Embryonic Development of the Respiratory System

Development of the Microfinance system in Russia Anna Kaganova National Business Incubation Association Russian Federation anna_kaganova@mail.ru Small business development in Russia  SMEs have been existing for 12 years;  >5.6 millions (including 4.5 millions of individual entrepreneurs);  90 % of the total number of establishments;  44 % of GDP;  45 % of employment. Sources of financing Commercial banks Regional (State) Funds for Support of Small Entrepreneurship Business partners, relatives or other people Microfinancial Institutes • convinient and especially attractive for entrepreneurs • represent a flexible form of a classical banking credit • permit to set up the business without start-up capital and credit history Basic conditions of Microfinance  IInterest rate is approximately 6-8 % per month in the first borrowing month with its further reduction to 3-4 % per month  TTotal first credit sum fluctuates between $ 500 – 1000 USD  TTerm of payment is till 3 months More advantageous for small size borrowers than classical bank loans Main objective of Microfinance creation of a high dynamic and an effective financial system for SMEs for an additional stimulation of goods and services production and distribution, and also for a mutuality of start-up enterprises in the acquisition of getting profits and a capital accumulation experience Main tasks of Microfinance  to stimulate efficiency access to the financial resources;  to create work places;  to grow of tax proceeds;  to create a credit history for the further development of SMEs through the bank sector;  to barrier SMEs for their transition to the shady sector of economics. Why not a bank? • lack of guarantees; • lack of credit history; • necessity in operating with a small sum of money ($ 500 – 1000 USD); • necessity in quick credit operating (for several days – week); • necessity in other forms of support and consulting; • existent distrust to banks. Microfinancing Programs Position, summary (on Jan, 2003)  Average monthly microloans interest credit rate – 6%  Average loan size – $400 USD  Average volume of credit on one client – $650 USD  Average percentage of a loan repayment – 95%  Loans distribution: • trade – 55%, • rendering of personal services – 24%, • farming – 11%.  63% of all loans are given to beginner entrepreneurs  Demand for Microloans is evaluated on $ 4.5 bln USA Total quantity of MFIs in Russia - approx. 300 MFIs Social Effect of MFIs MFIs create new work places MFIs give an opportunity for economic development for a lot of people in different Russian regions MFIs usually work with economically unprotected entrepreneurs in regions and give them opportunities for economic development More than 70% of program’s clients are women Example: “Credits for Small Enterprises” microfinance program  Credit sum is from $30 till $1000 USD  Term for accepting the decision 1 day  Interest rate is 4 % per month  Guarantee conditions are 2 warranties (husband/wife, business partner or relative) [...]... clients using given them loans  Nowadays: Microfinance activity has become more mature The models of successful operation of MFIs have been worked out, leading to the mature creation MFIs Development Perspectives SMEs meet depositors directly attracting resources from financial institutions reinvestments the National Business Incubator Association of Russia Founded in 1997 by 22 Russian business incubators... Our Projects   APEC Cooperation Center – New Channel for the NBIA of Russia International Networking; The ACC foundation initiated in 2002;  Aims at facilitating Russian businesses’ development through international cooperation and promotion, in the APEC region especially;  Building Cooperative Networks Embryonic Development of the Respiratory System Embryonic Development of the Respiratory System Bởi: OpenStaxCollege Development of the respiratory system begins early in the fetus It is a complex process that includes many structures, most of which arise from the endoderm Towards the end of development, the fetus can be observed making breathing movements Until birth, however, the mother provides all of the oxygen to the fetus as well as removes all of the fetal carbon dioxide via the placenta Time Line The development of the respiratory system begins at about week of gestation By week 28, enough alveoli have matured that a baby born prematurely at this time can usually breathe on its own The respiratory system, however, is not fully developed until early childhood, when a full complement of mature alveoli is present Weeks 4–7 Respiratory development in the embryo begins around week Ectodermal tissue from the anterior head region invaginates posteriorly to form olfactory pits, which fuse with endodermal tissue of the developing pharynx An olfactory pit is one of a pair of structures that will enlarge to become the nasal cavity At about this same time, the lung bud forms The lung bud is a dome-shaped structure composed of tissue that bulges from the foregut The foregut is endoderm just inferior to the pharyngeal pouches The laryngotracheal bud is a structure that forms from the longitudinal extension of the lung bud as development progresses The portion of this structure nearest the pharynx becomes the trachea, whereas the distal end becomes more bulbous, forming bronchial buds A bronchial bud is one of a pair of structures that will eventually become the bronchi and all other lower respiratory structures ([link]) 1/6 Embryonic Development of the Respiratory System Development of the Lower Respiratory System Weeks 7–16 Bronchial buds continue to branch as development progresses until all of the segmental bronchi have been formed Beginning around week 13, the lumens of the bronchi begin to expand in diameter By week 16, respiratory bronchioles form The fetus now has all major lung structures involved in the airway Weeks 16–24 Once the respiratory bronchioles form, further development includes extensive vascularization, or the development of the blood vessels, as well as the formation of alveolar ducts and alveolar precursors At about week 19, the respiratory bronchioles have formed In addition, cells lining the respiratory structures begin to differentiate to form type I and type II pneumocytes Once type II cells have differentiated, they begin to secrete small amounts of pulmonary surfactant Around week 20, fetal breathing movements may begin Weeks 24–Term Major growth and maturation of the respiratory system occurs from week 24 until term More alveolar precursors develop, and larger amounts of pulmonary surfactant are produced Surfactant levels are not generally adequate to create effective lung compliance until about the eighth month of pregnancy The respiratory system continues to expand, and the surfaces that will form the respiratory membrane develop further At this point, pulmonary capillaries have formed and continue to expand, creating a large 2/6 Embryonic Development of the Respiratory System surface area for gas exchange The major milestone of respiratory development occurs at around week 28, when sufficient alveolar precursors have matured so that a baby born prematurely at this time can usually breathe on its own However, alveoli continue to develop and mature into childhood A full complement of functional alveoli does not appear until around years of age Fetal “Breathing” Although the function of fetal breathing movements is not entirely clear, they can be observed starting at 20–21 weeks of development Fetal breathing movements involve muscle contractions that cause the inhalation of amniotic fluid and exhalation of the same fluid, with pulmonary surfactant and mucus Fetal breathing movements are not continuous and may include periods of frequent movements and periods of no movements Maternal factors can influence the frequency of breathing movements For example, high blood glucose levels, called hyperglycemia, can boost the number of breathing movements Conversely, low blood glucose levels, called hypoglycemia, can reduce the number of fetal breathing movements Tobacco use is also known to lower fetal breathing rates Fetal breathing may help tone the muscles in preparation for breathing movements once the fetus is born It may also help the alveoli to form and mature Fetal breathing movements are considered a sign of robust health Birth Prior to birth, the lungs are filled with amniotic fluid, mucus, and surfactant As the fetus is squeezed through the birth canal, the fetal thoracic cavity is compressed, expelling much of this fluid Some fluid remains, however, but is rapidly absorbed by the body shortly after birth The first inhalation occurs within 10 seconds after birth and not only serves ...Aging of the Respiratory System: Impact on Pulmonary Function Tests and Adaptation to Exertion Jean-Paul Janssens, MD Outpatient Section of the Division of Pulmonary Diseases, Geneva University Hospital, 1211 Geneva 14, Switzerland Life expectancy has risen sharply during the past century and is expected to continue to rise in virtually all populations throughout the world. In the United States population, life expectancy has risen from 47 years in 1900 to 77 in 2001 (74.4 for the male and 79.8 for the female population) [1]. The proportion of the population over 65 years of age currently is more than 15% in most developed countries and is ex- pected to reach 20% by the year 2020. Healthy life expectancy, at the age of 60, is at present 15.3 years for the male population and 17.9 years for the female population [2]. These demographic changes have a major impact on health care, financially and clini- cally. Awareness of the basic changes in respiratory physiology associated with aging and their clinical implication is important for clinicians. Indeed, age- associated alterations of the respiratory system tend to diminish subjects’ reserve in cases of common clinical diseases, such as lower respiratory tract in- fection or heart failure [3,4]. This review explores age-related physiologic changes in the respiratory system and their conse- quences in respiratory mechanics, gas exchange, and respiratory adaptation to exertion. Structural changes in the respiratory system related to aging Most of the age-related functional changes in the respiratory system resul t from three physiologic events: progressive decrease in compliance of the chest wall, in static elastic recoil of the lung (Fig. 1), and in strength of respiratory muscles. Age-associated changes in the chest wall Estenne and colleagues measured age-related changes in chest wall compliance in 50 healthy subjects ages 24 to 75: aging was associated with a significant decrease (À31%) in chest wall compli- ance, involving rib cage (upper thorax) compliance and compliance of the diaphragm-abdomen compart- ment (lower thorax) [5]. Calcifications of the costal cartilages and chondrosternal junctions and degenera- tive joint disease of the dorsal spine are common radiologic observations in older subjects and contrib- ute to chest wall stiffening [6]. Changes in the shape of the thorax modify chest wall mechanics; age- related osteoporosis results in partial (wedge) or complete (crush) vertebral fractures, leading to increased dorsal kyphosis and anteroposteriordi- ameter (barrel chest). Indeed, prevalence of vertebral fractures in the elderly population is high and increases with age; in Europe, in female subjects over 60, the prevalence of vertebral fractures is 16.8% in the 60 to 64 age group, increasing to 34.8% in the 75 to 79 age group [7]. Men also show an increase in vertebral fractures with age, but rates are approximately half those of the female population [8]. A study of 100 chest radiographs of subjects ages 75 to 93 years, without cardiac or pulmonary dis- orders, illustrates the frequency of dorsal kyphosis in this age group: Disease of the Respiratory Disease of the Respiratory system in Children system in Children ShangYunxiao Department of Pediatrics , The Second Clinical Hospital , China Medical University , Introduction Introduction z The disease of respiratory system is one of the most frequent reasons for hospitalization of infants and children. z Basic knowledge of the development and functions of respiratory system are essential to understand many of these respiratory tract diseases. 1. 1. Anatomical characteristics of Anatomical characteristics of respiratory system respiratory system z z (1) The upper airway z nose; z paranasal sinuses; z pharynx; z Eustachian tube z larynx Nose Nose z Nose cavity→relatively short and small in infant; z The mucous membrane(mucosa) →tender and soft, rich in vascularity; z Infection occurs →swelling and congestion of the mucous membrane → nasal obstruction →dyspnea. paranasal paranasal sinuses sinuses z Maxillary sinuses appear at 2yrs, develop fully after 12yrs. z Frontal sinuses appear at 2-3yrs, enlarge at 6yrs →Paranasal sinusitis rarely occurs in infants. pharynx; pharynx; z Relatively narrow and vertical, rich in lymphoid tissue. z Palatine tonsils begin to enlarge gradually at the end of 1 yrs →develop at 4-10 yrs →degenerated gradually after 14-15 yrs. z Tonsillitis is often seen in elder children than in infants. Eustachian tube Eustachian tube z Broad, straight and short in infant; z The position →horizontal; z So when an infant catches cold, he may be complicated with otitis media (tympanitis). larynx larynx z Narrow in infants z The mucous membrane is rich in vascularity. z Congested and swollen in inflammation →dyspnea. ( ( 2) 2) The low airway The low airway z Trachea; z bronchus; z lungs; Trachea and bronchus Trachea and bronchus z The lumen of trachea and bronchus →relatively narrow; z Mucosa →rich in vascularity; z Cillium movement →poor; z So easy to get infection →develop obstruction. z [...]... characteristics The principal antibody in respiratory tract → S-IgA S-IgA is produced by plasma cells in the submucosa of airway →can neutralize certain viruses and toxins, and help the lysis of bacteria The serum levels of IgA remain low during early childhood →infants and children are susceptible to infection of respiratory tract Pneumonia 1.Classification of pneumonia (1) According to pathological... requirement When the child begins to stand up and walk the diaphram decline gradually to the level of 5th intercostal space (2) Type of respiration In infant → abdominal respiration After the child stands up and walks the diaphragm moves downward the chest cavity →increased (above 2 yrs) →abdominal-chest respiration appears (3)Volume of tidal air 6 ml per kg when the respiration is peaceful 3 .The immune... relatively and the expansion of lungs are limited during respiration When the respiratory tract disease occur, BioMed Central Page 1 of 5 (page number not for citation purposes) Head & Face Medicine Open Access Research The role of apoptosis in early embryonic development of the adenohypophysis in rats Jens Weingärtner 1 , Kristina Lotz 2 , Andreas Faltermeier 3 , Oliver Driemel 4 , Johannes Kleinheinz* 5 , Tomas Gedrange 6 and Peter Proff 3 Address: 1 Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Ernst Moritz Arndt University Greifswald, Friedrich Löffler Straße 23c, D-17487 Greifswald, Germany, 2 Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Ernst Moritz Arndt University Greifswald, Wollweberstr. 1, D-17487 Greifswald, Germany, 3 Department of Orthodontics, University of Regensburg, F.J. Strauss-Allee 11, D-93042 Regensburg, Germany, 4 Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, University of Regensburg, F.J. Strauss-Allee 11, D-93042 Regensburg, Germany, 5 Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, University of Münster, Waldeyerstraße 30, D-48129 Münster, Germany and 6 Department of Orthodontics, Preventive and Pediatric Dentistry, Ernst Moritz Arndt University Greifswald, Rotgerberstr. 8, D-17489 Greifswald, Germany Email: Jens Weingärtner - weingaer@uni-greifswald.de; Kristina Lotz - lotz@uni-greifswald.de; Andreas Faltermeier - andreas.faltermeier@klinik.uni-regensburg.de; Oliver Driemel - oliver.driemel@klinik.uni-regensburg.de; Johannes Kleinheinz* - Johannes.Kleinheinz@ukmuenster.de; Tomas Gedrange - gedrange@web.de; Peter Proff - p.c.proff@gmx.net * Corresponding author Abstract Background: Apoptosis is involved in fundamental processes of life, like embryonic development, tissue homeostasis, or immune defense. Defects in apoptosis cause or contribute to developmental malformation, cancer, and degenerative disorders. Methods: The developing adenohypophysis area of rat fetuses was studied at the embryonic stage 13.5 (gestational day) for apoptotic and proliferative cell activities using histological serial sections. Results: A high cell proliferation rate was observed throughout the adenohypophysis. In contrast, apoptotic cells visualized by evidence of active caspase-3, were detected only in the basal epithelial cones as an introducing event for fusion and closure of the pharyngeal roof. Conclusion: We can clearly show an increasing number of apoptotic events only at the basic fusion sides of the adenohypophysis as well as in the opening region of this organ. Apoptotic destruction of epithelial cells at the basal cones of the adenohypophysis begins even before differentiation of the adenohypophyseal cells and their contact with the neurohypophysis. In early stages of development, thus, apoptotic activity of the adenohypophysis is restricted to the basal areas mentioned. In our test animals, the adenohypophysis develops after closure of the anterior neuroporus. Background The adenohypophysis (Rathke pouch) is derived from the ectoderm and develops during the embryonic stage in the pharyngeal roof in front of the pharyngeal membrane before the anterior neuroporus closes. According to Starck (1975), the primordial Rathke pouch (saccus hypophy- sealis) is a transverse depression in the pharyngeal roof abutting the bottom of the diencephalon without inter- posed mesenchymal cells [1]. Later, the pouch loses con- nection with the pharyngeal roof, while a multitude of Published: 23 July 2008 Head & Face Medicine 2008, 4:13 doi:10.1186/1746-160X-4-13 Received: 16 May 2008 Accepted: 23 July 2008 This article is available from: http://www.head-face-med.com/content/4/1/13 © 2008 Weingärtner et al; licensee BioMed Central Ltd. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0 ), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Head & Face Medicine 2008, 4:13 http://www.head-face-med.com/content/4/1/13 Page 2 of 5 (page number not for citation BioMed Central Page 1 of 9 (page number not for citation purposes) Respiratory Research Open Access Research Changes in the mechanical properties of the respiratory system during the development of interstitial lung edema Raffaele L Dellacà* 1 , Emanuela Zannin 1 , Giulio Sancini 2 , Ilaria Rivolta 2 , Biagio E Leone 3 , Antonio Pedotti 1 and Giuseppe Miserocchi 2,4 Address: 1 TBM Lab, Dipartimento di Bioingegneria, Politecnico di Milano University, Milano, Italy, 2 Department of Experimental Medicine, Universita' di Milano Bicocca, Monza, Italy, 3 Department of Clinical and Preventive Medicine, Università di Milano Bicocca, Monza, Italy and 4 Centro di Medicina dello Sport, Ospedale San Gerardo, Monza, Italy Email: Raffaele L Dellacà* - raffaele.dellaca@polimi.it; Emanuela Zannin - emanuela.zannin@polimi.it; Giulio Sancini - giulio.sancini@polimi.it; Ilaria Rivolta - ilaria.rivolta@polimi.it; Biagio E Leone - b.leone@hsgerardo.org; Antonio Pedotti - antonio.pedotti@polimi.it; Giuseppe Miserocchi - giuseppe.miserocchi@unimib.it * Corresponding author Abstract Background: Pulmonary edema induces changes in airway and lung tissues mechanical properties that can be measured by low-frequency forced oscillation technique (FOT). It is preceded by interstitial edema which is characterized by the accumulation of extravascular fluid in the interstitial space of the air-blood barrier. Our aim was to investigate the impact of the early stages of the development of interstitial edema on the mechanical properties of the respiratory system. Methods: We studied 17 paralysed and mechanically ventilated closed-chest rats (325–375 g). Total input respiratory system impedance (Zrs) was derived from tracheal flow and pressure signals by applying forced oscillations with frequency components from 0.16 to 18.44 Hz distributed in two forcing signals. In 8 animals interstitial lung edema was induced by intravenous infusion of saline solution (0.75 ml/kg/min) for 4 hours; 9 control animals were studied with the same protocol but without infusion. Zrs was measured at the beginning and every 15 min until the end of the experiment. Results: In the treated group the lung wet-to-dry weight ratio increased from 4.3 ± 0.72 to 5.23 ± 0.59, with no histological signs of alveolar flooding. Resistance (Rrs) increased in both groups over time, but to a greater extent in the treated group. Reactance (Xrs) did not change in the control group, while it decreased significantly at all frequencies but one in the treated. Significant changes in Rrs and Xrs were observed starting after ~135 min from the beginning of the infusion. By applying a constant phase model to partition airways and tissue mechanical properties, we observed a mild increase in airways resistance in both groups. A greater and significant increase in tissue damping (from 603.5 ± 100.3 to 714.5 ± 81.9 cmH 2 O/L) and elastance (from 4160.2 ± 462.6 to 5018.2 ± 622.5 cmH 2 O/L) was found only in the treated group. Conclusion: These results suggest that interstitial edema has a small but significant impact on the mechanical features of lung tissues and that these changes begin at very early stages, before the beginning of accumulation of extravascular fluid into the alveoli. Published: 12 June 2008 Respiratory Research 2008, 9:51 doi:10.1186/1465-9921-9-51 Received: 19 October 2007 Accepted: 12 June 2008 This article is available from: http://respiratory-research.com/content/9/1/51 © 2008 Dellacà et al; licensee BioMed Central Ltd. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0 ), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Respiratory Research 2008, 9:51 http://respiratory-research.com/content/9/1/51 Page 2 of 9 (page number not for citation purposes) Background The functional organisation of the lung .. .Embryonic Development of the Respiratory System Development of the Lower Respiratory System Weeks 7–16 Bronchial buds continue to branch as development progresses until all of the segmental... form, further development includes extensive vascularization, or the development of the blood vessels, as well as the formation of alveolar ducts and alveolar precursors At about week 19, the respiratory. .. continue to expand, creating a large 2/6 Embryonic Development of the Respiratory System surface area for gas exchange The major milestone of respiratory development occurs at around week 28, when