Development and Aging of the Endocrine System

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Presence and regulation of the endocannabinoid system in human dendritic cells Isabel Matias 1 , Pierre Pochard 2 , Pierangelo Orlando 3 , Michel Salzet 4 , Joel Pestel 2 and Vincenzo Di Marzo 1 1 Endocannabinoid Research Group, 1 Istituto di Chimica Biomolecolare, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Comprensorio Olivetti, Pozzuoli (Napoli), Italy; 2 Inflammatory Reaction and Allergic diseases Department, INSERM unit, Pasteur Institute, Lille, France; 3 Istituto di Biochimica delle Proteine ed Enzimologia, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Comprensorio Olivetti, Pozzuoli (Napoli), Italy; 4 Laboratoire de Neuroimmunite ´ des Anne ´ lides, UMR 8017 CNRS, Universite ´ des Sciences et Technologies de Lille, Villeneuve d’Ascq, France Cannabinoid receptors and their endogenous ligands, the endocannabinoids, have been detected in several blood immune cells, including monocytes/macrophages, basophils and lymphocytes. However, their presence in dendritic cells, which play a key role in the initiation and development of the immune response, has never been in- vestigated. Here we have analyzed human dendritic cells for the presence of the endocannabinoids, anandamide and 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG), the cannabinoid CB 1 and CB 2 receptors, and one of the enzymes mostly responsible for endocannabinoid hydrolysis, the fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH). By using a very sensitive liquid chromatography-atmospheric pressure chemical ioniza- tion-mass spectrometric (LC-APCI-MS) method, lipids extracted from immature dendritic cells were shown to contain 2-AG, anandamide and the anti-inflammatory anandamide congener, N-palmitoylethanolamine (PalEtn) (2.1 ± 1.0, 0.14 ± 0.02 and 8.2 ± 3.9 pmolÆ10 )7 cells, respectively). The amounts of 2-AG, but not anandamide or PalEtn, were significantly increased following cell maturation induced by bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS) or the allergen Der p 1 (2.8- and 1.9-fold, respectively). By using both RT-PCR and Western immunoblotting, den- dritic cells were also found to express measurable amounts of CB 1 and CB 2 receptors and of FAAH. Cell maturation did not consistently modify the expression of these pro- teins, although in some cell preparations a decrease of the levels of both CB 1 and CB 2 mRNA transcripts was observed after LPS stimulation. These findings demon- strate for the first time that the endogenous cannabinoid system is present in human dendritic cells and can be regulated by cell activation. Keywords: anandamide; 2-arachidonoylglycerol; cannabi- noid; receptor; fatty acid amide hydrolase. The D 9 -tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), the major psychoac- tive component of Cannabis sativa, has been reported to have beneficial effects on the treatment of nausea, glauco- ma, hypertension, migraine, neurological disorders (i.e. epilepsy, Huntington’s disease, Tourette’s syndrome, dys- tonia and Parkinson’s disease) and pain [1], and to play a down-regulatory role on the immune system [2]. Indeed, cannabinoids exhibit immunosuppressive properties and in vitro they weaken humoral immunity [3,4], cell-mediated immunity [5,6] and cellular defenses against infectious agents [7,8]. A modulation of the cytokine network and a decrease of T- and B-cell proliferation have been described in vitro [9]. A reduction of the cytolytic activity of natural killer cells and of antigen presentation was also observed, again in vitro [9]. The endocannabinoid system, comprising membrane receptors Development and Aging of the Endocrine System Development and Aging of the Endocrine System Bởi: OpenStaxCollege The endocrine system arises from all three embryonic germ layers The endocrine glands that produce the steroid hormones, such as the gonads and adrenal cortex, arise from the mesoderm In contrast, endocrine glands that arise from the endoderm and ectoderm produce the amine, peptide, and protein hormones The pituitary gland arises from two distinct areas of the ectoderm: the anterior pituitary gland arises from the oral ectoderm, whereas the posterior pituitary gland arises from the neural ectoderm at the base of the hypothalamus The pineal gland also arises from the ectoderm The two structures of the adrenal glands arise from two different germ layers: the adrenal cortex from the mesoderm and the adrenal medulla from ectoderm neural cells The endoderm gives rise to the thyroid and parathyroid glands, as well as the pancreas and the thymus As the body ages, changes occur that affect the endocrine system, sometimes altering the production, secretion, and catabolism of hormones For example, the structure of the anterior pituitary gland changes as vascularization decreases and the connective tissue content increases with increasing age This restructuring affects the gland’s hormone production For example, the amount of human growth hormone that is produced declines with age, resulting in the reduced muscle mass commonly observed in the elderly The adrenal glands also undergo changes as the body ages; as fibrous tissue increases, the production of cortisol and aldosterone decreases Interestingly, the production and secretion of epinephrine and norepinephrine remain normal throughout the aging process A well-known example of the aging process affecting an endocrine gland is menopause and the decline of ovarian function With increasing age, the ovaries decrease in both size and weight and become progressively less sensitive to gonadotropins This gradually causes a decrease in estrogen and progesterone levels, leading to menopause and the inability to reproduce Low levels of estrogens and progesterone are also associated with some disease states, such as osteoporosis, atherosclerosis, and hyperlipidemia, or abnormal blood lipid levels 1/3 Development and Aging of the Endocrine System Testosterone levels also decline with age, a condition called andropause (or viropause); however, this decline is much less dramatic than the decline of estrogens in women, and much more gradual, rarely affecting sperm production until very old age Although this means that males maintain their ability to father children for decades longer than females, the quantity, quality, and motility of their sperm is often reduced As the body ages, the thyroid gland produces less of the thyroid hormones, causing a gradual decrease in the basal metabolic rate The lower metabolic rate reduces the production of body heat and increases levels of body fat Parathyroid hormones, on the other hand, increase with age This may be because of reduced dietary calcium levels, causing a compensatory increase in parathyroid hormone However, increased parathyroid hormone levels combined with decreased levels of calcitonin (and estrogens in women) can lead to osteoporosis as PTH stimulates demineralization of bones to increase blood calcium levels Notice that osteoporosis is common in both elderly males and females Increasing age also affects glucose metabolism, as blood glucose levels spike more rapidly and take longer to return to normal in the elderly In addition, increasing glucose intolerance may occur because of a gradual decline in cellular insulin sensitivity Almost 27 percent of Americans aged 65 and older have diabetes Chapter Review The endocrine system originates from all three germ layers of the embryo, including the endoderm, ectoderm, and mesoderm In general, different hormone classes arise from distinct germ layers Aging affects the endocrine glands, potentially affecting hormone production and secretion, and can cause disease The production of hormones, such as human growth hormone, cortisol, aldosterone, sex hormones, and the thyroid hormones, decreases with age Review Questions The anterior pituitary gland develops from which embryonic germ layer? oral ectoderm neural ectoderm mesoderm endoderm A In the elderly, decreased thyroid function causes 2/3 Development and Aging of the Endocrine System increased tolerance for cold decreased basal metabolic rate decreased body fat osteoporosis B Critical Thinking Questions Distinguish between the effects of menopause and andropause on fertility Menopause occurs as the result of a progressive decline in the function of the ovaries, resulting in low estrogen and progesterone levels Ovulation ceases, and postmenopausal woman can no longer conceive a child In contrast, andropause is a much more gradual and subtle decline in testosterone levels and functioning A man typically maintains ...Aging of the Respiratory System: Impact on Pulmonary Function Tests and Adaptation to Exertion Jean-Paul Janssens, MD Outpatient Section of the Division of Pulmonary Diseases, Geneva University Hospital, 1211 Geneva 14, Switzerland Life expectancy has risen sharply during the past century and is expected to continue to rise in virtually all populations throughout the world. In the United States population, life expectancy has risen from 47 years in 1900 to 77 in 2001 (74.4 for the male and 79.8 for the female population) [1]. The proportion of the population over 65 years of age currently is more than 15% in most developed countries and is ex- pected to reach 20% by the year 2020. Healthy life expectancy, at the age of 60, is at present 15.3 years for the male population and 17.9 years for the female population [2]. These demographic changes have a major impact on health care, financially and clini- cally. Awareness of the basic changes in respiratory physiology associated with aging and their clinical implication is important for clinicians. Indeed, age- associated alterations of the respiratory system tend to diminish subjects’ reserve in cases of common clinical diseases, such as lower respiratory tract in- fection or heart failure [3,4]. This review explores age-related physiologic changes in the respiratory system and their conse- quences in respiratory mechanics, gas exchange, and respiratory adaptation to exertion. Structural changes in the respiratory system related to aging Most of the age-related functional changes in the respiratory system resul t from three physiologic events: progressive decrease in compliance of the chest wall, in static elastic recoil of the lung (Fig. 1), and in strength of respiratory muscles. Age-associated changes in the chest wall Estenne and colleagues measured age-related changes in chest wall compliance in 50 healthy subjects ages 24 to 75: aging was associated with a significant decrease (À31%) in chest wall compli- ance, involving rib cage (upper thorax) compliance and compliance of the diaphragm-abdomen compart- ment (lower thorax) [5]. Calcifications of the costal cartilages and chondrosternal junctions and degenera- tive joint disease of the dorsal spine are common radiologic observations in older subjects and contrib- ute to chest wall stiffening [6]. Changes in the shape of the thorax modify chest wall mechanics; age- related osteoporosis results in partial (wedge) or complete (crush) vertebral fractures, leading to increased dorsal kyphosis and anteroposteriordi- ameter (barrel chest). Indeed, prevalence of vertebral fractures in the elderly population is high and increases with age; in Europe, in female subjects over 60, the prevalence of vertebral fractures is 16.8% in the 60 to 64 age group, increasing to 34.8% in the 75 to 79 age group [7]. Men also show an increase in vertebral fractures with age, but rates are approximately half those of the female population [8]. A study of 100 chest radiographs of subjects ages 75 to 93 years, without cardiac or pulmonary dis- orders, illustrates the frequency of dorsal kyphosis in this age group: [...]... momentum and the Proto-planet Theory 7.3.2 Angular momentum and the Modern Laplacian and Solar Nebula Theories 7.3.3 Angular momentum and the Capture Theory 7.3.4 Angular momentum and the Accretion Theory The spin axes of the Sun and the planets 7.4.1 Spin axes and the Solar Nebula Theory 7.4.2 Spin axes and the Modern Laplacian Theory 7.4.3 Spin axes and the Accretion Theory 7.4.4 Spin axes and the Proto-planet... analysed The only theory to essay a complete picture of the origin and evolution of the solar system is the Capture Theory developed by the author and colleagues since the early 1960s This explains the basic structure of the solar system in terms of well-understood mechanisms that have a nite probability of having occurred The way in which planets form, and the way that their orbits originate and evolve... planets A and B 237 237 237 242 243 244 245 246 9 The Moon 9.1 The origin of the EarthMoon system 9.1.1 The ssion hypothesis 9.1.2 Co-accretion of the Earth and the Moon 9.1.3 Capture of the Moon from a heliocentric orbit 9.1.4 The single impact theory 9.1.5 The EarthMoon system from a planetary collision 9.2 The chemistry of the Earth and the Moon and formation of the Moon 9.2.1 Possible models of Moon... is the line of intersection of the orbital plane with the ecliptic This line is called the line of nodes; the point on the line where the orbit crosses the ecliptic going from south to north is the ascending node and the descending node where it goes from north to south 6 BioMed Central Page 1 of 10 (page number not for citation purposes) Health and Quality of Life Outcomes Open Access Research Development and validation of the Brazilian version of the Attitudes to Aging Questionnaire (AAQ): An example of merging classical psychometric theory and the Rasch measurement model Eduardo Chachamovich* 1,2 , Marcelo P Fleck †1 , Clarissa M Trentini †1 , Ken Laidlaw †2 and Mick J Power †2 Address: 1 Post-Graduate Program of Psychiatry, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil and 2 Section of Clinical and Health Psychology, University of Edinburgh, UK Email: Eduardo Chachamovich* - echacha.ez@terra.com.br; Marcelo P Fleck - mfleck.voy@terra.com.br; Clarissa M Trentini - clarissatrentini@terra.com.br; Ken Laidlaw - klaidlaw@ed.ac.uk; Mick J Power - mjpower@ed.ac.uk * Corresponding author †Equal contributors Abstract Background: Aging has determined a demographic shift in the world, which is considered a major societal achievement, and a challenge. Aging is primarily a subjective experience, shaped by factors such as gender and culture. There is a lack of instruments to assess attitudes to aging adequately. In addition, there is no instrument developed or validated in developing region contexts, so that the particularities of ageing in these areas are not included in the measures available. This paper aims to develop and validate a reliable attitude to aging instrument by combining classical psychometric approach and Rasch analysis. Methods: Pilot study and field trial are described in details. Statistical analysis included classic psychometric theory (EFA and CFA) and Rasch measurement model. The latter was applied to examine unidimensionality, response scale and item fit. Results: Sample was composed of 424 Brazilian old adults, which was compared to an international sample (n = 5238). The final instrument shows excellent psychometric performance (discriminant validity, confirmatory factor analysis and Rasch fit statistics). Rasch analysis indicated that modifications in the response scale and item deletions improved the initial solution derived from the classic approach. Conclusion: The combination of classic and modern psychometric theories in a complementary way is fruitful for development and validation of instruments. The construction of a reliable Brazilian Attitudes to Aging Questionnaire is important for assessing cultural specificities of aging in a transcultural perspective and can be applied in international cross-cultural investigations running less risk of cultural bias. Background The world is experiencing a profound and irreversible demographic shift as older people are living longer and healthier than ever before [1,2]. The world's older adult Published: 21 January 2008 Health and Quality of Life Outcomes 2008, 6:5 doi:10.1186/1477-7525-6-5 Received: 18 June 2007 Accepted: 21 January 2008 This article is available from: http://www.hqlo.com/content/6/1/5 © 2008 Chachamovich et al; licensee BioMed Central Ltd. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0 ), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in BioMed Central Page 1 of 10 (page number not for citation purposes) Health and Quality of Life Outcomes Open Access Research Development and validation of the Brazilian version of the Attitudes to Aging Questionnaire (AAQ): An example of merging classical psychometric theory and the Rasch measurement model Eduardo Chachamovich* 1,2 , Marcelo P Fleck †1 , Clarissa M Trentini †1 , Ken Laidlaw †2 and Mick J Power †2 Address: 1 Post-Graduate Program of Psychiatry, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil and 2 Section of Clinical and Health Psychology, University of Edinburgh, UK Email: Eduardo Chachamovich* - echacha.ez@terra.com.br; Marcelo P Fleck - mfleck.voy@terra.com.br; Clarissa M Trentini - clarissatrentini@terra.com.br; Ken Laidlaw - klaidlaw@ed.ac.uk; Mick J Power - mjpower@ed.ac.uk * Corresponding author †Equal contributors Abstract Background: Aging has determined a demographic shift in the world, which is considered a major societal achievement, and a challenge. Aging is primarily a subjective experience, shaped by factors such as gender and culture. There is a lack of instruments to assess attitudes to aging adequately. In addition, there is no instrument developed or validated in developing region contexts, so that the particularities of ageing in these areas are not included in the measures available. This paper aims to develop and validate a reliable attitude to aging instrument by combining classical psychometric approach and Rasch analysis. Methods: Pilot study and field trial are described in details. Statistical analysis included classic psychometric theory (EFA and CFA) and Rasch measurement model. The latter was applied to examine unidimensionality, response scale and item fit. Results: Sample was composed of 424 Brazilian old adults, which was compared to an international sample (n = 5238). The final instrument shows excellent psychometric performance (discriminant validity, confirmatory factor analysis and Rasch fit statistics). Rasch analysis indicated that modifications in the response scale and item deletions improved the initial solution derived from the classic approach. Conclusion: The combination of classic and modern psychometric theories in a complementary way is fruitful for development and validation of instruments. The construction of a reliable Brazilian Attitudes to Aging Questionnaire is important for assessing cultural specificities of aging in a transcultural perspective and can be applied in international cross-cultural investigations running less risk of cultural bias. Background The world is experiencing a profound and irreversible demographic shift as older people are living longer and healthier than ever before [1,2]. The world's older adult Published: 21 January 2008 Health and Quality of Life Outcomes 2008, 6:5 doi:10.1186/1477-7525-6-5 Received: 18 June 2007 Accepted: 21 January 2008 This article is available from: http://www.hqlo.com/content/6/1/5 © 2008 Chachamovich et al; licensee BioMed Central Ltd. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0 ), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in ... females, the quantity, quality, and motility of their sperm is often reduced As the body ages, the thyroid gland produces less of the thyroid hormones, causing a gradual decrease in the basal.. .Development and Aging of the Endocrine System Testosterone levels also decline with age, a condition called andropause (or viropause); however, this decline is much less dramatic than the. .. metabolic rate The lower metabolic rate reduces the production of body heat and increases levels of body fat Parathyroid hormones, on the other hand, increase with age This may be because of reduced