The Process of Science

Ideas into Words This page intentionally left blank Mastering the Craft of Science WritingintowordsideasElise HancockForeword by Robert KanigelTHE JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY PRESSBaltimore & London For my father,who would have been so proud. This page intentionally left blank ContentsForeword, by Robert Kanigel ixAcknowledgments xvii1. A Matter of Attitude12. Finding Stories293. Finding Out: Research and the Interview454. Writing: Getting Started and the Structure695. Writing: The Nitty Gritty956. Refining Your Draft1117. When You’re Feeling Stuck129Afterword145Index147 ©2003 The Johns Hopkins University PressForeword © 2003 Robert KanigelAll rights reserved. Published 2003Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper987654321The Johns Hopkins University Press2715 North Charles StreetBaltimore, Maryland 21218-4363www.press.jhu.eduLibrary of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication DataHancock, Elise.Ideas into words: mastering the craft of science writing / Elise Hancock.p. cm.ISBN 0-8018-7329-0 — ISBN 0-8018-7330-41. Technical writing. I. Title.T11 .H255 2003808′.0665—dc21 2002011065A catalog record for this book is available from the British Library. This page intentionally left blank As I stepped into her office, I found Elise in her deskchair, bent over a page of manuscript rolled up into hertypewriter. She didn’t look up. She never looked up. Just ayear or two earlier, that would still have infuriated me. So-cial graces, Elise? Remember those? But by now I was long pastthe point where I paid it any mind. So I sat and waitedwhile she finished.Finally, she pulled out the page, gathered it togetherwith one or two others and, still not looking up, passedthem to me. It was a short essay for the Johns Hopkins Maga-zine, which she edited, but this was one of the little piecesshe wrote herself. What, she wanted to know, did I thinkof it?Oh, it was fine, I too quickly said after reading it, thenpaused. I was a freelance writer, of the perpetually strug-gling sort, had done some assignments for Elise, andsought others. Elise was just a few years into her thirties,but enough older than me to seem more seasoned andmature. She was unusually tall, and a little forbidding.Actually, a lot forbidding: Genuine smiles came easilyenough to her, but routine, social smiles—the kind thatleave everyone in a room feeling relaxed and happy—didnot. On this stern-faced woman and her opinion of mywork, my livelihood depended. And now she wanted myopinion of something she’d written?Umm, maybe, I ventured, there was just a little troublewith this transition? And this word, here, perhaps itwasn’t exactly what she meant?Elise took back the manuscript and looked at it, hard,the way she always did—no knitted brows, just the blank screen of her face, the outside world absent. For a moment, the room lay still. Until, abruptly: “Oh, yes,Foreword [...]... he’s got the theory all worked out. Ideas into Words 16 Mastering the Craft of Science Writing The Process of Science The Process of Science Bởi: OpenStaxCollege Formerly called blue-green algae, the (a) cyanobacteria seen through a light microscope are some of Earth’s oldest life forms These (b) stromatolites along the shores of Lake Thetis in Western Australia are ancient structures formed by the layering of cyanobacteria in shallow waters (credit a: modification of work by NASA; scale-bar data from Matt Russell; credit b: modification of work by Ruth Ellison) Like geology, physics, and chemistry, biology is a science that gathers knowledge about the natural world Specifically, biology is the study of life The discoveries of biology are made by a community of researchers who work individually and together using agreed-on methods In this sense, biology, like all sciences is a social enterprise like politics or the arts The methods of science include careful observation, record keeping, logical and mathematical reasoning, experimentation, and submitting conclusions to the scrutiny of others Science also requires considerable imagination and creativity; a well-designed experiment is commonly described as elegant, or beautiful Like politics, science has considerable practical implications and some science is dedicated to practical applications, such as the prevention of disease (see [link]) Other science proceeds largely motivated by curiosity Whatever its goal, there is no doubt that science, including biology, has transformed human existence and will continue to so 1/12 The Process of Science Biologists may choose to study Escherichia coli (E coli), a bacterium that is a normal resident of our digestive tracts but which is also sometimes responsible for disease outbreaks In this micrograph, the bacterium is visualized using a scanning electron microscope and digital colorization (credit: Eric Erbe; digital colorization by Christopher Pooley, USDA-ARS) The Nature of Science Biology is a science, but what exactly is science? What does the study of biology share with other scientific disciplines? Science (from the Latin scientia, meaning "knowledge") can be defined as knowledge about the natural world Science is a very specific way of learning, or knowing, about the world The history of the past 500 years demonstrates that science is a very powerful way of knowing about the world; it is largely responsible for the technological revolutions that have taken place during this time There are however, areas of knowledge and human experience that the methods of science cannot be applied to These include such things as answering purely moral questions, aesthetic questions, or what can be generally categorized as spiritual questions Science has nothing to say in these areas because they are outside the realm of material phenomena, the phenomena of matter and energy, and cannot be observed and measured The scientific method is a method of research with defined steps that include experiments and careful observation The steps of the scientific method will be examined in detail later, but one of the most important aspects of this method is the testing of hypotheses A hypothesis is a suggested explanation for an event, which can be tested Hypotheses, or tentative explanations, are generally produced within the context of a scientific theory A scientific theory is a generally accepted, thoroughly tested and confirmed explanation for a set of observations or phenomena Scientific theory is the foundation of scientific knowledge In addition, in many scientific 2/12 The Process of Science disciplines (less so in biology) there are scientific laws, often expressed in mathematical formulas, which describe how elements of nature will behave under certain specific conditions There is not an evolution of hypotheses through theories to laws as if they represented some increase in certainty about the world Hypotheses are the day-to-day material that scientists work with and they are developed within the context of theories Laws are concise descriptions of parts of the world that are amenable to formulaic or mathematical description Natural Sciences What would you expect to see in a museum of natural sciences? Frogs? Plants? Dinosaur skeletons? Exhibits about how the brain functions? A planetarium? Gems and minerals? Or maybe all of the above? Science includes such diverse fields as astronomy, biology, computer sciences, geology, logic, physics, chemistry, and mathematics ([link]) However, those fields of science related to the physical world and its phenomena and processes are considered natural sciences Thus, a museum of natural sciences might contain any of the items listed above Some fields of science include astronomy, biology, computer science, geology, logic, physics, chemistry, and mathematics (credit: "Image Editor"/Flickr) There is no complete agreement when it comes to defining what the natural sciences include For some experts, the natural sciences are astronomy, biology, chemistry, earth science, and physics Other ... What is your deadline? All too often, people do not ask for help until too late, the day before (or of ) the deadline. Too bad. I would’ve loved to help them. Question number two: Do you have a reprint from a scholarly journal about this work? If so, start there and go through it sentence by sentence, para- phrasing each unit of thought in your own words. If you were sitting in my office, that’s what I’d make you do, the idea being to find out precisely where your understanding failed—and surprisingly often, that would be all the help you needed. Sometimes people decide that they cannot do something: understand physics, let us say. Then, when they have to do it, they can only sit there in agony looking at the pieces of paper—agonizing but not progressing, because they have so little hope that they never actually come to grips with the material. They are deer in the headlights. Paraphrasing for someone like me helps them learn that they can figure it out, because I won’t let them off the hook till they hazard a guess—which is right, mostly, or almost right. If it’s almost right, we look up each unfamiliar word until they can produce the paraphrase. Great! And on to the next. And so we go. It may be only minutes before the penny drops. “This isn’t so bad! I can do this!” If you are afraid of your subject, is there someone who could help you in that way? You may know more and under- stand better than you think. Puzzled writers are often miss- ing one or two key concepts, ideas so big that nothing makes sense without them, but not many in number. Once you lo- cate the gap in your knowledge, you are almost home. Lacking someone to sit with you, you can push through alone, though it’s harder because all the will power has to come from you. If there is a press release, you will have to lean harder on it—and don’t forget that whoever wrote the press release should be willing to answer questions. It’s her job. Even lacking a press release, however, you can go forward, especially if your article is to be fairly short. Keep looking up every technical word that came up more than once in your interviews. Make a vocabulary list and consult it as needed. After you’ve gone through all the notes, ask yourself, What seems to be the main idea? Put it in your own words, two to three sentences worth. Ask yourself, What seem to be the main three to five ideas Ideas into Words 140 or links in the train of thought? Summarize each one in your own words, just a sentence or two. Great! There’s your out- line. Put the ideas in some sensible order and write your ar- ticle. The next one will be easier. If you go through all that looking-up and still feel unsure about your grasp, pick the most teacherly of the people you talked to and show that person your outline. Probably you’re okay. If not, the teacher-person will help you untwist the last few tangles. An article with such a history might persuade you to make an exception about showing copy. Of course, you’ll show it to the teacherly person. Most people enjoy helping anyone who will make good use of the help.You must not take someone’s time and then not write the article—you would feel like a jerk, and the would-be helper might agree. If you will follow through, however, do not hesitate to ask for help. Every single person who has ever accomplished anything has had lots of help, es- pecially in their early years. Are you working too hard? Many of us learned in school that writing was somehow special and difficult, requiring an outline and a great many rules. The outlines used roman nu- merals I. for the main idea II. for the secondary idea, then III. A.B.C.s and a. a.b.c., and at each level you had to have . was it Speak precisely. Make it a habit to say what you mean, rather than settling for a close approximation. If you’re not sure what you mean, say something like, “I need a minute to think about that,” so that other people know you’re not ig- noring them. As a secondary benefit, you may blossom into a wit, because once you routinely capture a scene in three or four words, people will find you hilarious. Practice composing descriptions and narrative in odd mo- ments when you might otherwise be bored, as when wait- ing for a train or a friend. Wherever you are, look around and ask yourself how you would write about what your senses report. Familiar objects and people, especially clichés (a beautiful sunset) can be surprisingly hard to capture, while human activities and interactions are even more so. This practice carries two huge benefits: not only are you practicing narrative, but you are also developing the art of seeing freshly. A useful question: If I were a tourist from an- other place or time, what would I notice here? Practice separating phenomenon from conclusion, in par- ticular about people. When you notice yourself saying or thinking some judgment—“She was really angry,” let us say—ask yourself what you saw, heard, or felt that made you think so. This practice is so demanding that I don’t think I will ever, fully, know my conclusions from my data. (A Bud- dhist would say that, if I did, I would achieve satori and de- materialize.) We can aim to know, however, a practice that has two benefits. In your personal life, it prevents a lot of unnec- essary pain, because it helps you spot the times when your conclusion comes from your history, not the here and now. (This woman did not say or do anything to make me think she was angry—I just expected anger. Oh.) In the working world, the distinction keeps your observation circumstantial. Compare “Dr. Jones was angry” to “Dr. Jones stiffened and her mouth became a thin, pale line.” Which version is more compelling and believable? When you must sit through a forgettable speech, practice editorial pruning. Rewrite as you listen. (I sometimes used to “type” the leaner version with my toes inside my shoes, an invisible form of fidgeting.) In this way your face will look attentive (because you are attending), and you might even remember what was said. If the speech resists pruning, wake up.You are hearing a masterpiece. Build a library, both of stuff that is just good reading and Ideas into Words 10 of background material, such that you can go from total ig- norance to basic grasp overnight. The Britannica on-line is a great resource, as are the various fifteen- to twenty-pound tomes in which some authority spells out Everything We Cur- rently Know In Our Field. If you buy such a tome from the remainder table, some few pages will not represent the latest knowledge, but no matter:You are seeking background, not the latest—that you will get from journals and researchers. When you read, read as a writer. That is, pay attention to your own reactions. When you find yourself enthralled, pause to ask yourself why. (What reached me? Where did this effect start to build? Is this a technique I can use?) Con- versely, if your attention wanders, see if you can isolate where and how the writer lost you. Was there simply too much material? Something about the tone? Was it too vague? Oversimple? Too dense? Too abstract? Did you lose hope that a point would emerge? Everything is interesting. Take this idea as an item of faith. If a subject bores you, it’s because you don’t know enough or you’ve adopted the wrong vantage point. Keep poking till you see a sign of life. Ask people who do care to tell you why. I once took a ballet class in which the teacher insisted that, if our legs felt like jelly, we should jump harder. To my surprise, I found he was Doing Science: The Process of Scientific Inquiry under a contract from the National Institutes of Health National Institute of General Medical Sciences Center for Curriculum Development 5415 Mark Dabling Boulevard Colorado Springs, CO 80918 Writing Team Allison Aclufi, Berendo Middle School, Los Angeles, California Michelle Fleming, Lasley Elementary School, Lakewood, Colorado Michael Klymkowsky, University of Colorado, Boulder Susan Laursen, CIRES, University of Colorado, Boulder Quinn Vega, Montclair State University, Upper Montclair, New Jersey Tom Werner, Union College, Schenectady, New York Field-Test Teachers Carol Craig, Killingly Intermediate School, Dayville, Connecticut Janet Erickson, C.R. Anderson Middle School, Helena, Montana Scott Molley, John Baker Middle School, Damascus, Maryland Nancy Nega, Churchville Middle School, Elmhurst, Illinois Kathy Peavy, Hadley Middle School, Wichita, Kansas Donna Roberts, West Marion Junior High School, Foxworth, Mississippi Erin Parcher-Wartes, Eagle School of Madison, Madison, Wisconsin John Weeks, Northeast Middle School, Jackson, Tennessee Cover Design Salvador Bru and Medical Arts and Photography Branch, NIH This material is based on work supported by the National Institutes of Health under Contract No. 263-02-C-0061. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the view of the funding agency. Copyright © 2005 by BSCS. All rights reserved. You have the permission of BSCS to reproduce items in this module for your classroom use. The copyright on this module, however, does not cover reproduction of these items for any other use. 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