Page numbers; 4cm margins (to encourage marker feedback) • 12-point font; 1.5 line spacing (double for Law and some other disciplines) • Spaces between paragraphs (or indented first line of paragraph) • Headings and subheadings are consistent Marker comment This is a very impressive piece of research and a rather indifferent piece of reporting Your writing is often obscure, clumsy and wordy I don’t feel sure how I should mark this but on balance I think I should give high marks for what you have discovered and a severe reprimand for your bad language Academic writing style and expression • Do not use contractions, e.g “can’t,” “don’t,” “won’t” etc • Use personal pronouns judiciously e.g “I,” “my,” “me” etc • Avoid use of “we,” “us,” “our,” “you,” “your” because of the ambiguities in using such terms • Use varied language (make sure every sentence starts with a different construction) • “First ; Second, ; Finally, ”: make sure you have told the reader what it is you are listing • Use gender-neutral language That is, avoid “man,” “mankind,” “he” etc Use instead “humankind,” “he/she,” his/her – but avoid “their.” • Acronyms: give in full first, acronym in brackets after e.g “United Nations Environment Program (UNEP).” Use the acronym thereafter • 1960s, 1990s etc usually not have an apostrophe, thus, ‘in the 1960s ’ • Do not use colloquialisms or slang • Numbers 1-10 are written as words If you begin a sentence with a number, write the number out in full • Avoid stating absolutes e.g “a perfect example,” “a total failure,” “everybody believes,” “always,” “never,” “only.” • Check problematic pairs of words: affect/ effect, practise/practice; use/utilise 30 Punctuation • Check your use of punctuation marks such as the comma (,), colon (:), apostrophe (’) and semi-colon (;) Refer to: ‘A basic guide to punctuation’, http://www.academicskills anu.edu.au • Use italics for non-English words • Be consistent in your use of quotation marks: double or single? Quotations within quotations? Check your style guide • Pay attention to the usual punctuation in your discipline, e.g., cooperate or co-operate? Spelling • Use computer spell-checks, but proofread aloud, reading exactly what you have written to identify errors • Avoid US spelling: “colour” not “color,” “organisation” not “organization.” Most computers have US spelling as default • Cross-check the spelling of authors’ names and discipline-specific terms Referencing • Quotations are not italicised If you add italics write “emphasis added” or “emphasis mine.” Marker comment For the future, how about using our referencing style? • Check whether your marker wants a Bibliography or a List of References • Use an appropriate style for citations (in-text? footnoting?) and bibliography/references list • Indent and single-line space long quotes (no quotation marks) • Give page numbers for all in-text direct quotes and for specific ideas • Put quotation marks around short, direct quotes • Use correct spelling, grammar and punctuation of direct quotations, exactly as in the original • Review quotations for relevance Are they integrated into your argument and grammar? • Arrange the bibliography/references list in alphabetical order according to authors’ family/ corporate names • Give page numbers for articles and chapters in edited volumes in bibliography/references list • Check your bibliography/references list for accuracy: spelling, dates, titles www.academicskills.anu.edu.au 31 13 ANU Grading System The grading system below is adapted from an ANU course guide and provides a general idea of the meaning of the criteria applied and the way they are applied for different grades Check your course outline for specific information on how your essays will be assessed Compare the different descriptions of each criteria between grade levels for an understanding of the differences between each grade Note how these criteria are operationalised in the marking criteria on the next page Grade (letter) High Distinction (HD) 80-100% Interpretation • • • • • • • • • • Distinction (D) 70-79% • • • • • • • Credit (C) 60-69% • • • • • • Pass (P) 50-59% • • • • • Fail (F) below 50% • • • • 32 work of exceptional quality showing clear understanding of subject matter close appreciation of issues well formulated arguments sustained by evidence tables and diagrams where appropriate relevant sources referenced marked evidence of creative ability and originality high level of intellectual work critical evaluations work of unusual quality showing strong grasp of subject matter appreciation of dominant issues, though not necessarily of the finer points arguments clearly developed relevant sources cited evidence of critical evaluation solid intellectual work work of solid quality showing competent understanding of subject matter appreciation of main issues, though possibly some lapses and inadequacies arguments clearly developed and supported by sources, though possibly with minor loose ends and irrelevancies some evidence of creative ability and critical evaluation well prepared and presented range from a bare pass to a safe pass adequate but lacking breadth and depth work generally has gaps probably takes a more factual approach and does not attempt to question or interpret findings and evidence may end in a summary and not an argued conclusion unsatisfactory work which shows a lack of understanding of the topic no evidence of analysis often irrelevant or incomplete 14 marking criteria The table below is adapted from various ANU course guides and lists some criteria by which written assignment performance may be marked Check your course outlines for specific information on how your essays will be assessed Some aspects are more important than others, so there is no formula connecting each box, or any of the criteria with the final grade for the assignment Quality of argument • The argument fully/fails to address the question • Logically developed argument • Writing rambles and lacks logical continuity • • Writing well structured through introduction, body and conclusion Writing poorly structured, lacking introduction, cohesive paragraphing and/or conclusion • Material relevant/not relevant to topic • Topic dealt with in depth/superficially Written expression and presentation Quality of Evidence • • Argument well/inadequately supported by evidence and examples Accurate presentation of evidence and examples • Much evidence incomplete or questionable • Effective use of figures and tables • • Figures and tables little used or not used when needed Illustrations effectively/poorly presented and correctly/incorrectly cited Referencing • Fluent and succinct piece of writing • • Clumsily written, verbose, repetitive • • Grammatical/ungrammatical sentences • Correct/incorrect punctuation • Correct/incorrect spelling throughout • Legible, well set out work • Untidy and difficult to read • Over/under length • • Adequate/inadequate number of references Adequate/inadequate acknowledgement of sources Correct and consistent in-text referencing style Incorrect and inconsistent in-text referencing style • Reference list correctly presented • Errors and inconsistencies in reference list You can learn a great deal from the comments made on your essay by your marker, which is why we have included examples of marker comments Your marker comments allow you to further develop your research and writing skills by applying the strategies outlined in this handbook www.academicskills.anu.edu.au 33 The Academic Skills and Learning Centre Pauline Griffiin Building (building no 11) W: http://academicskills.anu.edu.au T: (02) 6125 2972 The Pauline Griffin Building is the white three storey building where enrolments and fees are processed It is adjacent to Melville Hall and across the lawn from the entrance to the Chifley Library The Academic Skills and Learning Centre is on the lower ground floor ANU CRICOS Provider Number 00120C JAN2010 ...the academic Skills & learning Centre The Academic Skills and Learning Centre provides free individual consultations, workshops and online materials to all ANU students... through our website: http://academicskills.anu.edu.au Academic Skills Advisers will read your essay and provide feedback to assist you develop your research and writing skills Essays can be submitted... The Academic Skills and Learning Centre (ASLC) provides courses on essay writing for undergraduate students and this handbook provides the core material for our current essay writing workshops