Introduction to Sociological Research

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Introduction to Market ResearchGood instincts and intuition certainly play important roles in business. But gut feelings about your customers' needs and preferences aren’t enough. If you want to minimize risk and improve your chances of success, you need sound, objective data. That's where market research comes in. Market research is the process of collecting and analyzing information about the customers you want to reach, called your target market. This information provides you with the business intelligence you need to make informed decisions. Market research can help you create a business plan, launch a new product or service, fine tune your existing products and services, expand into new markets, develop an advertising campaign, set prices or select a business location. Types of Market ResearchMarket research methods fall into two basic categories: primary and secondary. Your research might involve one or both, depending on your company’s needs. Primary research involves collecting original data about the preferences, buying habits, opinions and attitudes of current or prospective customers. This data can be gathered in focus groups, surveys and field tests. Secondary research is based on existing data from reference books, magazines and newspapers, industry publications, chambers of commerce, government agencies or trade associations. It yields information about industry sales trends and growth rates, demographic profiles and regional business statistics. Using Market ResearchMarket research allows you to pinpoint a host of key business factors about your market. It can help you identify: o Growth trends in your business sector o Size of your target market o Best location for your business o How your business stacks up against the competition o Factors that influence buying decisions o Degree of demand for your product or serviceIt also can reveal key information about your customers and prospects, including: o Their demographic profile o The types of features or special services they want o What they like and dislike about your product or service o How they use your product or service o How often they buy and how much they will pay for your product or service Once you analyze the results of your market research, you'll be in a better position to create a focused business plan, develop a targeted advertising campaign, set competitive prices, select a new business location or take other steps to grow your company.Market-Research TechniquesMarket research can provide critical information about the buying habits, needs, preferences and opinions of current and prospective customers. While there are many ways to perform market research, most businesses use one or more of five basic methods: surveys, focus groups, personal interviews, observation and field trials. The type of data you need and how much money you?re willing to spend will determine which techniques you choose for your business. 1. Surveys. Using concise, straightforward questionnaires, you can analyze a sample group that represents your target market. The larger the sample, the more reliable the results. o In-person surveys are one-on-one interviews typically conducted in high-traffic locations such as shopping malls. They allow you to present people with samples of products, packaging or advertising and gather immediate feedback. In-person surveys can generate response rates of more than 90 percent, but they are costly. With the time and labor involved, the tab for an in-person survey can run as high as $100 per interview. o Telephone surveys are less expensive than in-person surveys, but costlier than mail. However, due to consumer resistance to relentless telemarketing, getting people Introduction to Sociological Research Introduction to Sociological Research Bởi: OpenStaxCollege Concertgoers enjoy a show What makes listening to live music among a crowd of people appealing? How are the motivations and behaviors of groups of people at concerts different from those of groups in other settings, such as theme parks? These are questions that sociological research can aim to answer (Photo courtesy of Benjamin Cook/flickr) In the campus cafeteria, you set your lunch tray down at a table, grab a chair, join a group of your college classmates, and hear the start of two discussions One person says, “It’s weird how Jimmy Buffett has so many devoted fans.” Another says, “Disney World is packed year-round.” Those two seemingly benign statements are claims, or opinions, based on everyday observation of human behavior Perhaps the speakers had firsthand experience, talked to experts, conducted online research, or saw news segments on TV In response, two conversations erupt “I don’t see why anyone would want to go to Disney World and stand in those long lines.” “Are you kidding?! Going to Disney World is one of my favorite childhood memories.” 1/3 Introduction to Sociological Research “It’s the opposite for me with Jimmy Buffett After seeing one of his shows, I don’t need to go again.” “Yet some people make it a lifestyle.” “A theme park is way different than a concert.” “But both are places people go for the same thing: a good time.” “If you call getting lost in a crowd of thousands of strangers fun.” As your classmates at the lunch table discuss what they know or believe, the two topics converge The conversation becomes a debate Someone compares Parrotheads to Packers fans Someone else compares Disney World to a cruise Students take sides, agreeing or disagreeing, as the conversation veers to topics such as crowd control, mob mentality, political protests, and group dynamics If you contributed your expanding knowledge of sociological research to this conversation, you might make statements like these: “Jimmy Buffett’s fans long for escapism Parrotheads join together claiming they want freedom, except they only want a temporary escape.” And this: “Mickey Mouse is a symbol of America just like the Statue of Liberty Disney World is a place where families go to celebrate what they see as America.” You finish lunch, clear away your tray, and hurry to your next class But you are thinking of Jimmy Buffett and Disney World You have a new perspective on human behavior and a list of questions that you want answered That is the purpose of sociological research—to investigate and provide insights into how human societies function Although claims and opinions are part of sociology, sociologists use empirical evidence (that is, evidence corroborated by direct experience and/or observation) combined with the scientific method or an interpretive framework to deliver sound sociological research They also rely on a theoretical foundation that provides an interpretive perspective through which they can make sense of scientific results A truly scientific sociological study of the social situations up for discussion in the cafeteria would involve these prescribed steps: defining a specific question, gathering information and resources through observation, forming a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis in a reproducible manner, analyzing and drawing conclusions from the data, publishing the results, and anticipating further development when future researchers respond to and retest findings An appropriate starting point in this case might be the question "What fans of Jimmy Buffett seek that drives them to attend his concerts faithfully?" 2/3 Introduction to Sociological Research As you begin to think like a sociologist, you may notice that you have tapped into your observation skills You might assume that your observations and insights are valuable and accurate But the results of casual observation are limited by the fact that there is no standardization—who is to say one person’s observation of an event is any more accurate than another’s? To mediate these concerns, sociologists rely on systematic research processes 3/3 [...]... 4 .12 4 .13 4 .14 4 .15 4 .16 5 .1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 Figure 6 .1 Reports on Aboriginal youth and all youth-crime reports, Feb 19 91 to Jan 19 92 3 News reports on Aboriginal youth-crime and all youth-crime with actual crime data, Feb 19 91 to Jan 19 92 4 From assertions to evidence 23 Operationalization 48 Methods of data collection and personal involvement 65 Checklist for research design 66 Research methods. .. 6.7 6.8 6.9 6 .10 6 .11 Table 6 .12 Table 6 .13 Table 6 .14 Table 6 .15 Table 6 .16 Table 6 .17 Table 6 .18 Table 6 .19 Table 6.20 Table 7 .1 x Percentage of votes within each section 17 2 A 2 Â 2 contingency table 17 3 Data for job performance and EC test 17 4 Computational details for Table 6.7 17 5 Some commonly used values from a set of normal tables 18 2 Frequencies in colour and shape of peas 18 4 Hypothetical... as belonging to `business' or `labour' 10 0 Religious affiliation splits the vote sharply 10 1 One-step model of mass-media influence 10 2 Two-step model of mass-media influence 10 2 Inductive approach 10 4 Deductive approach 10 4 A stem and leaf display of ESP data 11 4 Histogram of hypothetical examination marks 11 5 The anatomy of a boxplot 11 6 Boxplots for two hypothetical variables X and Y 11 7 Side-by-side... Side-by-side boxplots 11 8 Preference for telecommunications carrier 12 1 A different way to display preference for telecommunications carrier 12 1 Scatterplot for data in Table 6 .1 150 FIGURES Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure xii 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9 6 .10 6 .11 6 .12 6 .13 6 .14 Negative association between two variables 15 0 No relationship... News Reports 25 20 15 10 5 0 FEB ' 91 MAR APR MAY JUNE JULY AUG SEP OCT NOV Date in Months Reports on Aboriginal Youth DEC JAN '92 All Youth-Crime Reports CHART 1. 1 Reports on Aboriginal youth and all youth-crime reports, Feb .19 9 1to Jan .19 92 kind of output in a purely Ql mode We had to show our findings graphically This meant a lot of arduous work, transferring the totals of each cell into an Excel spreadsheet... of News Reports (10 =10 ), No of Apprehension (10 =10 0) and No of Offences Reported to Police (10 =10 00) 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 FEB ' 91 MAR APR MAY JUNE JULY AUG SEPT Date in Months OCT NOV DEC JAN '92 Aboriginal Youth-Crime Reports All Youth-Crime Reports All Juvenile Apprehensions Aboriginal Juvenile (Male) Apprehensions Stolen Motor Vehicles, Break and Enter and Burglaries Reported to Police (Crime... Influences of the family on suicide, unmarried men 2 21 Influences of the family on suicide, unmarried women 2 21 Example from Accounting for Tastes: combined music genre preferences by gender 233 Figures Chart 1. 1 Chart 1. 2 Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure 2 .1 3 .1 4 .1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 Figure 4.8 Figure 4.9 Figure 4 .10 Figure 4 .11 Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure... relationship between two variables 15 1 Scatterplot showing an outlier 15 1 A curvilinear relationship 15 5 Fitting a line through points on a scatterplot 15 7 Illustrating the concept of residual 15 8 Bar chart of frequency of votes by selection 17 2 Bar chart of raw percentage of votes by selection 17 3 The normal distribution of a normal curve 17 9 The t-distribution 18 3 Durkheim's theoretical hypothesis... successful free throws in two 3 Defining the Inquiry `Then how do you know?' `I never guess' Sherlock Holmes, The Sign of Four Sherlock Holmes realized that what often led the police of his day astray was their tendency to adopt theories of a crime based on the wrong facts. There is nothing more deceptive than an obvious fact, says Holmes. `By an examination of the ground I gained the trifling details which I gave to that imbecile Lestrade, as to the personality of the criminal.' `But how did you gain them?' `You know my method. It is founded upon the observation of trifles.' (The Boscombe Valley Mystery) Sherlock Holmes said that he did not guess. He relied on observations and he had a method for analysing those observations. `Seeing' was not enough for Holmes. Accurate observations were essential for his method. 'You see, but you do not observe [said Holmes to Watson]. The distinction is clear. For example, you have frequently seen the steps which lead up from the hall to this room.' 'Frequently.' 'How often?' 'Well, some hundreds of times.' 'Then how many are there?' 'How many? I don't know.' 'Quite so! You have not observed. And yet you have seen. That is just my point. Now, I know that there are seventeen steps, because I have both seen and observed.' (A Scandal in Bohemia) Observations are the key to quantitative research methods. Measuring observations is the task of quantitative research. But knowing that your observations are quantifiable and constitute real evidence is no simple mat- ter. In Chapter 2 we discovered that there is a range of ways of starting an inquiry and designing a quantitative research study. We also found that social scientists, like detectives, have different styles of reasoning about evidence and what constitutes evidence. Finding a clue is one thing. But making inferences, judgements, about the relevance of the clue is another matter. Holmes's criticism of the police is based on his judgement that the police not only missed the important clues but that their system for making judgements about clues was also wrong. Holmes criticized police meth- odology ± their science for finding out, as well as their method ± their actual techniques for recognizing and collecting clues. In this chapter we will explore the different styles of reasoning about evidence ± meth- odology ± and the systems of measurement that have been developed to quantify observations. TOOLS OF METHODOLOGY Holmes did not like theorizing ± trying to provide explanations ± without data. He took detection to be about observed data, deduction and predic- tion. His methods of detection, he said, were `an impersonal thing ± a thing beyond myself'. The great consulting detective's methods of detection entailed `severe reasoning from cause to effect' and, according to him, were really the only notable feature about his cases. `Crime is common. Logic is rare', said Holmes to Watson, berating his loyal partner for being too sensationalist in his accounts of the different cases. `It is upon the logic rather than upon the crime that you should dwell.' Holmes said that `all life is a great chain, the nature of which is known whenever we are shown a single link' (Study in Scarlet). If you think that this statement sounds `nomothetic', then you are correct. Holmes's confidence in his ability to show the `great chain' even extended to attempts to read the train of thought of a person from their features, as was demonstrated to Dr Watson in the story of the The Resident Patient. It had been a close, rainy day in October. Our blinds were half-drawn, and Holmes lay curled upon the sofa, reading and re-reading a letter which he had received by the morning post. For myself, my term of service in India had trained me to stand heat better than cold, and a thermometer of ninety was no hardship. But the paper was uninteresting. 4 Methods of Inquiry `It is a capital mistake to theorize before one has data!' `I have no data yet. It is a capital mistake to theorize before one has data. Insensibly one begins to twist facts to suit theories, instead of theories to suit facts' Sherlock Holmes, A Scandal in Bohemia Holmes's methods of detection, he said, were `an impersonal thing ± a thing beyond myself'. The methods of quantitative social science research are similarly a thing apart from us. Our research designs and our research definitions are open to scrutiny and criticism. Even if we guess in social science research ± abduction ± we still need to test our guesses, our observations, with data. This is Holmes's point. `Data' is essential before we start to make `why' or `because' conclusions from our observations. But recognizing what is and what is not a clue, data, is itself an art, as we saw in the last chapter. Brother Cadfael, the monk-detective in Ellis Peters' novels, always held back on his decisions on what was and what was not a `clue'. In The Sanctuary Sparrow a young man comes to the abbey seeking sanctuary, safety, after being chased and beaten by men seeking his death. The abbot asks the men why they are chasing the young man: `My Lord, I will speak for all, I have the right. We mean no disrespect to the abbey or your lordship, but we want that man for murder and robbery done tonight. I accuse him! All here will bear me out. He has struck down my father and plundered his strong-box, and we are come to take him. So if your lordship will allow, we'll rid you of him' (Peters, 1985: 11±12). The abbey looks after the young man while Brother Cadfael inves- tigates. `We have time, and given time, truth with out', says Cadfael (Peters, 1985: 23). Cadfael senses that the young man is innocent but does not let this influence his thinking on innocence or guilt in his investigation. Lord Peter Wimsey, Dorothy Sayers' aristocrat detective, is also warned by Parker, his police friend, not to accept uncritically what appears to be obvious. Wimsey is not amused. `Five-foot ten,' said Lord Peter, `and not an inch more.' He peered dubiously at the depression in the bed-clothes, and measured it a second time with the gentleman- scout's vademecum. Parker entered this particular in a neat pocket-book. `I suppose,' he said, `a six-foot-two man might leave a five-foot-ten depression if he curled himself up.' `Have you any Scotch blood in you, Parker?' inquired his colleague, bitterly. `Not that I know of,' replied Parker, `Why?' `Because of all the cautious, ungenerous, deliberate and cold-blooded devils I know,' said Lord Peter, `you are the most cautious, ungenerous, deliberate and cold-blooded. Here am I, sweating my brains out to introduce a really sensational incident into your dull and disreputable little police investigation, and you refuse to show a single spark of enthusiasm.' `Well, it's no good jumping at conclusions.' `Jump? You don't even crawl distantly within sight of a conclusion. I believe if you caught the cat with her head in the cream-jug, you'd say it was conceivable that the jug was empty when she got there.' `Well, it would be conceivable, wouldn't it?' `Curse you,' said Lord Peter. (Sayers, 1989: 54±55) INVOLVEMENT AND METHOD A good research design reduces the risk of bias and of `jumping the gun' on conclusions. A good research design is careful in its decision on what counts as a `clue'. The men chasing the young man thought that they had the right clues, but they did not. This is not to say that there should be no personal involvement in research. Some methods of detection in social science research involve the researcher as the `data collecting instrument', such as participant observation. Participant observation ± for example liv- ing with a traditional society in 5 `DATA! DATA! DATA!' Analysing data from the inquiry 'Data! data! data!' he cried impatiently. 'I can't make bricks out of clay' Sherlock Holmes, The Adventure of the Copper Beeches `Data' never comes to the social scientist clean, like cement for bricks. As we found in Chapters 3 and 4, the society a person lives in ± and a person's beliefs ± can directly affect what counts as a `clue' and what counts as `evidence'. Holmes himself was not entirely free from the racial and gender stereotypes of his time. Holmes says, for example, that `emotional qualities are antagonistic to clear reasoning', but he is equally able to proclaim as fact that `women are never to be entirely trusted' (The Sign of Four). Operational definitions can be affected by the society we live in. But it is wrong to then conclude that we can never retrieve useful quantitative data from the study of psychology or society. Holmes, for all his faults, could see alternative points of view, even if he did not like them: `if you shift your own point of view a little, you may find it pointing in an equally uncompromising manner to something entirely different' (The Boscombe Valley Mystery). Recognition of the problems of validity and making sense of common sense is a good first step in creating a valid and reliable research study. Always ask to see a person's research design; always ask to see their defini- tions. The same principle holds for exploring statistical data. Always ask for the data! Numbers are not neutral ± they form patterns and they tell a story. LOOKING AT THE CLUES: The Statistical Sleuth Good detective work involves making sense of the clues, making sense of the variables, collected. Hercule Poirot, for instance, sometimes guesses who committed a murder before he has the evidence. `As I say, I was convinced from the first moment I saw her that Mrs. Tanios was the person I was looking for, but I had absolutely no proof of the fact. I had to proceed carefully' (Christie, 1982: 247). Proof of the fact is a part of data analysis in social science research. Proceeding carefully is exactly what you need to do when you start trying to make sense of individual clues. Why Explore Data? Some research studies have well-defined hypotheses that are tested by the researcher. Some studies, such as People's Choice, have broad research ques- tions that invite exploration. In both cases good data analysts plot their data before they use sophisticated statistical procedures. Graphical displays of data are one of the most important aids in identifying and understanding patterns of data and relationships among variables. Indeed Chambers et al. (1983: 1) go as far as saying that `there is no statistical tool that is as power- ful as a well-chosen graph'. Over the past two decades a number of new methods for displaying data have been developed that allow for more informative examination of data. Most of these methods belong to a family of techniques known as explor- atory data analysis (see Tukey, 1977). These tools are particularly appropriate for the statistical sleuth ± or the `data snooper', ± as Abelson (1995) aptly put it. The data snooper is an analyst who is vigilant of odd patterns or irregularities in data. These irregularities may suggest that something strange is going on ± for example, calculation errors, data entry errors, data not conforming to distributional assumptions or, in more serious cases, data that are fraudulent. Graphs and plots draw out hidden aspects of the data and relationships among variables that a person may not have anticipated. These `data-driven discoveries' may spark new investigations previously not considered and may eventually lead to changes in the theories or hypotheses driving the original investigation. Graphs and plots may complement textual material that in turn may provide a more complete picture of the issue under investigation. ... attend his concerts faithfully?" 2/3 Introduction to Sociological Research As you begin to think like a sociologist, you may notice that you have tapped into your observation skills You might... conversation veers to topics such as crowd control, mob mentality, political protests, and group dynamics If you contributed your expanding knowledge of sociological research to this conversation,.. .Introduction to Sociological Research “It’s the opposite for me with Jimmy Buffett After seeing one of his shows, I don’t need to go again.” “Yet some people make