Types of Skeletal Systems

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The graphs below show the types of music albums purchased by people in Britain according to s3x and age. Write a report for a university lecturer describing the information shown below.You should write at least 150 words. You should spend about 20 minutes on this task. model answer: The three graphs provide an overview of the types of music people purchase in the UK. At first glance we see that classical music is far less popular than pop or rock music. While slightly more women than men buy pop music, the rock market is dominated by men with 30% buying rock, compared to 17% of women. From the first graph we see that interest in pop music is steady from age 16 to 44 with 20% of the population continuing to buy pop CDs after the age of 45. The interest in rock music reaches its peak among the 25 to 34 year olds, though it never sells as well as pop. Interest also drops off after the age of 35 with an even sharper fall from age 45 onwards, a pattern which is the opposite to the classical music graph. Types of Skeletal Systems Types of Skeletal Systems Bởi: OpenStaxCollege A skeletal system is necessary to support the body, protect internal organs, and allow for the movement of an organism There are three different skeleton designs that fulfill these functions: hydrostatic skeleton, exoskeleton, and endoskeleton Hydrostatic Skeleton A hydrostatic skeleton is a skeleton formed by a fluid-filled compartment within the body, called the coelom The organs of the coelom are supported by the aqueous fluid, which also resists external compression This compartment is under hydrostatic pressure because of the fluid and supports the other organs of the organism This type of skeletal system is found in soft-bodied animals such as sea anemones, earthworms, Cnidaria, and other invertebrates ([link]) The skeleton of the red-knobbed sea star (Protoreaster linckii) is an example of a hydrostatic skeleton (credit: “Amada44”/Wikimedia Commons) Movement in a hydrostatic skeleton is provided by muscles that surround the coelom The muscles in a hydrostatic skeleton contract to change the shape of the coelom; the pressure of the fluid in the coelom produces movement For example, earthworms move by waves of muscular contractions of the skeletal muscle of the body wall hydrostatic skeleton, called peristalsis, which alternately shorten and lengthen the body Lengthening the body extends the anterior end of the organism Most organisms have a mechanism to fix themselves in the substrate Shortening the muscles then draws the posterior portion of the body forward Although a hydrostatic skeleton is well-suited 1/16 Types of Skeletal Systems to invertebrate organisms such as earthworms and some aquatic organisms, it is not an efficient skeleton for terrestrial animals Exoskeleton An exoskeleton is an external skeleton that consists of a hard encasement on the surface of an organism For example, the shells of crabs and insects are exoskeletons ([link]) This skeleton type provides defence against predators, supports the body, and allows for movement through the contraction of attached muscles As with vertebrates, muscles must cross a joint inside the exoskeleton Shortening of the muscle changes the relationship of the two segments of the exoskeleton Arthropods such as crabs and lobsters have exoskeletons that consist of 30–50 percent chitin, a polysaccharide derivative of glucose that is a strong but flexible material Chitin is secreted by the epidermal cells The exoskeleton is further strengthened by the addition of calcium carbonate in organisms such as the lobster Because the exoskeleton is acellular, arthropods must periodically shed their exoskeletons because the exoskeleton does not grow as the organism grows Muscles attached to the exoskeleton of the Halloween crab (Gecarcinus quadratus) allow it to move Endoskeleton An endoskeleton is a skeleton that consists of hard, mineralized structures located within the soft tissue of organisms An example of a primitive endoskeletal structure is the spicules of sponges The bones of vertebrates are composed of tissues, whereas sponges have no true tissues ([link]) Endoskeletons provide support for the body, protect internal organs, and allow for movement through contraction of muscles attached to the skeleton 2/16 Types of Skeletal Systems The skeletons of humans and horses are examples of endoskeletons (credit: Ross Murphy) The human skeleton is an endoskeleton that consists of 206 bones in the adult It has five main functions: providing support to the body, storing minerals and lipids, producing blood cells, protecting internal organs, and allowing for movement The skeletal system in vertebrates is divided into the axial skeleton (which consists of the skull, vertebral column, and rib cage), and the appendicular skeleton (which consists of the shoulders, limb bones, the pectoral girdle, and the pelvic girdle) Link to Learning Visit the interactive body site to build a virtual skeleton: select "skeleton" and click through the activity to place each bone Human Axial Skeleton The axial skeleton forms the central axis of the body and includes the bones of the skull, ossicles of the middle ear, hyoid bone of the throat, vertebral column, and the thoracic cage (ribcage) ([link]) The function of the axial skeleton is to provide support 3/16 Types of Skeletal Systems and protection for the brain, the spinal cord, and the organs in the ventral body cavity It provides a surface for the attachment of muscles that move the head, neck, and trunk, performs respiratory movements, and stabilizes parts of the appendicular skeleton The axial skeleton consists of the bones of the skull, ossicles of the middle ear, hyoid bone, vertebral column, and rib cage (credit: modification of work by Mariana Ruiz Villareal) The Skull The bones of the skull support the structures of the face and protect the brain The skull consists of 22 bones, which are divided into two categories: cranial bones and facial bones The ...9SERVICE TECH Vol.465 03-4 The previous session covered the changes in the environment surrounding the diesel engine and described the ECDsystem (ECD-V series) and the common-rail system. This session describes the types of systems in the ECD-V seriesand their system configurations. Although the injection pump has the same basic construction as the distribution type pump, the ECD-V3 includesthe parts listed below due to the adoption of electronic control.• Solenoid spill valve (SPV) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . An actuator that controls the injection volume• NE sensor (NE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A sensor that detects the cam position of the pump• Fuel temperature sensor (THF) . . . . . . . . . . . . A sensor that detects the temperature of the fuel• Correction resistor or ROM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A part that corrects the injection volume and injection timing• Timing control valve (TCV). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . An actuator that controls the injection timing The V1 is the first of the ECD-V series, which appearedin 1982. The V3, a swirl-chamber type diesel injectionsystem, appeared in 1985. The V3, which adopted a solenoid spill valve to controlfuel injection, enabled the control of the injection volumeon a cylinder-by-cylinder basis. Depending on the type of final injection volumecorrection and the solenoid spill valve that are used,three types of ECD-V3 are available: ECD-V3, ECD-V3(ROM), and ECD-V3 direct-acting valve. The V4 direct-injection diesel fuel injection system forsmall trucks and SUVs appeared in 1998. The V4 system, which uses an inner cam pumping mechanism, enables high-pressure injection at 1,300 bars. The V5 direct-injection diesel fuel injection system for passenger vehicles appeared at about the same time. TheV5 system uses pilot injection to reduce the combustion noise of the engine.11Types of Systems in ECD-V Series1-1 ECD-V Series1-2 Injection Pump for ECD-V3 10SERVICE TECH Vol.465 03-4 The ECD-V4, which is based on the ECD-V3, is an electronically controlled distribution type pump that hasadopted a completely new construction. The combustion performance of the engine with the ECD-V4 has beenimproved (by atomizing the fuel into finer particles and optimizing the rise rate of the injection pressure), andproviding the injection volume and injection timing with a higher level of precision and freedom. With respect to themajor changes that have been made from the ECD-V3, an inner cam mechanism, a highly responsive solenoidspill valve and EDU, and a correction ROM have been adopted. The ECD-V5, which is based on the ECD-V3, is a distribution type, electronically controlled fuel injection pump thatoffers higher injection performance and functionality. It provides pilot injection to reduce the combustion noise of theengine.1-3 Injection Pump for ECD-V41-4 Injection Pump for ECD-V5 SERVICE TECH Vol.465 03-411 The configuration of the ECD-V series system can be broadly classified into the following three systems: Intakeair system, Fuel system, and Control system. Intake air system . .This system, which draws the air that is necessary for combustion, consists of the areasfrom the air cleaner to the intake manifold. Fuel system . . . . . .This system, which injects the fuel that is necessary for combustion into the A METHODOLOGY FOR VALIDATION OF INTEGRATED SYSTEMS MODELS WITH AN APPLICATION TO COASTAL-ZONE MANAGEMENT IN SOUTH-WEST SULAWESI Tien Giang Nguyen Promotion committee: Prof. dr.ir. H.J. Grootenboer University of Twente, chairman/secretary Prof. dr. P.G.E.F. Augustinus University of Utrecht, promoter Prof. dr. S.J.M.H. Hulscher University of Twente, promoter Dr. J.L. de Kok University of Twente, assistant promoter Prof. dr.ir. A.Y. Hoekstra University of Twente Prof. dr.ir. H.G. Wind University of Twente Prof. dr.ir. A.E. Mynett UNESCO-IHE / WL | Delft Hydraulics Prof. dr. S.M. de Jong University of Utrecht Dr. M.J. Titus University of Utrecht ISBN 90-365-2227-7 Printed by: PrintPartners Ipskamp, Enschede Copyright © 2005 Tien Giang Nguyen. All rights reserved. A METHODOLOGY FOR VALIDATION OF INTEGRATED SYSTEMS MODELS WITH AN APPLICATION TO COASTAL-ZONE MANAGEMENT IN SOUTH-WEST SULAWESI DISSERTATION to obtain the doctor’s degree at the University of Twente, on the authority of the rector magnificus, prof.dr. W.H.M. Zijm, on account of the decision of the graduation committee, to be publicly defended on Friday August 26, 2005 at 15.00 by Tien Giang Nguyen born on April 12, 1976 in Hanoi This dissertation has been approved by: prof. dr. P.G.E.F. Augustinus Promoter prof. dr. S.J.M.H. Hulscher Promoter dr. J.L. de Kok Assistant Promoter To the memory of my father Contents Preface…….……………………………………………………………………… 1. Introduction………………………………………………… .….………… . 1.1. General introduction……………………………………………….…… . 1.2. Background………………………………………………………….……. 1.2.1. Systems approach………………………………………………… . 1.2.2. Integrated approach and Integrated Assessment…………………… 1.2.3. Integrated management and policy analysis……………… .… . 1.3. The problem of validating Integrated Systems Models………………… 1.4. Research aim and research questions…………………………… . 1.5. Case study description…………………………………………………… 1.5.1. RaMCo…………………………………………………………… . 1.5.2. Study area………………………………………………………… 1.6. Outline of the thesis……………………………………………………… 2. Methodology……….… ……… ……………………………………………. 2.1. Introduction …………… …………………………………………… 2.2. Literature review…………………………………………………………. 2.3. Concept definition.……………………… ………………………… . 2.4. Conceptual framework of analysis………………………………… 2.5. Procedure for validation………………………………………… 2.6. Conclusion……………………………………………………………… . 3. Validation of an integrated systems model for coastal-zone management using sensitivity and uncertainty analyses…………………………………… . 3.1. Introduction ……… ………………………………………………… 3.2. Methodology….…………………………………………… …………… 3.2.1. Basics for the method……………………………………………… 3.2.2. The testing procedure……………………………………………… 3.2.3. The sensitivity analysis……………………………………… 3.2.4. The elicitation of expert opinions…………………………… 3.2.5. The uncertainty propagation…………………………………… 3.2.6. The validation tests………………………………………………… 3.3. Results……………………………………………………………………. 3.3.1. Sensitivity analysis…………………………………………………. 3.3.2. Elicitation of expert opinions………………………………………. 11 13 13 14 14 19 21 23 25 26 26 27 31 33 33 34 36 38 40 42 45 45 46 46 47 [...]... Market ic om c on ms E st e Sy Pure Command Australia 83% Pure Market Three Basic Economic Questions • What to produce? This question asks what people will make and sell Many countries produce goods or services based on which resources are available and which will make the most money for the lowest cost A country's type of economy usually has less influence on this question than it does on the other... sent to other countries, in order to keep cost down Downsizing reduces the number of employees, also allowing cost to be kept down • For whom to produce? This question asks whom goods are services will be made for People in market economies will produce for a target market This will allow them to make the greatest profit ANTILOCK BRAKE SYSTEMS AND RISK OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF CRASHES IN TRAFFIC Leonard Evans General Motors Global R&D Operations United States Paper Number 98-S2-O-12 ABSTRACT While antilock brakes (ABS) have been convincingly demonstrated to enhance test track braking performance, their effect on crash risk in actual driving remains less clear This paper examines how ABS influences crash risk using mainly two published studies which used police-reported crashes The published findings are augmented by including new data and additional results All the work is based on seven General Motors passenger vehicles having ABS as standard equipment for 1992 models but not available for 199 models The ratio of crashes under an adverse condition (say, when the pavement is wet) to under a normal condition (say, when the pavement is dry) is compared for ABS and non-ABS vehicles After correcting for such factors as model year effects not linked to ABS, the following associations between ABS and crash risk were found by averaging data from the five states Texas, Missouri, North Carolina, Pennsylvania and Indiana (the errors are one standard error); a (10 k 3)% relative lower crash risk on wet roads compared to the corresponding comparison on dry roads; a (22 Y& l)% lower risk of a pedestrian crash compared to the risk of a non-pedestrian crash; a (39 & 16)% increase in rollover crash risk compared to the risk of a non-rollover crash Data from the same five states were used to examine two-vehicle rear-end collisions Using the assumption that side-impact crashes estimate exposure, it was found that for wet roads ABS reduces the risk of crashing into a lead vehicle by (32 8)%, but increases the risk of being struck in the rear by (30 f 14)% The results from this study and from all available reported studies are summarized in tabular form INTRODUCTION Anti-lock braking systems (ABS) use electronic controls to maintain wheel rotation under hard braking that would otherwise lock a vehicle’s wheels Keeping the wheels rotating increases vehicle stability, especially when tire/roadway friction is reduced or varying, as when the pavement is wet Prior general understanding of the relationship between improved braking and safety [ 1, p 2823061, together with earlier specific literature on antilock 445 braking, leads one to anticipate a complex interaction between ABS and safety Test track evaluations have convincingly demonstrated the technical advantages of ABS under a wide variety of conditions [2-41 A study [S] analyzing historical traffic crash data for a non-ABS vehicle fleet predicted that universal ABS in Germany could diminish severe crashes by 10 to 15% However, when taxi drivers in Munich were randomly assigned vehicles with and without ABS, no overall difference in crash rates between the two groups was observed, although each group experienced different types of crashes [6] Because the severity of crashes apparently induced by ABS was less than that for the crashes prevented, the study suggests that the ABS system led to a net reduction in harm An analysis of Swedish insurance data uncovered associations between the rates of occurrence of different types of crashes and ABS [7] An analysis of Canadian insurance data found a 9% reduction in claim frequency, but a 10% increase in average claim severity [8] The Highway Loss Data Institute [9] found no change associated with ABS in either the frequency or severity of traffic crashes A study [lo] using police-reported crashes per registered vehicle reports a 6% to 8% reduction in crash risk due to ABS, while another study using fatal crashes [ 111 finds an increase in risk to occupants of ABS equipped vehicles but a decrease in risk to other road users The present paper aims at increasing understanding about the relationship between ABS and traffic safety by summarizing the results of two recent studies [ 12,131, augmenting these results with additional data and findings, and then comparing the results ... 10/16 Types of Skeletal Systems The upper limb consists of the humerus of the upper arm, the radius and ulna of the forearm, eight bones of the carpus, five bones of the metacarpus, and 14 bones of. .. 4/16 Types of Skeletal Systems The bones of the skull support the structures of the face and protect the brain (credit: modification of work by Mariana Ruiz Villareal) The auditory ossicles of. .. allow for movement through contraction of muscles attached to the skeleton 2/16 Types of Skeletal Systems The skeletons of humans and horses are examples of endoskeletons (credit: Ross Murphy)