Ismail Kadare The Writer and the Dictatorship 1957-1990 legenDa leenda , founded in 1995 by the european Humanities Research Centre of the University of Oxford, is now a joint imprint of the Modern Humanities Research association and Routledge Titles range from medieval texts to contemporary cinema and form a widely comparative view of the modern humanities, including works on arabic, Catalan, english, French, german, greek, Italian, Portuguese, Russian, Spanish, and Yiddish literature an editorial Board of distinguished academic specialists works in collaboration with leading scholarly bodies such as the Society for French Studies and the British Comparative literature association The Modern Humanities Research Association ( ) encourages and promotes advanced study and research in the field of the modern humanities, especially modern European languages and literature, including English, and also cinema It also aims to break down the barriers between scholars working in different 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Oxford (Spanish) Professor Paul Garner, University of Leeds (Spanish) Professor Marian Hobson Jeanneret, Queen Mary University of London (French) Professor Catriona Kelly, New College, Oxford (Russian) Professor Martin McLaughlin, Magdalen College, Oxford (Italian) Professor Martin Maiden, Trinity College, Oxford (Linguistics) Professor Peter Matthews, St John’s College, Cambridge (Linguistics) Dr Stephen Parkinson, Linacre College, Oxford (Portuguese) Professor Ritchie Robertson, St John’s College, Oxford (German) Professor Lesley Sharpe, University of Exeter (German) Professor David Shepherd, University of Sheffield (Russian) Professor Michael Sheringham, All Soul’s College, Oxford (French) Professor Alison Sinclair, Clare College, Cambridge (Spanish) Professor David Treece, King’s College London (Portuguese) Managing Editor Dr Graham Nelson 41 Wellington Square, Oxford ox1 2jf, UK legenda@mhra.org.uk www.legenda.mhra.org.uk Ismail Kadare The Writer and the Dictatorship 1957–1990 ❖ Peter Morgan Modern Humanities Research Association and Routledge 2010 First published 2010 Published by the Modern Humanities Research Association and Routledge Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017, USA LEGENDA is an imprint of the Modern Humanities Research Association and Routledge Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © Modern Humanities Research Association and Taylor & Francis 2010 ISBN 978-1-906540-51-7 (hbk) All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, including photocopying, recordings, fax or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the copyright owner and the publisher Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe Contents ❖ Acknowledgements Note on Titles and Place Names Foreword Introduction Kadare’s Albania Albanian History, Culture, and Religion Albanian Communism Socialism, Literature, and Identity in the Soviet Union and Albania The Young Writer and the Regime Beneficiary of Communism Youth and Disillusionment in The City without Signs, 1959–1961 Home Again: The Early 1960s Unmastered Past: The General of the Dead Army, 1962–1963 Threat, Infiltration, and Terror in The Monster, 1965 China and the Albanian Cultural Revolution, 1965–1968 Tradition and Modernity in The Wedding, 1968 Conclusion Maturity and Political Responsibility The Writer and the Dictator ‘Heavy ore of memory’: Chronicle in Stone, 1970 ‘Opening the Doors of the Prison’: Winter of Great Solitude, 1969–1973 The Purge of the Liberals and the End of the Chinese Alliance, 1973–1978 ‘The Red Pashas’, 1974 Exile in the Myzeqe, 1975 The Education of the Writer: Twilight of the Steppe-Gods, 1976 Eternal Albania: The Three-Arched Bridge, 1978 Conclusion Kadare’s Final Political Vision at the End of the Regime Kosovo and the Shehu Affair, Early 1980s ‘The Darkest Phase’: The Palace of Dreams, 1981–1982 Apologia pro vita sua: The Shadow, 1984–1986 Death of the Dictator, 1985 The Wrong Side of History: Aeschylus or the Great Loser, 1985 Signs of Change, Late 1980s Conclusion Postscript: After Socialism Conclusion Chronology Bibliography Index ix xi xv 5 13 20 35 35 42 52 63 81 93 102 107 115 115 121 139 156 161 174 175 189 213 221 221 228 265 280 283 293 298 300 307 311 319 333 to dim it ry moraiti s Acknowledgements v I am indebted to many friends, colleagues, and associates who have helped me over the past five years This is a chance to put my thanks into words Ismail Kadare generously gave his time to me on various occasions in Paris and Tirana Jean-Paul Champseix and Ilir Yzeiri have contributed greatly to my understanding of Kadare, sharing their knowledge of the great writer and his country over years of friendship Professor Em Leslie Bodi and Marian Bodi have provided decades of wise insight into the workings of socialism and into European literature and history Dr Kati Tonkin, a valued colleague, read and commented on various draft chapters The copy-editor, Nigel Hope, made many helpful suggestions Mr Dimitry Moraitis edited and proofread the manuscript In Albania, many have helped me either directly or indirectly in amassing a large amount of information First, I am indebted to those friends and colleagues of Kadare whom I met and interviewed at the beginning of my researches in 2004: Altin Raxhimi, Piro Misha, Remzi Lani, Fatos Lubonja, Artan Puto, Stefan Çapaliku, and Aurel Plasari Lisena Gjebrea adopted me on the plane to Tirana and provided a great deal of help in a new environment as well as valuable advice regarding Albanian usage Mr Piro Misha in Tirana provided help in checking historical and biographical details regarding Kadare’s life and work In France, I have been helped by the organizers of the June 2008 ‘Colloque Kadaré’ in Paris, in particular Véronique Gély, Arianne Eissen, and Jean-Paul Champseix The assistance of Mr Daniel Henrot-Dias in preparing photographs for publication, and Ms Dominique Fusco of Fayard publishers for helpful advice regarding access and copyright In the UK, I thank Dr Anne White, Professor Tim Unwin, Dr Kay Chadwick, Professor Lyndal Roper and Professor Nick Stargardt for valuable discussions In the United States, Professors David Clark and Daniel Simon, editors of World Literature Today, and Professors Ernst Fischer, John Cox, and David Bellos helped with information at various points The indefatigable Robert Elsie’s translations and studies of Albanian literature and culture have been invaluable to researchers throughout the world Dr Elsie’s assistance on matters of Albanian usage and culture is acknowledged with thanks In Australia, Mr Eric Lloga provided advice about Albania; my UWA colleagues, Professors Srilata Ravi, Andrew Hunwick, and Hélène Jaccomard helped with French translations, and Dr Mark Edele with Russian Dr Trevor and Mrs Vi ApSimon offered their country house as a writing retreat for a wonderfully productive month Lastly, my thanks go to Dr Graham Nelson, Managing Editor Bibliography 325 Fortson, Benjamin W., Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction (Oxford: Blackwell, 2004) Fowkes, Ben, The Disintegration of the Soviet Union: A Study in the Rise and Triumph of Nationalism (New York: St Martin’s Press, 1997) Frasheri, Kristo, ‘À l’assaut du pouvoir’, in Combe and Ditchev, eds, 42–52 Garton Ash, Timothy, In Europe’s Name: Germany and the Divided Continent (London: Vintage, 1993) Gashi, Dardan, ‘The House as a Popular Symbol of the Albanians’, in Lubonja and Hodgson, eds, 113–18 Gellner, Ernest, Nationalism (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1997) —— Nations and Nationalism (Oxford: Blackwell, 1983) Goetz-Stankiewicz, Marketa, ed., Good-bye, Samizdat: Twenty Years of Czechoslovak Underground Writing (Evanston, Il.: 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European Origins and Modernity as a Global Condition’, Daedalus, 129 (2000), 31–60 Xanthakou, Margarita, ‘Le voyage du frère mort ou le mariage qui tue’, Etudes rurales, 1997/98, 153–89 Zimmermann, Zora Devrnja, ‘Moral Vision in the Serbian Folk Epic: The Foundation Sacrifice of Skadar’, Slavic and East European Journal, 23 (1979), 317–80 Zotos, Alexandre, De Scanderbeg Ismaïl Kadaré: Propos d’histoire et de littérature albanaises (Saint-Etienne: Publications de l’Université de Saint-Etienne, 1997) index ❖ The English titles of Kadare’s works are used throughout; see pp xi-xiii for corresponding French and Albanian titles References to illustrations are italicized Aeschylus 116, 118, 283–92 Prometheus in Chains 285 The Oresteia 288 The Persians 285 The Seven against Thebes 289 Aesopian language 2, 4 n. 4, 76, 81, 210 Agolli, Dritëro 22, 27, 33 n. 111, 55, 56, 139, 159, 164, 173, 207, 212, 220 n. 180, 252, 258, 263, 282, 303 n. 50, 303 n. 59 Akhmatova, Anna 20 Aksënov, Vasily, Ticket to the Stars 49 Albania 5–28 communism 13–20 early history 7–8 ethnicity 27–28 geography 5–6 Kanun 10 language 6, 8, 26–27 literature under communism 20–23 National Day 76, 77, 78, 80, 81, 280 People’s Assembly 1, 17, 100, 294 People’s Socialist Republic of Albania 160, 316 place names xi religion 5–6, 8–9 Unified Literary Albanian 27 Albanian Democratic Front 31 n. 50, 121, 294, 295, 311, 316 Albanian National Uprising 10–12, 26, 246 Albanian Union of Writers 1, 16, 22, 23, 55, 58, 100, 139, 159, 164–65, 169, 212, 258–59, 281, 282, 297, 303 n. 50, 313, 316 Ali Pasha (Mehmed Emin) 245, 301 n. 16 Ali Pasha (of Tepelena) 8, 9, 10, 70, 153, 190, Alia, Ramiz 19, 54, 83, 138, 142, 148, 149, 157, 159– 60, 167, 214 n. 14, 227, 258, 259, 274, 280, 281, 283, 295, 297, 299, 316, 317 Amery, Julian 309 Andrić, Ivo The Bridge over the Drina 102, 199, 219 n. 149, 230 Andropov, Yuri 40, 142, 227 Arapi, Fatos 22, 56, 172 Arberësh 185 Aron, Raymond 28 Arriverderci Roma 50 Ash, Timothy Garton 294 Bahro, Rudolf 18, 19 Balli Kombëtar (National Front) 13, 14, 136, 311 Balluku, Beqir 158, 159, 160, 315 Balsha clan 195, 196, 197, 202 Bardot, Brigitte, 49, 50 Barletius, Martin, The Siege of Shkodra, 190 Barthes, Roland 28 Bashkimi 204, 295 Battle of Kosovo (1389) 7, 46, 190, 193, 243–44, 251, 257 Baum, Vicki, Menschen im Hotel 131 Bayezid I Bayezid II Beckett, Samuel 28 Bedalli, Asim 159 Bektashism, Bektashi Sufism 8–9, 35, 60, 114 n. 153 Belishova, Liri 37–38, 39, 40, 109 n. 21, 152, 167, 313 Bellos, David 29 Berat 8, 15, 98, 100, 102, 114 n. 142, 136, 138, 244, 262, 314 Berisha, Sali 297, 317 Bertolucci, Bernardo, Last Tango in Paris 216 n. 64 besa (pledge or promise) 10, 114 n. 156, 185–87, 193, 286, 291 Bibũ, Istvỏn 12, 14 Bihiku, Koỗo 55, 62 Bismark, Otto von 12 ‘Bitterfeld Way’ 100 Blloshmi, Vilson 167 Bosnia 9, 211, 225, 230, 236–37, 240, 241–48, 302 n. 23, 302 n. 37, 303 n. 48, 305 n. 99 Brahimi, Riza, ‘Some Problems in our Literature’ 55 Brecht, Bertolt, Arturo Ui 156 Brezhnev, Leonid 22, 94, 160, 227, 265, 314, 316 Bucharest 110 n. 43, 158, 313 Bulgaria 7, 11, 12, 16, 21, 80, 196, 245–46 Butrint 5, 286, 290, Buzuku, Gjon, Missal 46 Byron, Lord, George Gordon 6, 25, 49, 309 Byzantium 8, 195–96, 198 Çajupi, Andon 46, 48, 50 Camus, Albert 38, 158 334 Index ầarỗani, Adil 227, 316 Carey, Professor John xv, xvi n 1, 309 Catholicism 5, 8, 27, 34 n. 122, 46, 61, 164, 167, 193, 204, 205, 206, 315 Ceauşescu, Elena 294 Ceauşescu, Nicolae 221, 294 censorship 3, 4 n. 4, 151, 154, 166, 172–73, 212, 217 n. 111, 262, 288–89 Central Committee of the Albanian Communist Party, committees, congresses, plenums 13, 16, 19, 20, 21, 22, 37, 39, 40, 54, 95, 96, 101–02, 107 n. 49, 109 n. 12, 113 n. 122, 147, 148, 149, 150, 154, 157, 158, 159, 160, 172, 210, 212, 216 n. 81, 217 n. 120, 225, 227, 232, 258–60, 281, 282, 296, 299, 305 n. 97, 311, 312, 314, 315, 316, 317 Cervantes, Miguel de 97 Chameria (Albania) 8, 17 Champseix, Jean-Paul 19, 27, 155, 204, 215 n. 35, 258, 261, 281, 304 Chernenko, Konstantin 227 Chiang Nan-hsiang 94 China 1, 17, 20, 21, 27, 39–40, 53–55, 78, 93–98, 99, 113 n. 117, 113 n. 135, 145, 147, 148, 149, 157, 159, 160, 166, 189, 190, 211, 213, 215 n. 34, 294, 313, 314, 315 Chou En-lai 93, 94, 97, 159, 211, 314 Ciano, Count Galeazzo 264 Civic Forum 294 Como, Maqo 152 Congress of Berlin 245 Congress of Orthography (1972) 27 Constantine and Doruntine (Albanian and Balkan legend) 138, 153, 183, 185–87, 206, 263, 266, 268–72, 274, 276, 278, 279–80, 299 Council of Europe 297, 317 cultural revolution (Albania) 22, 23, 27, 56, 93–97, 102, 103, 148, 157, 190, 262, 314 Cultural Revolution (China) 93–98, 100, 160, 189 Cusack, Dymphna, 109 n. 21 Czechoslovakia 21, 23, 40, 90, 97, 221, 313, 314 Dahrendorf, Ralf 307–08 Dajti, Hotel 63, 77, 112 n. 89 Dante 3, 135, 178, 179 Democratic Front, see Albanian Democratic Front Dilo, Lefter 37 Djilas, Milovan, The New Class 18–19, 111 n. 70, 164 Djukic, Miodrag 83 Doruntine, see Constantine and Doruntine Drita 6, 22, 37, 43, 56, 57, 95, 100, 102, 166, 305 n. 109, 315 Dudintsev, Vladimir, Not by Bread Alone 21, 50, 313 Dukagjin clan 195, 196–97 Dukagjin, Lekë 10 Durand, Claude 29, 260, 265, 266, 280, 301 Duras, Marguerite 28 Durham, Edith M 6, 11, 26, 309 Dürres 194, 195, 312 Et dieu créa la femme 50 Ehrenburg, Ilya, The Thaw 20, 312 Elbasan 6, 136 ‘The Enhancement of the Educational Role of Literature and Art’ 21 Epirus Erasmus, Desiderius, Education of a Christian Prince, Praise of Folly 155 European Union 299, 309 existentialism 42–43, 50, 151 Fadeyev, Aleksandr 176, 189, 218 n. 130 Faulkner, William 28 Fộnelon, Franỗois, Tộlộmaque 155 Fieri 55, 56 Finland 58, 59, 171, 313 Five-Year Plans 16, 53, 94, 97, 312–16 Foreign Literature 20 France 1, 2, 12, 13, 28, 29, 35, 39, 50, 54–55, 65, 115, 120, 139, 141, 150, 155, 168, 169, 171, 183, 190, 212–13, 223, 227, 260–64 passim, 265, 267, 275, 277, 279, 293, 296, 301, 314, 315, 316 Fuchs, Jürgen 308 Fürstenspiegel, ‘mirror for princes’ 155 Gega, Liri 58, 313 Genghis Khan 98 Germany 21, 65, 80, 100, 112 n. 91, 132, 136, 139, 225, 264, 301, 307, 311, 313 Gheg 5, 8, 12, 17, 26, 27, 46 Gjirokastra 6, 8,14, 19, 35–37, 44, 46, 55, 69, 115, 117, 123–24, 125, 130, 136, 139, 141, 175, 182–83, 186, 199, 204, 217 n. 118, 264, 268, 301, 303 n. 50, 311, 315 Goethe, Johann Wolfgang 118 Gogol, Nikolai 82 Golding, William, Lord of the Flies 78 Gorbachev, Mikhail 109 n. 12, 148, 227, 283, 294 Gorki Institute for World Literature 21, 38, 40, 41, 43, 52, 57, 122, 176–79, 180–83, 186, 267, 269, 273, 274, 313 Grand Hotel 131 Great Wall of China 99 Greece 5, 8, 12, 13, 14, 17, 44, 54, 195, 217 n. 121, 245, 284–91, 293, 311, 314, 317 Harapi, Anton 167 Havel, Vaclav 1, 33 n. 107, 294, 296, 307, 309 n. 1 Hazbiu, Kadri 19, 95, 150, 214 n. 23, 225, 227–28, 258, 299, 302 n. 21, 312, 315, 316 Heller, Agnes 18, 23, 42 Hemingway, Ernest 38, 42, 56 Herder, Johann Gottfried 26, 28, 34 n. 128, 58, 170, 179, 205, 246, 268 Hilbig, Wolfgang 265 Index Hobhouse, John Cam, 1st Baron Broughton 25 Hodgson, John 29, 218 n. 145 Homer xv, 64, 86, 89, 92, 112 n. 107, 134, 225, 284, 285, 291–92, 298, 309 Honecker, Erich 294 Hoppe, Hans Joachim 207 Hoxha, Enver 1, 2, 6–29 passim, 35–40, 43, 50, 54–65 passim, 70, 79, 80, 83, 88, 89, 90, 93–97 passim, 100, 102, 105–07, 108 n. 6, 110 n. 53, 111 n. 88, 113 n. 117, 113 n. 122, 113 n. 133, 115–16, 117, 118, 120, 121, 132, 133–34, 138, 139–67, 168–71, 175, 184, 189, 190, 192, 193, 204–13 passim, 217 n. 118, 219 n. 161, 221–28, 230, 258–63 passim, 265, 267, 280–83, 298–301, 304 n. 85, 305 n. 96, 305 n. 97, 307, 308, 311–16 passim ‘The Enhancement of the Educational Role of Literature and Art’ 21 ‘The Further Revolutionization of the Party and the State’ 107 homosexuality 115–16, 120, 141, 220 n. 161, 223 The Khrushchevites 139 ‘Literature and the Arts Should Serve to Temper People with Class Consciousness for the Construction of Socialism’ 22, 105 ‘Report of Enver Hoxha to the Fourth Congress of the PPSh’ 54, 110 n. 49, ‘Salute to the People’ 280–81 Years of Childhood 139, 260 Hoxha, Ilir 19 Hoxha, Nexhmije 15, 19, 37, 38, 58, 109 n. 12, 121, 141, 149–50, 152–54, 164, 167, 171, 214 n. 23, 258–61 passim, 262, 280–94 passim, 297, 299 Hunyadi, John Illyrian civilisation 5–7, 12, 208, 241, 257, 284, 286, 288, 292, 299, 303 n. 54 Illyricum 5–7 Institut de France 293, 316 Institute for the Preservation of the Monuments of Culture 204 Institute of Folklore 103, 106, 204, 315 International Man-Booker Prize for Literature xv, 309, 317 Isai, Hekuran 227, 299 Islam 8–12 passim, 60, 101, 134, 202–03, 239, 241, 242–45 passim Italy 12, 13, 17, 38, 54,56, 64–65, 72, 74, 76, 79, 80, 110 n.49, 156, 185, 216 n. 64, 228, 261, 313, 317 Italo-Albanians (Calabria and Sicily) Janina Jiang Qing 97, 211 Joyce, James 28 Jubani, Zef 22 Jung, Carl Gustav 135 Kadare, Helena 55, 82, 92, 163, 217 n. 114, 263, 313 335 Kadare, Ismail: works: ‘A Bird Flying South’ 264, 316 A Climate of Madness 317 ‘A Tour of the Cafés’ 57 ‘Abolition of the Profession of Curser’ 264, 316 Accident 266, 301, 317 Aeschylus or the Great Loser 3, 10, 57, 90, 116, 121, 283–93, 296, 299, 316 Agamemnon’s Daughter 29, 264, 293, 316 Albanian Spring 128, 198, 282, 295–98, 300, 316 ‘At the Periphery of the Airport’ 58, 313 Autobiography of the People in Verse 205, 223, 225, 241, 315 Bad Season on Olympus 116, 121, 287, 317 ‘Ballad on the Death of J.G’ 316 ‘The Bearer of Bad Tidings’ 264, 316 ‘Before the Bath’ 316 The Black Year 264, 316 ‘The Blinding Order’ 264, 316 ‘The Bringer of Dreams’ 264, 316, 317 Broken April 10, 104, 190–91, 315 The Castle 29, 118, 121, 156, 190, 208, 214 n. 14, 264, 314 Chronicle in Stone 3, 14, 35, 43, 57, 115, 116, 121–39, 141, 156, 161, 175, 183, 188, 199, 211, 213, 214 n.14, 214 n. 17, 220 n. 172, 223, 260, 266, 275, 315 ‘The Church of Saint-Sophia’ 317 ‘The City of the South’ 57 The City without Signs xvi, 3, 9, 25, 42–52, 57, 58, 80, 107, 123, 144, 158, 173, 199, 211, 279, 313 Clair de lune 173, 264, 281, 282, 316 Cold Blood (The Concert) 212, 316 The Concert 3, 97, 144, 147, 154, 192, 211–12, 220 n. 180, 226, 227, 259, 316 Conversations with Eric Faye 316 ‘Cousin of Angels’ 317 Dante, the Irremediable, or Brief History of Albania with Dante Alighieri 293, 305 n. 105, 317 Days of Drink 43, 50–52, 313 ‘Death of a Russian Woman’ 264, 316 Dialogue with Alain Bosquet 43, 317 Doruntine 190, 191, 223, 315 Dreams: Poems 37, 55, 313 The Drum-Skin 102, 103, 314 ‘The Eagle’ 317 ‘Easter Sunday’ 264 Eleven Short Stories 57 ‘The Emperor’ 313 ‘The European Identity of the Albanians’ 309, 317 The File on H 2, 75, 80, 190, 223, 225, 275, 304 n. 83316 The General of the Dead Army 3, 28, 52, 57, 63–82, 93, 107, 112 n. 92, 122, 138, 171, 191, 211, 228, 261, 279, 303 n. 49, 313, 314, 315, 316 ‘Good-Bye to Evil’ 316 336 Index ‘The Grave’ 264 ‘The Great Aeroplane’ 57 ‘The Great Book’ 316 ‘The Great Wall of China’ 98, 317 The Great Winter 25, 28, 39, 57, 78, 80, 121, 134, 139–56, 159, 166, 169, 170, 173, 174, 182, 190, 191, 211–12, 213, 214 n. 14, 216 n. 57, 223, 225, 241, 259, 260, 262, 266, 279, 286, 315 ‘The Hair-Do’ 316 Hamlet, The Impossible Prince 317 ‘The Head’s Journey’ 190 ‘History of the Albanian Writers’ Union Reflected in a Woman’s Mirror’ 317 Invitation to the Writer’s Studio 3, 121–22, 170, 185, 198, 220 n. 161, 300, 316 ‘Knight of the Falcon’ 317 ‘Laocoon’ 57, 93, 112 n. 110 The Life, Game and Death of Lul Mazrek 266, 301, 317 ‘Lost Memories’ 37, 312 Lyrika 37, 313 The Marriage Procession Turned to Ice 2, 223, 316 ‘Men’s Beauty Contest in the Accursed Mountains’ 317 The Monster 3, 57, 80, 81–93, 95, 98, 100, 102, 107, 108, 137, 173, 210, 263, 288, 290, 314 ‘The Morgue’ 264, 316 My Age: Poems 37, 55, 313 The Niche of Shame 70, 136, 190, 217 n. 114, 229, 264, 315 ‘Night of the Sphinx’ 316 ‘The Novel-Killer’ 264 November of a Capital 133, 156, 161, 315, 316 ‘The Nude’ 42–43 58, 101, 313 ‘The Old Cinema’ 111 n. 66 ‘On a Lost Train in the Winter Night’ 58, 97, 314 On the Songs of the Warriors 316 One Dinner too Many 301, 317 The Palace of Dreams xv, 2, 3, 49, 73, 106, 149, 160, 166, 169, 173, 180, 182, 188, 190, 191, 211, 213, 215 n. 38, 223, 224, 228–57, 260, 262, 263, 272, 274, 275, 284, 298, 303 n.49, 316 ‘Preface’: The Songbook of Albanian Epic 223, 241 The Princess Argjiro 37, 313 ‘Prometheus’ 116–21, 139, 285–88, 295, 314 The Pyramid xvi, 57, 98, 300, 316, 317 ‘The Pyramid of Kheops’ 57, 97–98 ‘The Red Pashas’ 3, 62, 161–67, 174, 209, 216 n. 89, 217 n. 114, 259, 262, 315 ‘The Safe’ 264 The Secular Chronicle of the Hankonis 175, 190, 315 The Shadow xvi, 3, 49, 187, 206, 228, 259, 263, 264, 265–80, 292, 298, 299, 301, 303 n. 50, 308, 316 ‘She to whom Misfortune Occurs’ 314 ‘The Sixties’ 57, 140 Smiles on the World 316 Solar Motifs: Poems 37, 314 ‘The Song’ 100–01, 315 ‘The Southern City’ 122, 314 The Southern City: Short Stories and Reportages 122, 214 n. 14 Spiritus 266, 301, 317 Spring Flowers, Spring Frost 29, 301, 317 Stories across Time 57 ‘The Strange Wedding’ 102 ‘Subterranean Passages’ 316 The Successor 29, 293, 301, 317 ‘That Something of Anna might Continue to Live’ 314 ‘That Winter’ 264 ‘The Theft of Royal Sleep’ 317 This Mourning was Necessary to Find Ourselves (Journal of the war in Kosovo) 301, 317 The Three-Arched Bridge 3, 28, 29, 105, 189–211, 218 n. 145, 225, 264, 287, 292, 298, 303 n. 52, 315 Three Elegies for Kosovo 2, 317 Time: Poems 315 ‘The Time of Love’ 316 Time of Silver 317 ‘The Trojan Horse’ 57 The Twilight of the Steppe-Gods 3, 21, 38, 43, 138, 139, 175–89, 190, 210, 211, 213, 266, 267–69, 275, 315 The Weight of the Cross 2, 3, 90, 140, 156, 220 n. 161, 282, 300, 308, 309, 317 ‘What are these mountains thinking about?’ 28, 60–63, 81, 101, 105, 205, 314 The Winter of Great Solitude, see The Great Winter ‘Winter Season at the Cafe Riviera’ 58, 101, 103, 314 Youthful Inspiration: Lyrics 37, 55, 109 n. 9, 312 translation xi, 3–4, 28–29, 93, 102, 107, 139, 169, 212, 214 n.17, 218 n. 145, 262, 302 n. 25 themes: ‘corrective mask’ 138, 141, 154–56, 161, 170, 174, 190, 213, 262 ‘double game’ 24, 207, 212 ‘second chronology’ 167–72, 263, 275, 300, 308 censorship 3, 4 n. 4, 151, 154, 166, 172–73, 209, 212, 217 n. 111, 262, 288, 289, 308 Kafka, Franz xv, 86, 255, 256, 265, 267 The Trial 167–68, 229, 252, 279 The Castle 229, 252 Kanun 10, 61, 67, 68, 74, 101, 104, 107, 190–91, 291–92, 295 Kapo, Hysni 19, 39, 95, 148, 149, 159–60, 167, 214 n. 23, 215 n. 33, 227, 302 n. 21, 315 Kapo, Vito 19 Kastrioti clan 195, 197 Këllezi, Abdyl 93, 94, 159, 313 Index Khrushchev, Nikita Sergeyevich 16, 17, 20–23 passim, 38–40, 42, 53, 58, 80, 84, 94, 109 n. 12, 113 n. 133, 121, 141, 142, 145, 151, 154, 159, 160, 182–84, 189, 270, 313, 314 Kierkegaard, Søren 158 Kissinger, Henry 215 n. 34 Koestler, Arthur, Darkness at Noon 228 Kolli, Rexhep 165, 226 Komneni clan 196, 197, 202 Kondi, Pirro 164 Konessi, Archbishop Damian 204 Kono, Kristo 118 Köprülü dynasty, founded by Mehmed Pasha Köprülü 231, 242, 302n.20, 302n.33 Korỗa 26, 35, 115, 136, 311 Kosovo xi, 2, 5, 8, 12, 13, 14, 17, 115, 191, 205, 221–27, 241, 243, 257, 284, 295, 301, 305 n. 99, 311, 314, 315, 316, 317 Kosta, K 263, 304 n. 68 Krajina 243 Kristo, Pandi 16 Kundera, Milan 267, 292, 305 n. 102 Kurti, Shtjefën 204 Labour Youth Union of Albania (LYUA) 158, 159 La Città si difende 50 Ladontchikov, George Afanasievich 182 Lambertz, Maximilian 241–44 passim Lani, Remzi 296 League of Albanian Writers and Artists 23, 313 League of Lezha (Alessio) Lebedev, Vladimir 21 Leka, Genc 167 Leka, son of King Zog 228 Lenin, Vladimir Ilyich and Marxism-Leninism 4 n. 1, 14, 16–19, 32 n. 75, 48, 50–51, 54, 55, 59, 83, 94, 134, 141, 142, 149, 154, 157, 161, 164, 178, 179, 205 ‘What is to be done’, ‘Party Organization and Party Literature’ 24 Lenz, Siegfried 265 Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim, Emilia Galotti 161 Lettres albanaises 28 Librairie Lamartine 260 Lin Biao 97, 211, 227 Literaturnaya Gazeta 182 Lleshi, Haxhi 17, 227 Lollobrigida, Gina 49, 50 Lord, Albert 223 Lubonja, Fatos 70, 83, 207, 217 n. 115 Lubonja, Todi 56, 57, 142, 148, 149, 159, 167, 173, 315 Lukács, Georg 25, 191, 214 n.19 Macedonia 6, 7, 8, 12, 17, 195, 223, 243, 245, 317 Makine, Andreï, Le Testament franỗais 265 Malcolm, Noel 207, 20910 Malởshova, Sejfulla 23, 33 n. 103 Mamaqi, Dashnor 147, 151 337 Mao Tse-tung 17, 93–97, 102, 113 n. 111, 149, 157, 189, 211–12, 227, 315 Marcuse, Herbert 158 Marx, Karl 19, 24, 88, 118 Marxism, see Lenin Mastroianni, Marcello 228 May, Karl, Among the Shkipetars 309 Mayakowsky, Vladimir 176, 189 Mehmed I 7, 231 Mehmed II Mero, Agim 148, 159 Migjeni 22, 60, 296, 316 Miller, Arthur 50 Milosevic, Slobodan 18, 221 Milosz, Czeslaw 257, 292, 301 Mirdita 8, 10, 193 Mitko, Thimi 22 modernism 20, 22, 38, 42, 43, 170, 180–81, 187, 204, 218 n. 122 modernity, modernization xvi, 1, 2, 10, 11, 13, 19, 20, 25, 37, 42–44, 45, 48, 50, 52, 53, 59, 61, 63, 65, 70, 78–79, 96, 100–01, 102–08, 109 n. 21, 116, 120, 129–39 passim, 148, 160, 166, 194, 196, 198, 199, 202, 206, 213, 219 n. 150, 231, 245, 287, 292, 299, 300, 301 n. 16, 307, 308 Molotov, Vyacheslav 55 Monari, Rudi 159 Monastir Congress (1908) 26 Monroe, Marilyn 50 Montand, Yves 50 Montenegro 11, 12, 192, 240, 243, 245 Montpellier, University of 35, 311 Moscow xv, 1, 13, 37, 38–41, 50, 52, 53, 55, 56, 58, 60, 82, 83, 92, 93, 108, 109 n. 13, 110 n. 43, 122, 141, 142, 144–46, 151, 152, 154, 167, 171, 172, 176, 179, 181, 182, 187, 188, 213, 217 n. 121, 218 n. 124, 230, 267–68, 270, 273–74, 279, 298, 311, 312, 313, 314 Mustafa, Xhevdet 228 Muzaki clan 195 Myftiu, Manush 54 Myzeqe 56, 174, 174, 189, 196, 315 Nadás, Peter, Book of Memories 265 Nano, Fatos 317 National Song Festival, Second (1964) 95 Ndreu, General Dali 58, 313 Nëntori 22, 37, 55, 57, 93, 102, 122, 214 n. 14, 223, 312, 314, 316 New Forum 294 Ngela, Kiỗo 159 Nixon, Richard 149, 157, 211, 215n.34, 315 Noli, Fan 17, 22 nomenklatura 18–20, 25, 26, 29, 32 n. 74 32 n. 75, 38, 43, 52, 55, 78, 82, 101, 145, 147, 161, 166, 173, 176, 182, 183, 213, 256, 262, 263, 265–67, 272 Normans 7, 69, 136 338 Index North Korea 17, 313 Northern Epirus (Greece) 8, 17 Novy Mir 20–21, 181, 312 ‘Open Letter to the APL Central Committee’ 96 Orichum, see Vlora Orthodoxy, Christian (Greek and Serbian) 5, 8, 26, 35, 132, 204, 223, 241, 248 Orwell, George, 19 1984 228, 229, 252, 256–57, 264 Ottoman Empire 5–12 passim, 17, 22, 25–26, 28, 29 n. 6, 46, 51, 65, 69–70, 97–98, 123, 129, 131– 32, 134–36, 138, 175, 188–90, 193, 195–98, 202, 203, 205–06, 208, 209, 213, 229, 231, 235, 237–48, 252–55, 257, 284, 289, 292, 296, 298, 302 n. 33, 302 n. 35, 303 n. 56, 305n.99, 309, 310n.10 Tanzimat 245, 301n.16 Paỗrami, Fadil 149, 159 Palace of Culture (Tirana) 39, 94, 258 Papavrami, Tedi 29 Parry, Milman 223, 242 Party of Labour of Albania (PLA) 16, 40, 94, 96, 100, 157, 160, 170, 207, 294, 297, 299, 305 n. 97, 312–17 passim Pasha Limani, see Vlora Pashko, Josif 19 Pasternak, Boris, Dr Zhivago 21, 32 n. 96, 38, 176, 179, 180–83, 186, 189, 267, 312, 313 Paustovsky, Konstantin 55, 176, 217n.120 Peỗini, L 116 Peng De-huai 93 Piccoli, Michel 228, 260, 277 Pipa, Arshi 26, 27, 122, 207, 209, 214 n. 14, 214 n. 17, 219 n. 161, 223, 225, 301 n. 5, 302 n. 28, 305 n. 99 Pivot, Bernard, Apostrophes, 316, Lire 264 Pogradec, Lake 276 Pomerantsev, Vladimir, ‘On Sincerity in Literature’ 20, 312 Poradeci, Lasgush 60, 167 post-totalitarianism 23, 33 n. 107, 293, 307, 309 n. 1 Prague 58–59, 294 ‘Prague Spring’ 222 Prevesa Pristina, University of 221 Prometheus 116–21, 135, 139, 166, 283, 285, 287–88, 295, 299 Provisional Democratic Government (of Albania) 14, 311 Qafzezi, Leon 174 Qiriazi, Dhori 58 Quotidien de Paris 260 Rada, Jeronim de 241, 302 n. 28, 305 n. 99 Ranković, Aleksandar 221 Rapp, Bernard 207 Rossellini, Roberto, Generale delle Rovere 156 Rowling, J.K 309 Rozafat 102, 105–06, 108, 192, 193, 199, 201 Rumelia 190 Russia, Russian 6, 11, 20, 21, 25, 37, 38, 40, 42, 48, 53, 58, 110 n. 53, 144, 151, 178–79, 181–82, 237, 245, 247, 268, 303 n. 50, 313 Russo-Turkish War (1768) Russo-Turkish War (1877) 11, 245 Sagan, Franỗoise, Bonjour Tristesse 50 Salinger, J D 42 samizdat 181, 218 n. 123 Samoïlov, David 37, 109 n. 9, 172–73, 179, 218 n. 122, 313 San Stefano, Treaty of 11, 245 Saranda 276, 286, 290 Sartre, Jean-Paul 28, 38, 42, 158 Scanderbeg, George Kastriote 7, 10, 70, 118, 136, 153, 157, 185, 208, 246, 314 Scanderbeg Square (Tirana) 76, 78, 157, 230, 258, 314 Schädlich, Hans Joachim 265 Schiller, Friedrich, Kabale und Liebe 161 Schwarz, Steven 207 Securitate (Romania) 295 Sejko, Teme 40, 313 Seneca, De clementia 155 Serbia, Serbian 6, 11, 12, 48, 195, 221, 225, 236, 241, 243–45, 302 n. 23, 302 n. 33, 303 n. 56, 305 n. 99, 317 Shakespeare, William 3, 97, 293, 309 Hamlet 186 Macbeth 135 Richard III 147 Shehu, Bashkim 165, 217 n. 96, 226 Autumn of Fear 115 Shehu, Fiqret 19 Shehu, Mehmet 13, 15, 16, 17, 19, 40, 54, 62, 93, 139, 141, 148, 149, 157, 159–60, 165, 167, 211, 215 n. 33, 221, 224–28, 257–58, 264, 293, 299, 311–16 passim ‘May he live as long as the mountains’ 62 Shelley, Percy Bysshe 118 Shkodra (Skodra) 6, 26, 105, 190, 192, 193, 204, 293 Shkodra Literary Committee 26 Sholokhov, Mikhail 50, 217n.120, Shpallo, Dalan 151, 173 Shtjefởn Gjeỗovi 10 Shuteriqi, Dhimitri 23 Signoret, Simone 50 Sigurimi 139, 149, 150, 164, 165, 169, 173, 214 n. 23, 227, 261–62, 293, 295–97, 302 n. 21, 312 Siliqi, Drago 173 Siliqi, Llazër 56, 174 Sinani, Shaban, 3, 166, 209, 216 n. 89, 258, 317 Sinyavksy (Tertz) and Daniel (Arzhak) 22 Skumbi River Index Skutari (Shkodra) 195 Smiley, David 309 Socialist Party of Albania 317 socialist realism 20, 22, 24–25, 27, 42, 48, 50, 59, 95, 101–05 passim, 108, 116, 123, 137, 138, 151, 155, 158, 176, 182, 186, 188, 259, 312, 314 Solidarity (Solidarność) 294 Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr 1, 24, 33 n. 107, 95, 307, 309 n. 1 One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich 21, 25, 32 n. 96, 313 ‘Song of the Dead Brother’ 185 Soviet Union 14, 16, 17–28 passim, 38–44 passim, 50, 52–59, 62–64, 76, 78–80, 84–85, 90, 92–98, 109 n. 12, 110 n. 43, 113 n. 140, 139–42, 146–53, 157, 159–61, 173, 175–89 passim, 203, 209, 213, 214 n. 11, 217 n. 120, 221–22, 227, 230, 258, 259, 265, 267, 283, 284, 289, 293, 294, 296, 298, 312–16 passim Spiru, Naku 40, 227, 312 Stafa, Qemal 60 Stalin, Josif Vyssarionovich, and Stalinism xv, 1, 2, 14, 16–25 passim, 27, 33 n. 107, 38, 39–40, 43, 50, 52, 56, 59–60, 79, 91, 94–96, 98, 109 n. 12, 111 n. 70, 113 n. 133, 113 n. 140, 138–42, 148–49, 154, 157, 169, 171, 176, 177, 181–83, 205, 209, 214 n. 11, 217 n. 120, 225, 257, 270, 292, 298, 305 n. 99, 307, 309 n. 1, 311–15 passim Strauß, Franz Josef 280 Süleyman I 7, 302 n. 20 Tamerlane 90, 98, 190, Terezi, Heleni 19 Theodhosi, Koỗo 159 Tirana 13, 19, 23, 25, 39, 43, 44, 48, 51, 57, 59, 60, 74, 75, 77, 81, 82, 83, 86, 93, 94, 97, 101–04 passim, 107, 112 n. 89, 113 n. 117, 114 n. 142, 115, 120, 133, 147, 150, 156, 158, 161, 165, 174, 179, 189, 204, 210, 211, 222, 225, 228, 230, 232, 258, 261–62, 265, 266, 267, 273, 280, 297, 311–14 passim, 316 Tirana, University of 26, 37, 158, 312 Tito, Marshal Josip Broz 13, 16, 113 n. 117, 140, 155–56, 157, 221–23, 226, 311–13 passim Topia clan 195, 196, 197, 205 339 Tosk 5, 6, 12, 17, 19, 26, 27, 46, 312 Totalitarianism 23, 33 n. 107, 189, 207, 219 n. 159, 229, 233, 293, 297–98, 305 n. 102, 307, 309 n. 1 Tovoli, Luciano 228, 261 Tozaj, Neshat, The Knives 295, 305 n. 109, 316 Trebeshina, Kasëm 23, 33 n. 104 Tvardovsky, Aleksandr 21 Vadim, Roger 50 Velo, Maks 166, 209 Via Egnatia 7, 195 Vlora (Orichum), Pasha Limani 39, 40, 142, 149, 151, 195, 203, 209, 314 ‘Volare’ (Domenico Modugno and Franco Migliacci) 50 Voltaire, Le taureau blanc 161 Vrioni, Jusuf 28–29, 55, 139, 145, 213 Vukmanović-Tempo, Svetozar 58 Warsaw Treaty Organization 97, 312, 314 Wied, Prince William of, Prince of Albania 12, 205, 264 Winckelmann, Johann Joachim 91 Wolf, Christa 24 Xhaghika, Trifon 167 Xhuvani, Dhimitởr 100 Xoxe, Koỗi 13, 16, 58, 152, 155, 167, 312, 313 Yevtushenko, Yevgeny 50, 95, 182 ‘Stalin’s Heirs’ 21 ‘A Career’ 45, 48–49 Youth League, Sixth Congress (1972) 158 Yugoslav Communist Party 13 Yugoslavia 1, 12, 13, 16–18, 20, 39, 54, 56, 58–59, 62, 80, 83, 93, 96, 111 n. 70, 115, 147, 155, 157, 158, 216 n. 64, 221–27 passim, 241, 257, 293, 305 n. 99, 311–16 Zëri i Popullit 17, 54, 62, 110 n. 43, 157, 159, 204, 311, 314, 315 Zëri i Rinisë 22, 57, 296, 313 Zeus 116, 118–21, 139, 166, 170, 261, 283, 287, 295 Zog I, King, Ahmed Bey Zogu 13, 17, 26, 34 n. 122, 53, 61, 65, 205, 207, 213, 228, 232, 264, 311, 313 ... Solitude, The Great Winter — The Shadow — The Niche of Shame — The Wedding, The Strange Wedding, The Drum-Skin — The Pyramid — The Life, Game and Death of Lul Mazrek — The City without Signs — The. .. Ice — The Twilight of the Steppe-Gods The File on H — The General of the Dead Army — — The Monster The Palace of Dreams The Employee/Official of the Palace of Dreams The Three-Arched Bridge The. .. understanding of, or interest in, the history and culture of the Albanians, they offered no coherent solutions In the absence of the Ottomans and surrounded by Greek and the Slav languages, Tosks and