The Policy Implications of the Neoclassical Perspective

BioMed Central Page 1 of 9 (page number not for citation purposes) Journal of Translational Medicine Open Access Research Of gastro and the gold standard: evaluation and policy implications of norovirus test performance for outbreak detection David N Fisman* 1,3,4,5 , Amy L Greer 3 , George Brouhanski 2 and Steven J Drews 2,6,7 Address: 1 Division of Epidemiology and Surveillance, Ontario Agency for Health Protection and Promotion, Toronto, Canada, 2 Ontario Public Health Laboratories, Ontario Agency for Health Protection and Promotion, Toronto, Canada, 3 Child Health Evaluative Sciences, Research Institute of the Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Canada, 4 Department of Health Policy, Management and Evaluation, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada, 5 Department of Epidemiology, Dalla Lana School of Public Health, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada, 6 Department of Pathobiology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada and 7 Department of Microbiology, Mount Sinai Hospital, Toronto, Canada Email: David N Fisman* - david.fisman@gmail.com; Amy L Greer - amylgreer@yahoo.com; George Brouhanski - george.broukhanski@oahpp.ca; Steven J Drews - steven.drews@oahpp.ca * Corresponding author Abstract Background: The norovirus group (NVG) of caliciviruses are the etiological agents of most institutional outbreaks of gastroenteritis in North America and Europe. Identification of NVG is complicated by the non-culturable nature of this virus, and the absence of a diagnostic gold standard makes traditional evaluation of test characteristics problematic. Methods: We evaluated 189 specimens derived from 440 acute gastroenteritis outbreaks investigated in Ontario in 2006–07. Parallel testing for NVG was performed with real-time reverse- transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT 2 -PCR), enzyme immunoassay (EIA) and electron microscopy (EM). Test characteristics (sensitivity and specificity) were estimated using latent class models and composite reference standard methods. The practical implications of test characteristics were evaluated using binomial probability models. Results: Latent class modelling estimated sensitivities of RT 2 -PCR, EIA, and EM as 100%, 86%, and 17% respectively; specificities were 84%, 92%, and 100%; estimates obtained using a composite reference standard were similar. If all specimens contained norovirus, RT 2 -PCR or EIA would be associated with > 99.9% likelihood of at least one test being positive after three specimens tested. Testing of more than 5 true negative specimens with RT 2 -PCR would be associated with a greater than 50% likelihood of a false positive test. Conclusion: Our findings support the characterization of EM as lacking sensitivity for NVG outbreaks. The high sensitivity of RT 2 -PCR and EIA permit identification of NVG outbreaks with testing of limited numbers of clinical specimens. Given risks of false positive test results, it is reasonable to limit the number of specimens tested when RT 2 -PCR or EIA are available. Published: 26 March 2009 Journal of Translational Medicine 2009, 7:23 doi:10.1186/1479-5876-7-23 Received: 6 September 2008 Accepted: 26 March 2009 This article is available from: http://www.translational-medicine.com/content/7/1/23 © 2009 Fisman et al; licensee BioMed Central Ltd. This is an Open Access article distributed The Policy Implications of the Neoclassical Perspective The Policy Implications of the Neoclassical Perspective By: OpenStaxCollege To understand the policy recommendations of the neoclassical economists, it helps to start with the Keynesian perspective Suppose a decrease in aggregate demand causes the economy to go into recession with high unemployment The Keynesian response would be to use government policy to stimulate aggregate demand and eliminate the recessionary gap The neoclassical economists believe that the Keynesian response, while perhaps well intentioned, will not have a good outcome for reasons we will discuss shortly Since the neoclassical economists believe that the economy will correct itself over time, the only advantage of a Keynesian stabilization policy would be to speed up the process and minimize the time that the unemployed are out of work Is that the likely outcome? Keynesian macroeconomic policy requires some optimism about the ability of the government to recognize a situation of too little or too much aggregate demand, and to adjust aggregate demand accordingly with the right level of changes in taxes or spending, all enacted in a timely fashion After all, neoclassical economists argue, it takes government statisticians months to produce even preliminary estimates of GDP so that politicians know whether a recession is occurring—and those preliminary estimates may be revised substantially later Moreover, there is the question of timely action The political process can take more months to enact a tax cut or a spending increase; the amount of those tax or spending changes may be determined as much by political considerations as economic ones; and then the economy will take still more months to put changes in aggregate demand into effect through spending and production When all of these time lags and political realities are considered, active fiscal policy may fail to address the current problem, and could even make the future economy worse The average U.S post-World War II recession has lasted only about a year By the time government policy kicks in, the recession will likely be over As a consequence, the only result of government fine-tuning will be to stimulate the economy when it is already recovering (or to contract the economy when it is already falling) In other words, an active macroeconomic policy is likely to exacerbate the cycles rather than dampen them Indeed, some neoclassical economists believe a large part of the business cycles we 1/12 The Policy Implications of the Neoclassical Perspective observe are due to flawed government policy To learn about this issue further, read the following Clear It Up feature Why and how are inflation expectations measured? People take expectations about inflation into consideration every time they make a major purchase, such as a house or a car As inflation fluctuates, so too does the nominal interest rate on loans to buy these goods The nominal interest rate is comprised of the real rate, plus an expected inflation factor Expected inflation also tells economists about how the public views the direction of the economy Suppose the public expects inflation to increase This could be the result of positive demand shock due to an expanding economy and increasing aggregate demand It could also be the result of a negative supply shock, perhaps from rising energy prices, and decreasing aggregate supply In either case, the public may expect the central bank to engage in contractionary monetary policy to reduce inflation, and this policy results in higher interest rates If, on the other hand, inflation is expected to decrease, the public may anticipate a recession In turn, the public may expect expansionary monetary policy, and the lowering of interest rates, in the short run By monitoring expected inflation, economists garner information about the effectiveness of macroeconomic policies Additionally, monitoring expected inflation allows for projecting the direction of real interest rates that isolate for the effect of inflation This information is necessary for making decisions about financing investments Expectations about inflation may seem like a highly theoretical concept, but, in fact, inflation expectations are measured by the Federal Reserve Bank based upon early research conducted by Joseph Livingston, a financial journalist for the Philadelphia Inquirer In 1946, he started a twice-a-year survey of economists about their expectations of inflation After Livingston's death in 1969, the survey was continued by the Federal Reserve Bank and other economic research agencies such as the Survey Research Center at the University of Michigan, the American Statistical Association, and the National Bureau of Economic Research Current research by the Federal Reserve compares these expectations to actual inflation that has occurred, and the results, so far, are mixed Economists' forecasts, however, have become notably more accurate in the last few ...Please cite this paper as: Tothova, M. (2009), “The Trade and Trade Policy Implications of Different Policy Responses to Societal Concerns”, OECD Food, Agriculture and Fisheries Working Papers, No. 20, OECD Publishing. doi: 10.1787/221782147025 OECD Food, Agriculture and Fisheries Working Papers No. 20 The Trade and Trade Policy Implications of Different Policy Responses to Societal Concerns Monika Tothova * JEL Classification: Q01, Q10, Q17, Q18, Q19, Q5 * OECD, France THE TRADE AND TRADE POLICY IMPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENT POLICY RESPONSES TO SOCIETAL CONCERNS 1 Abstract Societal concerns as they pertain to farming activities play an important role today in the development of national policies. How such concerns are perceived varies from one society to another as do the policy responses (economic instruments and regulations) that governments put in place. These policy responses have in turn implications for trade and international relations. This study examines a number of issues that are part of the current debate and how these are addressed at the domestic level as well as within the framework of applicable provisions of WTO agreements. Keywords : agriculture, international trade, production methods, sanitary and phytosanitary measures JEL codes : Q01, Q10, Q17, Q18, Q19, Q5 THE TRADE AND TRADE POLICY IMPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENT POLICY RESPONSES TO SOCIETAL CONCERNS 2 TABLE OF CONTENTS Executive Summary 4 Part I. The Framework: Definitions and Fundamentals 9 What are ―societal concerns‖? 9 Ethical dimensions 12 A categorisation of societal concerns 14 Part II. The Rationale for Policy Intervention 19 A framework of possible domestic policy responses 20 Domestic policy responses by type of societal concern 24 Asymmetric and missing information 29 Part III. Domestic Policy Responses in the Context of Relevant WTO Provisions 32 Societal concerns across countries 32 Trade policy implications of differing regulations across countries 32 Relevant WTO provisions 34 Product and process related measures 36 Trade policy strategies related to specific regulations 37 Part IV. Conclusions 40 Annex I. The basis for exemption from the reduction commitments 43 Annex II. Comparisons of various measures: animal welfare 46 Annex III. A conceptual framework for the analysis of PPMs, environmental impacts, PPM-based trade measures 47 References 51 Boxes Box 1. Excerpt from the revised draft of OECD Programme of Work and Budget 2005-06 7 Box 2. Scientific justification versus precaution 11 Box 3. Consumer demand for organic foods: attitudes, values and purchasing behaviour 17 Box 4. Transfers of property rights 22 Box 5. The general exceptions of GATT Article XX 35 THE TRADE AND TRADE POLICY IMPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENT POLICY RESPONSES TO SOCIETAL CONCERNS 3 Abbreviations AoA Agreement on Agriculture (of the Uruguay Round) GATS General Agreement on Trade in Services GATT General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change MEA Multilateral Environmental Agreement MFN Most Favoured Nation MRA Mutual Recognition Agreements OIE World Organisation for Animal Health PPM Process and Production Methods SCM Subsidies and Countervailing Measures SPS Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures TBT Technical Barriers to Trade TRIPS Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights WTO World Trade Organisation THE TRADE AND TRADE POLICY IMPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENT POLICY RESPONSES TO SOCIETAL CONCERNS 4 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY This study attempts to describe and summarise the main issues in the debate concerning the interface between domestic policies that respond to societal concerns related to farming activities and their trade and trade policy implications. Governments are increasingly called upon to respond to a variety of concerns raised by society in many areas. Societal concerns embody society‘s expectations Glasgow Theses Service http://theses.gla.ac.uk/ theses@gla.ac.uk Doran, Selina Evelyn Margaret (2014) News media constructions and policy implications of school shootings in the United States. PhD thesis. http://theses.gla.ac.uk/5298/ Copyright and moral rights for this thesis are retained by the author A copy can be downloaded for personal non-commercial research or study, without prior permission or charge This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the Author The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the Author When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given. 1 News Media Constructions and Policy Implications of School Shootings in the United States. Selina Evelyn Margaret Doran Master of Research (Social Research) BA Hons. (Journalism and Creative Writing and Sociology) Submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy School of Social and Political Sciences College of Social Sciences University of Glasgow April 2014 2 Abstract This thesis focuses on ‘school shootings’ in the United States. Examined here are the news media constructions and public reactions to such incidents, as they pertain to scholarly conceptualisations of fear, moral panics and vulnerability; as well policy responses relating to emergency management in educational institutions and gun-related legislative proposals and actions. Current literature in the field defines ‘school shootings’ as a particular type of ‘spree’ or ‘mass’ killing, involving the murder or attempted murder of students and staff at an education institution. This phenomenon is most prolific in the United States. Two case studies were selected from a list of possible incidents based on their high profile news media coverage, policy impact and infamous natures. The examples used are the school shootings at Columbine High School, Colorado (1999) and Virginia Polytechnic University, Virginia (2007); although the developments provoked by the 2012 Sandy Hook Elementary School, Connecticut shooting are noted throughout. The objectives of the research are: exploring the effect of my two case studies on reshaping or entrenching current moral panic and fear debates; whether the two shootings have transformed emergency management and communication practices; the role that fear plays in the concealed carry on campus movement which arose after the Virginia Tech incident; surmising about which gun-related legislative actions are possible in future. Employed here is a theoretical framework pertaining to moral panics, fear of crime risk management, and framing of news media and policy. My methodological approach was qualitative in nature. A total of 14 interviews were conducted with experts in gun violence prevention, and emergency management and communication. Ethnographic research was carried out in the form of participant observations at a school safety symposium and a gun reform activism event. Content and critical discourse analyses were employed to assess 728 news media articles, 286 letters to the editor, comments from 32 YouTube videos, 14 policy documents and 10 public opinion polls. My original contribution to knowledge is the examination of policies that have not received much scholarly attention to date: emergency management plans, training, operation and communications to deal with the possibility of a school shooting incident occurring; the ‘concealed carry on campus’ movement, where students lobby to carry firearms in higher education institutions as a way to negate potential threats. Relatively uncharted territory in fear of crime research was embarked upon with an examination of INFORMATION CONTENT AND POLICY IMPLICATIONS OF STOCK SPLITS NEW EVIDENCE FROM THE SAUDI ARABIAN CAPITAL MARKET Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Information Content and Policy Implications of Stock Splits: New Evidence from the Saudi Arabian Capital Market A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy By Ali Mofarreh Ali Serhan May 2005 University of Arkansas Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. UMI N um ber: 3201536 C o pyright 2005 by Serhan, Ali M ofarreh Ali A ll rights reserved. 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Further reproduction prohibited without permission. © 2005 by Ali Mofarreh Serhan All Rights Reserved Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. This dissertation is honorably dedicated to my parents. iv Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Above all, all praises and thanks are due to Allah, the most merciful and the most gracious, the lord of mankind, who blessed me with his guidance, boundless bounties, ample mercy, and endless help and support. I am sincerely very thankful to him for his favors upon me in my life and throughout my educational journey. In him I trust. My parents deserve a special and sincere acknowledgement for keeping their hearts attached to me and my family overseas. Without their permanent support, patience, concerns, and constant prayers, I would not be able to attain my goals. During my academic journey that ultimately led to finishing this dissertation, there were many people who have made significant contributions to its success, and they deserve acknowledgement and appreciation. I am highly indebted to my dissertation advisor and committee chair, Professor Carolyn M. Callahan, for her profound insights, constructive ideas and valuable inputs, encouragement and support, concern about me and my family, and professional mentorship not only in my dissertation stage but also during my entire doctoral program. I am also grateful to the other members of my dissertation advisory committee, Professor Gary D. Ferrier, and Professor Rodney E. Smith for their valuable inputs, encouragement, and support. Though words are truly inadequate in capturing her real sacrifice, my wife, Nourah, deserves sincere thanks and great appreciation for her tireless support, assistance, patience, and sharing my pleasure and my pressure. My dissertation would have never been accomplished without her. Sincere thanks also go to my children Adel, Abdulkareem, Sarah, Hassan, Omar, Malik, and Yunis for their patience and sympathy. v Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited Policy Implications of the Computed Tomography (CT) Scanner November 1978 NTIS order #PB81-163917 Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 78-600078 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S Government Printing Office Washington, D.C 20402 ii FOREWORD This study, Policy Implications of the Computed Tomography (CT) Scanner, was requested by the Senate Committee on Finance and the Senate Committee on Human Resources It examines the CT scanner, an expensive, new diagnostic device that combines X-ray and computer equipment The CT scanner has been rapidly and enthusiastically accepted by the medical community in this country since its introduction in 1973 It is a medical technology whose development and use illustrate many important issues of health policy The Senate Committee on Finance requested the Office of Technology Assessment (OTA) to consider such aspects of the CT scanner as “its usefulness, its costs, its effect on medical care delivery patterns, and ways to improve planning affecting such devices ” The Senate Committee on Human Resources requested OTA “to examine current Federal policies and current medical practices to determine whether a reasonable amount of justification should be provided before costly new medical technologies and procedures are put into general use ” The Committee specifically asked that issues of efficacy and safety be addressed: “Before new drugs can be used, proof of efficacy and safety must be provided However, no such legal requirement applies to other new technologies ” The study was conducted by staff of the OTA Health Program with the assistance of the OTA Health Program Advisory Committee The resulting report is a synthesis and does not necessarily reflect the position of any individual In accordance with its mandate to provide unbiased information to Congress, OTA has attempted in this report to present information accurately and to analyze that information objectively The report contains no recommendations, but instead identifies a range of alternative policies for consideration by Congress The views expressed in this report are not necessarily those of the OTA Board, the OTA Advisory Council, or their individual members RUSSELL W PETERSON Director Office of Technology Assessment 111 — OTA HEALTH PROGRAM STAFF H David Banta, Study Director (until December 1977) Jane Sisk Willems, Study Director (from May 1978) Other Research Staff Clyde J Behney, Theresa A Lukas, Joshua R Sanes Administrative Staff Debra Datcher, Patricia Gomer, Ellen Harwood, Laurence S Kirsch, Elizabeth Price Carole Stevenson, Cheryl Sullivan Carl A Taylor, Program Manager (until May 1978) Gretchen Kolsrud, Acting Program Manager OTA PUBLISHING STAFF John C Holmes, Publishing Officer Kathie S Boss Joanne Heming OTA HEALTH PROGRAM ADVISORY COMMITTEE Frederick C Robbins, Chairman Dean, School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University Stuart H Altman Dean Florence Heller School Brandeis University Robert M Ball Senior Scholar Institute of Medicine National Academy of Sciences Sidney S Lee Associate Dean Community Medicine McGill University C Frederick Mosteller Professor Department of Statistics Harvard University Bernard Barber Professor Department of Sociology Barnard College Columbia University Rashi Fein Professor of the Economics of Medicine Center for Community Health and Medical Care Harvard Medical School Melvin A Glasser Director Social Security Department United Auto Workers Judith R Lave Associate Professor School of Urban and Public Affairs Carnegie-Mellon University Helen Ewing Nelson Director Center for Consumer Affairs University of Wisconsin-Extension Anthony Robbins Executive Director Department of Health State of Colorado Charles A Sanders General Director Massachusetts General Hospital Kerr L White Chairman U.S National Committee on Vital and Health Statistics CONTENTS Page Chapter 2, SUMMARY Findings ... The Policy Implications of the Neoclassical Perspective The Neoclassical Phillips Curve Tradeoff The Keynesian Perspective introduced the Phillips curve and explained how it is derived from the. .. out to the right 10/12 The Policy Implications of the Neoclassical Perspective In the short run, it is possible to have unemployment slightly below the natural rate for a time, at a price of higher... costs, either Think about [link] in reverse, as the aggregate demand curve shifts from AD2 to AD1 to AD0, and the equilibrium moves 7/12 The Policy Implications of the Neoclassical Perspective