Fuel cells data facts and figures

Part I Transportation 1 I-1 Propulsion 1 I-1.1 Benchmarks and Definition of Criteria 1 Bruno Gnörich and Lutz Eckstein References 11 Thomas Grube 2.1 Introduction 12 2.2 Drive Cycles for

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Jiang, S.P., Yan, Y (eds.)

Materials for

High-Temperature Fuel Cells

2013

Print ISBN: 978-3-527-33041-6

2010 Print ISBN: 978-3-527-32711-9Stolten, D., Emonts, B (eds.)

Fuel Cell Science and Engineering

Materials, Processes, Systems and Technology

2012 Print ISBN: 978-3-527-33012-6

Edited by Detlef Stolten, Remzi C Samsun and

Nancy Garland

Fuel Cells

Data, Facts and Figures

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Part I Transportation 1

I-1 Propulsion 1

I-1.1 Benchmarks and Definition of Criteria 1

Bruno Gnörich and Lutz Eckstein

References 11

Thomas Grube

2.1 Introduction 12

2.2 Drive Cycles for Passenger Car Type Approval 13

2.3 Drive Cycles from Research Projects 14

2.4 Drive Cycle Characteristics 14

2.5 Graphic Representation of Selected Drive Cycles 16

3.3 Fuel Quality Effects 25

3.4 Fuel Quality for Fuel Cell Vehicles 25

3.5 Single Cell Tests 26

3.6 Field Data 26

3.7 Fuel Quality Verification 27

3.8 Conclusion 28

References 29

4.5 Conclusion 34

References 34

I-1.2 Demonstration 37

I-1.2.1 Passenger Cars 37

Remzi Can Samsun

5.1 Introduction 39

5.2 Update on Recent Activities of Car Manufacturers 405.3 Key Data and Results from Demonstration Programs 415.4 Technical Data of Fuel Cell Vehicles 47

Heli Wang and John A Turner

Rajesh Ahluwalia and Thanh Hua

Vitalie Stavila and Lennie Klebanoff

16.1 Metal Hydrides as Hydrogen Storage Media 149

16.2 Classes of Metal Hydrides 152

16.2.1 Interstitial Metal Hydrides 152

16.2.2 Magnesium and Magnesium-Based Alloys 153

16.2.3 Complex Metal Hydrides 154

16.2.3.1 Off-Board Reversible Metal Hydrides 157

16.3 How Metal Hydrides Could Be Improved 157

References 160

Tobias Brunner, Markus Kampitsch, and Oliver Kircher

17.1 Introduction 162

17.2 Thermodynamic Principles 163

17.3 System Design and Operating Principles 167

17.4 Validation and Safety 169

18.2 High Pressure Fuel Container System 179

18.3 Hydrogen Refueling Requirements and Safety 180

18.4 Conclusions 182

References 182

19.2.1 Petroleum-Based Diesel Fuels 186

19.2.2 Non-Petroleum-Based Diesel Fuels 187

19.3 Jet Fuel 189

19.3.1 Petroleum-Based Jet Fuels 189

19.3.2 Non-Petroleum-Based Jet Fuels 190

20.2 DOE Technical Targets 198

20.2.1 Status and Targets of Fuel Cell APUs 198

21.2 Possible Fuel Cell Systems for Ships 204

21.3 Maritime Fuel Cell Projects 205

21.4 Development Goals for Future Systems 206

21.5 Conclusions 206

References 207

22.2.2 Aspects of System Design 210

22.2.3 Catalysts in Fuel Processing 211

22.2.4 Reactor Development of Fuel Processing 213

22.2.5 Further Data Sets of Interest 219

Remzi Can Samsun

24 High Temperature Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cells 235

Werner Lehnert, Lukas Lüke, and Remzi Can Samsun

Max Wei, Shuk Han Chan, Ahmad Mayyas, and Tim Lipman

26.1 Fuel-Cell Backup Systems 260

26.2 Fuel-Cell Combined Heat and Power and Electricity 262

References 269

27.4.1 SOFC-type Ene-Farm and Improvement of Performance 27227.4.2 The Ene-Farm as an Emergency Electric Supply System 27327.4.3 Ene-Farms for Nitrogen Rich City Gas 274

27.5 Sales of the Ene-Farm for Condominiums 274

29.2.1 Residential Energy Sector 283

29.2.2 Residential Fuel Cell Systems 283

31 SOFC: Cell, Stack and System Level 304

Part III Materials handling 321

Martin Müller

32.1 Introduction 323

32.2 Forklift Classification 324

32.3 Load Profile of Horizontal Order Pickers 324

32.4 Energy Supply for Forklifts 326

32.5 Systems Setup and Hybridization 326

32.6 Cost Comparison of Different Propulsion Systems for Forklifts 328

References 332

33 Fuel Cell Forklift Deployment in the USA 334

Ahmad Mayyas, Max Wei, Shuk Han Chan, and Tim Lipman

33.1 Fuel Cell-Powered Material Handling Equipment 334

References 340

Part IV Fuel provision 343

Antonino S Aricò, Vincenzo Baglio, Nicola Briguglio, Gaetano Maggio, andStefania Siracusano

34.1 Introduction 345

34.2 Bibliographic Analysis of PEM Electrolysis versus Water

Electrolysis 346

34.3 Electrocatalysts Used in PEM Water Electrolysis 347

34.4 Anode Supports for PEM Water Electrolysis 349

34.5 Membranes for PEM Electrolysis 349

35.3 Transport and Application of H2and CH4 363

35.4 Current Developments: Pilot Plants 365

35.5 Conclusion 366

References 366

Part V Codes and standards 369

36 Hydrogen Safety and RCS (Regulations, Codes, and Standards) 371Andrei V Tchouvelev

36.1 Introduction 371

36.2 Hydrogen Safety 372

36.2.1 Flammability Limits and Ignition Energy 372

36.2.1.1 Unique Hydrogen Flammability Limits 372

36.2.1.2 Hydrogen Ignition Energy 372

36.2.2 Materials Compatibility 374

36.2.2.1 Hydrogen Embrittlement 374

36.2.2.2 Materials Suitability for Hydrogen Service 375

36.3 Hydrogen Regulations, Codes, and Standards (RCS) InternationalActivities 376

36.3.1 ISO/TC 197 Hydrogen Technologies 376

36.3.2 CEN and European Commission 376

36.3.3 HySafe and IEA HIA Hydrogen Safety Activities 377

36.4 Conclusions 377

Acknowledgments 377

References 378

Index 379

Fuel cell technology made substantial progress in the last decade The tive industry for one made strong and steady progress and is starting to bringfuel cell-based vehicles to market

automo-Hyundai and Toyota produced cars using the world’s first dedicated turing lines for fuel cell vehicles In the stationary sector, fuel cells also becamemore prominent through the deployment of over 100,000 residential systems inJapan, amongst other countries, as well as portable applications (the latter, how-ever, remain focused on special market segments and niches)

manufac-At this stage, systems analysis with respect to the widespread implementation

of fuel cells becomes highly important Fuel cells constitute a cleaner and moreefficient energy conversion solution, compared to existing technologies Hence, acomparative analysis of performance, longevity and costs between them isparamount

This book compiles cutting edge research to comprehensively convey the rent status of the technology It is intended as a data reference book for peoplefamiliar with energy analyses and/or fuel cells and hydrogen The AFCIA inIEA’s Energy Technology Network initiated and oversaw the data collection andpreparation of the book

cur-List of Contributors

Rajesh Ahluwalia

Argonne National Laboratory

9700 South Cass Avenue

Lemont, IL 60439

USA

Antonino S Aricò

CNR-ITAE

Istituto di Tecnologie Avanzate per

L’Energia “Nicola Giordano”

Via Salita Santa Lucia sopra

Istituto di Tecnologie Avanzate per

L’Energia “Nicola Giordano”

Via Salita Santa Lucia sopra

Istituto di Tecnologie Avanzate per

L’Energia “Nicola Giordano”

Via Salita Santa Lucia sopra

Shuk Han Chan

University of California, BerkeleyDepartment of MechanicalEngineering

1115 Etcheverry HallBerkeley, CA 94709-1740USA

Niels Christiansen

Topsoe Fuel CellNymøllevej 66

2800 Kongens LyngbyDenmark

IPC S4-01Adam Opel AG

65423 RüsselsheimGermany

Argonne National Laboratory

Center for Transportation

4000 RoskildeDenmark

Thanh Hua

Argonne National Laboratory

9700 South Cass AvenueLemont, IL 60439USA

Markus Kampitsch

Böhmerwaldstr 22

85630 GrasbrunnGermany

Hyoung-Juhn Kim

Korea Institute of Science andTechnology

39-1 Hawolkog-dong, Sungbuk-guSeoul 136-791

Korea

Oliver Kircher

Holzstr 3

82110 GermeringGermany

Lennie Klebanoff

Sandia National Laboratories

7011 East AvenueLivermore, CA 94551-0969USA

Shanna Knights

Imperial College LondonImperial College Business SchoolLevel 2 Tanaka Building

London SW7 2AZUK

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Ahmad Mayyas

University of California, BerkeleyTransportation SustainabilityResearch Center

2150 Allsoton WayBerkeley, CA 94704USA

Stephen J McPhail

ENEAUnit Renewable SourcesHydrogen and Fuel CellsVia Anguillarese 301

00123 RomeItaly

Cortney Mittelsteadt

Argonne National LaboratoryChemical Sciences and EngineeringDivision

9700 South Cass AvenueBldg 205

Lemont, IL 60439USA

Martin Müller

Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbHIEK-3: Electrochemical ProcessEngineering

Leo-Brandt-Straße

52425 JülichGermany

Energy Institute at the Johannes

Kepler University Linz

Department of Energy Technologies

UK

Vitalie Stavila

Sandia National Laboratories

7011 East AvenueLivermore, CA 94551-0969USA

Andrew J Steinbach

3439 Owasso StreetShoreview, MN 55126USA

Andrei V Tchouvelev

6591 Spinnaker CircleMississauga, ON L5W 1R2Canada

Rittmar von Helmolt

GM Alternative Propulsion Center

Hydrogen & Electric Propulsion

Yingru Zhao

Xiamen UniversityCollege of EnergySouth Xiang’an RoadXiamen 361102Fujian

People’s Republic of China

Part I Transportation

Battery Electric Vehicles

Bruno Gnörich and Lutz Eckstein

RWTH Aachen University, Institut für Kraftfahrzeuge, Steinbachstraße 7, 52074 Aachen,

Germany

Keywords: battery electric vehicles; concept car; electric machines; hydrogen fuel

cell electric vehicles; Li-ion batteries

In the early years of motor vehicle history, the most frequently used propulsionsystem was an electric drivetrain with batteries as energy storage Power socketswere more common than petrol stations From the 1920s, the increasing density

of fueling stations made battery electric vehicles less desirable due to the longerrecharging times

It took many decades before the aspect of emissions and scarcity of primaryenergy resources (re)surfaced and, as of today, a significant number of series pro-duction vehicles from major car manufacturers are available to end customers.E-mobility stakeholders also stress the potential linkage of battery electric vehi-cles and the energy sector to create a smart grid where vehicles could act asbalancing loads when plugged into the charging pole

In general terms, and with electricity being a secondary energy carrier just likehydrogen, this underlines the necessity to assess the well-to-wheel efficiency,emissions, and sustainability of such drivetrains

Figure 1.1 illustrates a simplified overview of the well-to-wheel energy sion for the main propulsion technologies, with focus on the battery electricvehicle (BEV) Electricity can be produced from any of the primary or secondarysources, including hydrogen

conver-It becomes clear that electric vehicles benefit from the versatile electricitypathways, making them in theory the most sustainably propelled types of vehi-cles This includes battery and hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEV)

These differ only by the delivery of electricity to the traction motor(s), and thissynergy is beneficial when creating BEVs and FCEVs with identical motors

Battery electric vehicles have several benefits over conventional vehicles Theyfeature low noise emissions and do not produce local pollutants like NOx,

Fuel Cells: Data, Facts, and Figures, First Edition Edited by Detlef Stolten, Remzi C Samsun,

and Nancy Garland.

 2016 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co KGaA Published 2016 by Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co KGaA.

Figure 1.1 Energy conversion pathways for motor vehicles with focus on BEVs [1].

urban traffic is approximately 10–15 kWmech, which is significantly lower thanthe requirement for extra-urban traffic (>30 kW at 100 km h 1

) The main tleneck in this market is the lack of acceptance of a vehicle with limited drivingrange and high purchase costs

bot-The only full-range BEV as of early 2015 is the Tesla Model S with its large 85kWh battery and a range of up to 500 km Tesla has used a combination of con-ventional Li-ion battery technology and powerful motors in a very aerodynamicbody (cd= 0.24) to create a well-received vehicle in the luxury car segment Itmainly addresses markets with government subsidies, substantial CO2emissionstaxation, or good coverage of quick-charging infrastructure, Tesla’s Superchargerstations

Several BEVs are so-called purpose-designed vehicles that have been cally developed as electric vehicles and that are not derived from an internalcombustion engine (ICE) vehicle (Table 1.1) Tesla’s Model S aside, such vehiclesare mostly in the micro to compact car segment, like the Peugeot iOn, BMW i3,

specifi-or Nissan Leaf Conversion design examples include the Volkswagen e-Golf andthe Smart fortwo electric drive In the case of newly developed vehicles such asthe Mercedes-Benz B-class, different propulsion options have been consideredfrom the start of the development process, using one platform for conventionalversions and an adapted platform for natural gas powered and electric versions

In general, electric drivetrains have a moderate amount of drivetrain nents and a straightforward structure The novel components are the batterysystem and the electric motor Furthermore, auxiliary components need adjust-ing such as the steering and braking system as well as the heating and coolingsystems (thermal management)

compo-The latter has become a vital aspect of drivetrain development and aims tocombine energy demand analyses and efficiency optimization across all on-boardenergy requirements Examples include the use of thermal inertias of compo-nents such as the battery, the passenger compartment, or thermochemical stor-age systems and to include thermal management in the vehicle energymanagement system

Battery electric vehicles use high-energy batteries to maximize driving range.Today, almost all BEVs use Li-ion batteries with energy densities of up to

150 Wh kg 1 For example, the Volkswagen e-Golf has a battery with a density

of 140 Wh kg 1(230 Wh l 1) and a total energy capacity of 24 kWh at 323 V [2].This results in a total driving range of up to 190 km The driving range is influ-enced by several factors, like driving resistance (e.g., tyre pressure, load, topogra-phy), driving speed pattern (acceleration, velocity), and battery specificparameters like temperature and its state of health The aim to increase theenergy density is therefore a high priority From an automotive point of view,

Table 1.1 Series production battery electric vehicles (Source: manufacturers.)

Parameter Smart fortwo ed Peugeot

iON

Nissan Leaf

BMW i3 VW e-Golf Mercedes

B-Class

Tesla Model S

middle

Lower middle

Lower middle

Lithium ion Lithium ion Lithium ion Lithium ion

the specifications must also cover costs, thermal management, durability, andend-of-life aspects.

Notable technologies today are mostly based on lithium ion batteries but also

on nickel-metal-hydride batteries (e.g., Toyota) and double layer capacitors(supercapacitors) for use in high-power applications (e.g., KERS, heavy duty)(Table 1.2) In BEVs, they could be used as an optional add-on for high-perform-ance applications

Electrochemical high temperature cells (e.g., ZEBRA) are no longer consideredfor most applications in passenger cars due to their critical thermal manage-ment Apart from capacitors, all automotive battery technologies are secondarycells with reversible electrochemical energy conversion, an essential prerequisitefor electric cars

In principle, all of the energy storage technologies presented here are feasiblefor traction application in road vehicles Due to their limited energy and powerdensity, lead-acid batteries only play a role in niche applications and two-wheelvehicles

Electric machines are electromechanical converters, where energy conversiontakes place by means of a force on the mechanical and induced voltage on theelectrical side In principle, every electric machine can be operated as motor or

as a generator For every electric machine, operational limits for speed, torque,and power exist (Figure 1.2) A distinction must be made between nominal val-ues and maximum values Nominal values (MNom, PNom) can be applied perma-nently; maximum values (Mmax, Pmax) only for a short period, otherwisemechanical and thermal failure may occur and affect the durability of themachine [1]

AB 5

Amorphous carbon

Amorphous carbon

Operation of electric machines can be divided into two areas: base load rangeandfield weakening range In the base load range the machine is capable ofdelivering maximum torque (MNomor MMax) at all speeds from standstill Nomi-nal power is then available at nominal speed (nNom):

Equation (1.2) describes the area of constant power, achieved by a weakening ofthe magneticfield

DC machines use DC current to induce an electromagneticfield to drive therotor, whereas AC machines are driven by alternating current Today, almost allmachines used in electric vehicles are synchronous or asynchronous three-phase

AC machines due to their high efficiency (Table 1.3) High efficiency can also beachieved with permanently excited machines, but their permanent magnets areexpensive Transverseflux or reluctance machines combine the characteristics

of the other machine types

Induction (asynchronous) machines (ASM) are powered by electromagneticinduction from the magneticfield in the stator winding The rotation of the mag-neticfield is asynchronous to the operating speed of the machine This is referred

Figure 1.2 Operating range of electric machines [1].

to as the slip of the ASM, and is necessary for torque transfer (Table 1.4) ple vehicles are Tesla’s Roadster and Model S.

Exam-Synchronous motors (SMs) contain three-phase electromagnets and create themagnetic field rotating synchronous to the rotor speed Renault’s Fluence Z.E.uses a synchronous machine as traction motor Permanent magnet synchronousmachines (PSM) contain neodymium magnets or other rare earth magnets tocreate the electromagneticfield Example vehicles are the Smart fortwo electricdrive and the Volkswagen e-Golf

Electrical excitation

Permanent excitation

(synchro-PSM (permanent magnet synchro- nous motor)

SRMPSM (switched reluc- tance motor) TFMPSM (transverse flux motor) HSMPSM (hybrid synchro- nous motor)

Table 1.4 Technical assessment of selected types of electric machines [3].

Model S

Renault ence Z.E.

Flu-Smart two ed

For-BMW i3

the gearbox to direct integration into the gearbox A special configuration is thewheel hub drive, which represents an integration of the electric machine directlyinto the wheel hub This is beneficial with regard to the vehicle package, as dif-ferentials and drive shafts become superfluous, and in view of functionalities thatcan be implemented into the propulsion algorithm, such as ABS, traction con-trol, and torque vectoring However, the higher unsprung mass needs to beaddressed in suspension design Wheel hub motors are not yet deployed in anyseries (passenger) vehicle Integrative solutions featuring lower mass are cur-rently being developed, for example, the Active Wheel system by Michelin with anominal power of 30 kW per wheel and a mass of 7 kg [4].

Electric machines for traction applications in road vehicles are currently tantially more expensive than combustion engines of identical power Synchro-nous machines cost approximately€50 kWmech 1including voltage converter,which is four-time higher than for combustion engines [5]

subs-Drivetrain topologies in battery electric vehicles can consist of twin motorspowering individual wheels to permit versatile control strategies such as torquevectoring for e-differential applications or innovative steering geometries for min-imal turning circles, as seen in the recent SpeedE BEV concept car (Figure 1.3) [6]

It features 400 V twin motors at the rear wheels and a 48 V steer-by-wire systemwith a maximum steering angle of 90°

The SpeedE vehicle also features steering with sidesticks instead of a steeringwheel, which allows for new interior design layouts and innovative operabilityconcepts (Figure 1.4)

Recent BEV developments and market success of some vehicles show that tric vehicles are mature and that they will grow their share in the vehicle

elec-Figure 1.3 Innovative steering sytsem in the SpeedE BEV concept car with twin RWD motors

and torque vectoring (Source: fka.)

population for the foreseeable future R&D progress, especially in battery andmotor technology, will strengthen electric and sustainable mobility.

It may be the new driving experience features that pave the way for even moreEVs in the future, regardless of the drivetrain technology itself X-by-wire, con-nectivity, and user interface novelties will have an impact on the EV marketprospects, since these innovations will need electric energy to function

This underlines the fact that developments for BEVs are not necessarily stoppers for FCEVs but can complement the effort to create clean and sustain-able mobility for the future

show-References

1 Eckstein, L (2010) Alternative Vehicle

Propulsion Systems, Schriftenreihe

Automobiltechnik, Aachen, ISBN:

978-3-940374-33-2.

2 Huslage, J (7 October 2014) The next

generation of automotive batteries!

Presented at World of Energy Solutions,

Stuttgart, Germany, 6 –8 October 2014.

3 Ernst, C (2014) Energetische, ökologische

und ökonomische Lebenszyklusanalyse

elektri fizierter Antriebsstrangkonzepte,

6 Eckstein, L et al (2013) The individually steerable front axle of the research vehicle SpeedE Presented at the Aachen Colloquium Automobile and Engine Technology, Aachen, 7 –9 October 2013.

wheel-Figure 1.4 Minimal turning circle with electric torque vectoring in the SpeedE BEV concept car.

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Passenger Car Drive Cycles

Thomas Grube

Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, IEK-3: Electrochemical Process Engineering,

Leo-Brandt-Strasse, 52425 Jülich, Germany

Keywords: alternative powertrains; drive cycle; well-to-tank analysis

2.1

Introduction

For the assessment of environmental impact and resource use of vehicle and fuelsystems, fuel consumption and air pollutant emissions of vehicles must be deter-mined To achieve reproducible results of respective measurements standardizedtest procedures must be applied This is carried out on the basis of legal regula-tions in many countries Ambient conditions, fuel specifications as well as loadconditions of the vehicles tested are defined here Moreover, a drive cycle thatconsists of time-dependent speed data points or rotational-speed and torquedata points is detailed Special rules may apply for alternative powertrainconfigurations

Fuel Cells: Data, Facts, and Figures, First Edition Edited by Detlef Stolten, Remzi C Samsun,

and Nancy Garland.

 2016 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co KGaA Published 2016 by Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co KGaA.

Besides their application for type approval purposes, drive cycles are usedfor specific tasks in vehicle development and for specific assessments in thefield of energy systems analysis, particularly in tank-to-wheel analyses of roadvehicles.

2.2

Drive Cycles for Passenger Car Type Approval

In the following, relevant examples of up-to-date drive cycles that are used fortype approval procedures are presented The respective speed–time graphs ofthe above-mentioned drive cycles can be found below in Figure 2.2 (numbers1–14) A more comprehensive compilation of in total 256 drive cycles can befound in Barlow et al [1] Moreover, Rakopoulos [2] and Delphi [3] providesummarized information on worldwide vehicle emission standards also includingthe respective drive cycles

The drive cycle that is relevant for type approval of light passenger and mercial vehicles in the European Union is specified in Council Directive 70/

com-220 [4] In the literature it is referred to as the NEDC (New European DriveCycle) or MVEG-B (Motor Vehicle Emissions Group) drive cycle The MVEG-Bdrive cycle consists of two parts that are also separately used: the ECE (Eco-nomic Commission for Europe) drive cycle for urban driving and the ExtraUrban Drive Cycle (EUDC) representing driving at elevated speeds With regula-tion (EC) No 715/2007 of the European Parliament and of the Council [5] theEuropean Commission is asked to review the drive cycle and possibly replace it

“ reflecting changes in vehicle specifications and driver behavior” [5, p L171/172] The proposed new drive cycle for the European Union is the WorldwideHarmonized Light Duty Test Cycle (WLTC)

Drive cycles related to the US Federal (Tier 1-3) and California (Low EmissionVehicle, LEV 1-3) vehicle emissions legislation are the Urban DynamometerDriving Schedule (UDDS), the Federal Test Procedure (FTP), the Highway FuelEconomy Test (HWFET), and the US06 and the SC03 driving cycles US06 andSC03 supplement the FTP with the aim of also including driving with higheraccelerations and higher speeds (US06) and the use of air conditioning(SC03) [6] The FTP drive cycle is basically the UDDS repeating thefirst 505 s

of the UDDS at its end

Vehicle type approval in Japan requires the new drive cycle JC08 that cameinto effect in 2011, replacing the former cycles 11 Mode, known as Cold Cycleand 10–15 Mode known as Hot Cycle These two outdated drive cycles are notshown in Figure 2.2 below

Three examples are given here based on information and data given in ence [7] The research projects MODEM and HYZEM resulted in the definition

Refer-of drive cycle sets on the basis Refer-of monitoringfleets of 58 (MODEM) and 77(HYZEM) cars These cars were operated in France, UK, Germany, and Greece.The total distance covered was more than 160 000 km for the two projects Thesubsequent ARTEMIS project made use of the databases provided by MODEMand HYZEM and included additional data from car monitoring in Italy andSwitzerland The MODEM, HYZEM, and ARTEMIS full drive cycles and therespective sub-cycles can be found in Figure 2.2, numbers 15–26 (see below)

2.4

Drive Cycle Characteristics

Selected parameters that allow for comparison of drive cycles will be presented

in the following The equations used for the calculation of the respective valuesare based on information in Reference [1] and rely on speed–time data points.The time resolution of available drive cycles is typically one second During thistime interval acceleration is considered constant Speed–time values from realdynamometer tests or from dynamic simulations may deviate as the desired val-ues from the drive cycle definitions cannot accurately be followed by real drivers

or by the driver model that is part of a control circuit in dynamic simulations.Basic characteristics of drive cycles are duration, distance, and average speed(see Eqs (2.1)–(2.3)):

km h 1; indices are one-based, that is, thefirst index is one

With increasing average speed, drive cycles can roughly be grouped intourban, extra-urban, or rural and motorway driving Mechanical energy use basi-cally increases with average speed However, urban driving may also show highenergy turnover, if frequency and duration of acceleration periods increase For

Cycle name Duration (s) Distance

(km)

Average speed (km h − 1 )

RPA (m s − 2 )

RNA (m s − 2 )

Relative time stand- ing (%)

durations range from 323 to 3207 s Values for the total distance are between1.7 km (MODEM-slow urban) and 61 km (HYZEM) Average speeds are highfor the MODEM-motorway (102 km h 1) and ARTEMIS-motorway (97 km h 1)cycles and low for the drive cycles MODEM-slow urban (14 km h 1) and ECEand ARTEMIS-urban (both with 18 km h 1).

RPA and RNA values are typically close ARTEMIS-urban (0.34 and 0.28)and MODEM-freeflow urban (0.32 and 0.28) are in the higher range of values.EUDC (0.09 and 0.09) and HWFET (0.09 and 0.07) show comparably lowRPAs and RNAs Interestingly, the ARTEMIS-urban drive cycle with the shortestdistance (4.9 km) and one of the lowest average speeds (18 km h 1) has the over-all highest RPA and RNA (0.34 and 0.28) Other cycles with high RPAs are the

US cycles UDDS, FTP, US06, and SC03 Finally, high shares of standstill periodscan be found for MODEM-slow urban (33%) and JC08 (29%)

Based on passenger car simulations carried out in Reference [8] results for themechanical energy requirements of the drive cycles presented here are displayed

in Figure 2.1 Considering urban driving, it can be seen that for drive cycles withhigh RPAs and RNAs the mechanical energy values are also comparably high Inextra-urban driving ARTEMIS-road, EUDC, and WLTC-high show lowestmechanical energy values due to comparably low average speeds For motorwaydriving the HWFET cycle has the lowest mechanical energy, again due to a lowaverage speed that is here combined with a low RPA

2.5

Graphic Representation of Selected Drive Cycles

Speed–time data points of the selected drive cycles are shown in Figure 2.2 Thefirst part of the figure is dedicated to drive cycles that are part of vehicle type