Divisions of the Skeletal System

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Divisions of the Skeletal System Divisions of the Skeletal System Bởi: OpenStaxCollege The skeletal system includes all of the bones, cartilages, and ligaments of the body that support and give shape to the body and body structures The skeleton consists of the bones of the body For adults, there are 206 bones in the skeleton Younger individuals have higher numbers of bones because some bones fuse together during childhood and adolescence to form an adult bone The primary functions of the skeleton are to provide a rigid, internal structure that can support the weight of the body against the force of gravity, and to provide a structure upon which muscles can act to produce movements of the body The lower portion of the skeleton is specialized for stability during walking or running In contrast, the upper skeleton has greater mobility and ranges of motion, features that allow you to lift and carry objects or turn your head and trunk In addition to providing for support and movements of the body, the skeleton has protective and storage functions It protects the internal organs, including the brain, spinal cord, heart, lungs, and pelvic organs The bones of the skeleton serve as the primary storage site for important minerals such as calcium and phosphate The bone marrow found within bones stores fat and houses the blood-cell producing tissue of the body The skeleton is subdivided into two major divisions—the axial and appendicular The Axial Skeleton The skeleton is subdivided into two major divisions—the axial and appendicular The axial skeleton forms the vertical, central axis of the body and includes all bones of the head, neck, chest, and back ([link]) It serves to protect the brain, spinal cord, heart, and lungs It also serves as the attachment site for muscles that move the head, neck, and back, and for muscles that act across the shoulder and hip joints to move their corresponding limbs The axial skeleton of the adult consists of 80 bones, including the skull, the vertebral column, and the thoracic cage The skull is formed by 22 bones Also associated with the 1/4 Divisions of the Skeletal System head are an additional seven bones, including the hyoid bone and the ear ossicles (three small bones found in each middle ear) The vertebral column consists of 24 bones, each called a vertebra, plus the sacrum and coccyx The thoracic cage includes the 12 pairs of ribs, and the sternum, the flattened bone of the anterior chest Axial and Appendicular Skeleton The axial skeleton supports the head, neck, back, and chest and thus forms the vertical axis of the body It consists of the skull, vertebral column (including the sacrum and coccyx), and the thoracic cage, formed by the ribs and sternum The appendicular skeleton is made up of all bones of the upper and lower limbs The Appendicular Skeleton The appendicular skeleton includes all bones of the upper and lower limbs, plus the bones that attach each limb to the axial skeleton There are 126 bones in the appendicular skeleton of an adult The bones of the appendicular skeleton are covered in a separate chapter 2/4 Divisions of the Skeletal System Chapter Review The skeletal system includes all of the bones, cartilages, and ligaments of the body It serves to support the body, protect the brain and other internal organs, and provides a rigid structure upon which muscles can pull to generate body movements It also stores fat and the tissue responsible for the production of blood cells The skeleton is subdivided into two parts The axial skeleton forms a vertical axis that includes the head, neck, back, and chest It has 80 bones and consists of the skull, vertebral column, and thoracic cage The adult vertebral column consists of 24 vertebrae plus the sacrum and coccyx The thoracic cage is formed by 12 pairs of ribs and the sternum The appendicular skeleton consists of 126 bones in the adult and includes all of the bones of the upper and lower limbs plus the bones that anchor each limb to the axial skeleton Review Questions Which of the following is part of the axial skeleton? shoulder bones thigh bone foot bones vertebral column D Which of the following is a function of the axial skeleton? allows for movement of the wrist and hand protects nerves and blood vessels at the elbow supports trunk of body allows for movements of the ankle and foot C The axial skeleton consists of 126 bones forms the vertical axis of the body includes all bones of the body trunk and limbs includes only the bones of the lower limbs B 3/4 Divisions of the Skeletal System Critical Thinking Question Define the two divisions of the skeleton The axial skeleton forms the vertical axis of the body and includes the bones of the head, neck, back, and chest of the body It consists of 80 bones that include the skull, vertebral column, and thoracic cage The appendicular skeleton consists of 126 bones and includes all bones of the upper and lower limbs Discuss the functions of the axial skeleton The axial ... Development of the Microfinance system in Russia Anna Kaganova National Business Incubation Association Russian Federation anna_kaganova@mail.ru Small business development in Russia  SMEs have been existing for 12 years;  >5.6 millions (including 4.5 millions of individual entrepreneurs);  90 % of the total number of establishments;  44 % of GDP;  45 % of employment. Sources of financing Commercial banks Regional (State) Funds for Support of Small Entrepreneurship Business partners, relatives or other people Microfinancial Institutes • convinient and especially attractive for entrepreneurs • represent a flexible form of a classical banking credit • permit to set up the business without start-up capital and credit history Basic conditions of Microfinance  IInterest rate is approximately 6-8 % per month in the first borrowing month with its further reduction to 3-4 % per month  TTotal first credit sum fluctuates between $ 500 – 1000 USD  TTerm of payment is till 3 months More advantageous for small size borrowers than classical bank loans Main objective of Microfinance creation of a high dynamic and an effective financial system for SMEs for an additional stimulation of goods and services production and distribution, and also for a mutuality of start-up enterprises in the acquisition of getting profits and a capital accumulation experience Main tasks of Microfinance  to stimulate efficiency access to the financial resources;  to create work places;  to grow of tax proceeds;  to create a credit history for the further development of SMEs through the bank sector;  to barrier SMEs for their transition to the shady sector of economics. Why not a bank? • lack of guarantees; • lack of credit history; • necessity in operating with a small sum of money ($ 500 – 1000 USD); • necessity in quick credit operating (for several days – week); • necessity in other forms of support and consulting; • existent distrust to banks. Microfinancing Programs Position, summary (on Jan, 2003)  Average monthly microloans interest credit rate – 6%  Average loan size – $400 USD  Average volume of credit on one client – $650 USD  Average percentage of a loan repayment – 95%  Loans distribution: • trade – 55%, • rendering of personal services – 24%, • farming – 11%.  63% of all loans are given to beginner entrepreneurs  Demand for Microloans is evaluated on $ 4.5 bln USA Total quantity of MFIs in Russia - approx. 300 MFIs Social Effect of MFIs MFIs create new work places MFIs give an opportunity for economic development for a lot of people in different Russian regions MFIs usually work with economically unprotected entrepreneurs in regions and give them opportunities for economic development More than 70% of program’s clients are women Example: “Credits for Small Enterprises” microfinance program  Credit sum is from $30 till $1000 USD  Term for accepting the decision 1 day  Interest rate is 4 % per month  Guarantee conditions are 2 warranties (husband/wife, business partner or relative) [...]... clients using given them loans  Nowadays: Microfinance activity has become more mature The models of successful operation of MFIs have been worked out, leading to the mature creation MFIs Development Perspectives SMEs meet depositors directly attracting resources from financial institutions reinvestments the National Business Incubator Association of Russia Founded in 1997 by 22 Russian business incubators... Our Projects   APEC Cooperation Center – New Channel for the NBIA of Russia International Networking; The ACC foundation initiated in 2002;  Aims at facilitating Russian businesses’ development through international cooperation and promotion, in the APEC region especially;  Building Cooperative Networks P1: SBT 9780521662161c04 CUNY946/Thomas 978 0 521 66216 1 July 11, 2007 12:28 4 The Critique of the Morality System ROBERT B. LOUDEN Underneath many of Bernard Williams’ sceptical attitudes and arguments in ethics is his flat-out rejection of what he calls “the morality system.” On his view, “we would be better off without it.” 1 But before we can assess this claim, we need to get a better sense of what exactly it is. 1. WHAT IS THE MORALITY SYSTEM? To begin with, it is fundamentally important to keep in mind that for Williams the words ethics and morality are not at all synonymous. Rather, he treats the latter as an unfortunate modern offshoot of the former. As he notes in Chapter 1 of Ethics and the Limits of Philosophy: Iamgoing to suggest that morality should be understood as a particular development of the ethical, one that has a special significance in modern Western culture. It particularly emphasizes certain ethical notions rather than others, developing in particular a special notion of obligation, and it has some peculiar presuppositions. In view of these features it is also, I believe, something we should treat with a special scepticism. 2 We can see already that Williams’ thesis about the morality system is in no small part historical.Hebelieves that human beings’ thinking about how they should live and act has changed drastically between ancient and modern times. 3 At the same time, in so far as he is particularly concerned with the 1 Williams (1985), p. 174. 2 Williams (1985), p. 6. Williams’ distinction between ethics and morality is analogous in several respects to Hegel’s famous contrast between Sittlichkeit (ethical life) and Moralit¨at (abstract morality). In both cases, a more concrete “world-guided” (or, to put it closer to Hegel’s language, a social-role-and-community-guided) conception of ethics is being contrasted to an abstract, universal one, and in both cases the villain defending the latter is Kant. See, e.g., Hegel (1991), §135. 3 Ancient here effectively means pre-Socratic. In Williams (1993), it is argued that “the basic ethical ideas possessed by the Greeks were different from ours, and also in better condition,” p. 4. But the Greeks he has in mind are not the philosophically familiar Plato and Aristotle. 104 P1: SBT 9780521662161c04 CUNY946/Thomas 978 0 521 66216 1 July 11, 2007 12:28 The Critique of the Morality System 105 concepts, presuppositions, and justifications (or lack thereof) employed by people past and present in their thinking on these matters, his position is also plainly philosophical. Needless to say, some readers may disagree with the historical facets of his position, some with the philosophical, and some with both. 4 What are the defining features of the morality system? At the end of Chapter 10 of Ethics and the Limits of Philosophy (in a chapter entitled, “Morality, the Peculiar Institution”), Williams summarizes his discussion as follows: Many philosophical mistakes are woven into morality. It misunderstands obligations, not seeing how they form just one type of ethical considera- tion. It misunderstands practical necessity, thinking it peculiar to the ethical. It misunderstands ethical practical necessity, thinking it peculiar to obliga- tions. Beyond all this, morality makes people think that, without its very special obligation, there is only inclination; without its utter voluntariness, there is only force; without its ultimately pure justice, there is no justice. Its philosophical errors are only the most abstract expressions of a deeply rooted and Divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System Divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System Bởi: OpenStaxCollege The nervous system can be divided into two functional parts: the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system The major differences between the two systems are evident in the responses that each produces The somatic nervous system causes contraction of skeletal muscles The autonomic nervous system controls cardiac and smooth muscle, as well as glandular tissue The somatic nervous system is associated with voluntary responses (though many can happen without conscious awareness, like breathing), and the autonomic nervous system is associated with involuntary responses, such as those related to homeostasis The autonomic nervous system regulates many of the internal organs through a balance of two aspects, or divisions In addition to the endocrine system, the autonomic nervous system is instrumental in homeostatic mechanisms in the body The two divisions of the autonomic nervous system are the sympathetic division and the parasympathetic division The sympathetic system is associated with the fight-or-flight response, and parasympathetic activity is referred to by the epithet of rest and digest Homeostasis is the balance between the two systems At each target effector, dual innervation determines activity For example, the heart receives connections from both the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions One causes heart rate to increase, whereas the other causes heart rate to decrease Watch this video to learn more about adrenaline and the fight-or-flight response When someone is said to have a rush of adrenaline, the image of bungee jumpers or skydivers usually comes to mind But adrenaline, also known as epinephrine, is an important chemical in coordinating the body’s fight-or-flight response In this video, you look 1/15 Divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System inside the physiology of the fight-or-flight response, as envisioned for a firefighter His body’s reaction is the result of the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system causing system-wide changes as it prepares for extreme responses What two changes does adrenaline bring about to help the skeletal muscle response? Sympathetic Division of the Autonomic Nervous System To respond to a threat—to fight or to run away—the sympathetic system causes divergent effects as many different effector organs are activated together for a common purpose More oxygen needs to be inhaled and delivered to skeletal muscle The respiratory, cardiovascular, and musculoskeletal systems are all activated together Additionally, sweating keeps the excess heat that comes from muscle contraction from causing the body to overheat The digestive system shuts down so that blood is not absorbing nutrients when it should be delivering oxygen to skeletal muscles To coordinate all these responses, the connections in the sympathetic system diverge from a limited region of the central nervous system (CNS) to a wide array of ganglia that project to the many effector organs simultaneously The complex set of structures that compose the output of the sympathetic system make it possible for these disparate effectors to come together in a coordinated, systemic change The sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system influences the various organ systems of the body through connections emerging from the thoracic and upper lumbar spinal cord It is referred to as the thoracolumbar system to reflect this anatomical basis A central neuron in the lateral horn of any of these spinal regions projects to ganglia adjacent to the vertebral column through the ventral spinal roots The majority of ganglia of the sympathetic system belong to a network of sympathetic chain ganglia that runs alongside the vertebral column The ganglia appear as a series of clusters of neurons linked by axonal bridges There are typically 23 ganglia in the chain on either side of the spinal column Three correspond to the The Functions of the Skeletal System The Functions of the Skeletal System Bởi: OpenStaxCollege Bone, or osseous tissue, is a hard, dense connective tissue that forms most of the adult skeleton, the support structure of the body In the areas of the skeleton where bones move (for example, the ribcage and joints), cartilage, a semi-rigid form of connective tissue, provides flexibility and smooth surfaces for movement The skeletal system is the body system composed of bones and cartilage and performs the following critical functions for the human body: • • • • • supports the body facilitates movement protects internal organs produces blood cells stores and releases minerals and fat Support, Movement, and Protection The most apparent functions of the skeletal system are the gross functions—those visible by observation Simply by looking at a person, you can see how the bones support, facilitate movement, and protect the human body Just as the steel beams of a building provide a scaffold to support its weight, the bones and cartilage of your skeletal system compose the scaffold that supports the rest of your body Without the skeletal system, you would be a limp mass of organs, muscle, and skin Bones also facilitate movement by serving as points of attachment for your muscles While some bones only serve as a support for the muscles, others also transmit the forces produced when your muscles contract From a mechanical point of view, bones act as levers and joints serve as fulcrums ([link]) Unless a muscle spans a joint and contracts, a bone is not going to move For information on the interaction of the skeletal and muscular systems, that is, the musculoskeletal system, seek additional content 1/7 The Functions of the Skeletal System Bones Support Movement Bones act as levers when muscles span a joint and contract (credit: Benjamin J DeLong) Bones also protect internal organs from injury by covering or surrounding them For example, your ribs protect your lungs and heart, the bones of your vertebral column (spine) protect your spinal cord, and the bones of your cranium (skull) protect your brain ([link]) 2/7 The Functions of the Skeletal System Bones Protect Brain The cranium completely surrounds and protects the brain from non-traumatic injury Career Connection Orthopedist An orthopedist is a doctor who specializes in diagnosing and treating disorders and injuries related to the musculoskeletal system Some orthopedic problems can be treated with medications, exercises, braces, and other devices, but others may be best treated with surgery ([link]) Arm Brace An orthopedist will sometimes prescribe the use of a brace that reinforces the underlying bone structure it is being used to support (credit: Juhan Sonin) 3/7 The Functions of the Skeletal System While the origin of the word “orthopedics” (ortho- = “straight”; paed- = “child”), literally means “straightening of the child,” orthopedists can have patients who range from pediatric to geriatric In recent years, orthopedists have even performed prenatal surgery to correct spina bifida, a congenital defect in which the neural canal in the spine of the fetus fails to close completely during embryologic development Orthopedists commonly treat bone and joint injuries but they also treat other bone ... only the bones of the lower limbs B 3/4 Divisions of the Skeletal System Critical Thinking Question Define the two divisions of the skeleton The axial skeleton forms the vertical axis of the body... There are 126 bones in the appendicular skeleton of an adult The bones of the appendicular skeleton are covered in a separate chapter 2/4 Divisions of the Skeletal System Chapter Review The skeletal. .. vessels at the elbow supports trunk of body allows for movements of the ankle and foot C The axial skeleton consists of 126 bones forms the vertical axis of the body includes all bones of the body