Tài liệu PDF Power and Authority

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Power and Authority Power and Authority Bởi: OpenStaxCollege The White House, one of the world’s most widely recognized state buildings, symbolizes the authority of the U.S presidency (Courtesy U.S National Archives/Wikimedia Commons) From the time of King Henry VIII to the time of Will and Kate, the role of the royal family in the British government has shifted dramatically Between those two eras—and across the Atlantic—former British subjects in what is now the United States fought for an alternative system of government one that left no room for royalty Despite these differences, governments play the same fundamental role: in some fashion, they exert control over the people they govern The nature of that control—what we will define as power and authority—is an important part of society Sociologists have a distinctive approach to studying governmental power and authority that differs from the perspective of political scientists For the most part, political scientists focus on studying how power is distributed in different types of political systems They would observe, for example, that the United States’ political system is divided into three distinct branches (legislative, executive, and judicial), and they would explore how public opinion affects political parties, elections, and the political process in general Sociologists, however, tend to be more interested in the influences of governmental power on society and in how social conflicts arise from the distribution of power Sociologists also examine how the use of power affects local, state, national, and global agendas, which in turn affect people differently based on status, class, and socioeconomic standing 1/9 Power and Authority What Is Power? Nazi leader Adolf Hitler was one of the most powerful and destructive dictators in modern history, pictured here with fascist Benito Mussolini of Italy (Photo courtesy of U.S National Archives and Records Administration) For centuries, philosophers, politicians, and social scientists have explored and commented on the nature of power Pittacus (c 640-568 B.C.E.) opined, “The measure of a man is what he does with power,” and Lord Acton perhaps more famously asserted, “Power tends to corrupt; absolute power corrupts absolutely” (1887) Indeed, the concept of power can have decidedly negative connotations, and the term itself is difficult to define Many scholars adopt the definition developed by German sociologist Max Weber, who said that power is the ability to exercise one’s will over others (Weber 1922) Power affects more than personal relationships; it shapes larger dynamics like social groups, professional organizations, and governments Similarly, a government’s power is not necessarily limited to control of its own citizens A dominant nation, for instance, will often use its clout to influence or support other governments or to seize control of other nation states Efforts by the U.S government to wield power in other countries have included joining with other nations to form the Allied forces during World War II, entering Iraq in 2002 to topple Saddam Hussein’s regime, and imposing sanctions on the government of North Korea in the hopes of constraining its development of nuclear weapons Endeavors to gain power and influence not necessarily lead to violence, exploitation, or abuse Leaders such as Martin Luther King Jr and Mohandas Gandhi, for example, commanded powerful movements that affected positive change without military force Both men organized nonviolent protests to combat corruption and injustice and succeeded in inspiring major reform They relied on a variety of nonviolent protest strategies such as rallies, sit-ins, marches, petitions, and boycotts Modern technology has made such forms of nonviolent reform easier to implement Today, protesters can use cell phones and the internet to disseminate information and 2/9 Power and Authority plans to masses of protesters in a rapid and efficient manner In Tunisia in 2011, for example, a nonviolent popular uprising led to the president’s resignation, ushered in the end of one-party rule, and paved the way for efforts at reform The success of the Tunisian uprising, broadcast worldwide via Twitter feeds and other social media, was an inspiration to political activists in other countries as well (a spread of demonstrations that the media called the “Arab Spring”) Notice that, in this example, the users of power were the citizens rather than their governments They found they had power because they were able to exercise their will over their own leader Thus, government power does not necessarily equate with absolute power Young people and students were among the most ardent supporters of democratic reform in the recent Arab Spring Social media also played an important role in rallying grassroots support (Photo courtesy of cjb22/flickr) Did Facebook and Twitter Cause the Arab Spring? Recent movements and protests that were organized to reform governments and ... [...]... rights and the rights and obligations of international organisations all involve issues of personality.33 Reciprocity is an important aspect of the law of treaties, of persistent objection and other issues of opposability, and of the process of customary international law generally.34 Legitimate expectation is involved in the doctrines of pacta sunt servanda and estoppel and provides the basis for the law. .. expressing some of the ideas developed in the thesis was published in November 1995 in the Michigan Journal of International Law That article, entitled Custom, Power and the Power of Rules: An Interdisciplinary Perspective on Customary International Law , represented an early state of my thinking on the interaction of law and politics within the context of customary international law Many of my ideas... power in customary international law transcends any distinction between the two disciplines, in part because of the particular expertise of international relations scholars in the study of power, and that of international lawyers in the rules, principles and processes of international law Thirdly, although it may be relatively easy to make a distinction between the politics of law- making and the legal... Franck and focuses on the legitimising effects of the customary process as such, on the effects of that process in transforming applications of power into obligation in the form of customary rules. 28 In doing so this book takes the additional step of examining how four principles of international law qualify applications of power within the customary process, in order to determine whether some rules of customary. .. elements of international relations theory and methodology There are four reasons why such a perspective seems desirable First, both international relations scholars and international lawyers are concerned about the relationship between power and normative structures, although they characteristically adopt different approaches to that relationship, and the subject of power Secondly, a study of the role of power. .. claim of international law, Amgraf, Inc. PDF Conference 2005 Page 1 of 10 PDF Forms and Database Connectivity Solutions By Franklin J. Garner, III President and CEO Amgraf, Inc. September 26, 2005 Introduction Every company and organization uses business forms, and now most have PC’s with access to the Internet. With great software like Amgraf OneForm Designer Plus (OFDP) and Adobe Acrobat, paper forms can be converted to Internet forms (I-forms) thereby saving significant costs in printing and storage. With additional effort, I-forms can be extended into fillable, submittable containers for data capture, retrieval, presentation, and processing. The benefits of database-connected I-forms solutions include improvements in productivity, transaction accuracy, and user satisfaction. So where’s the problem? Forms layout and design, and even the steps to insert fill fields, are usually graphic designer tasks. A non-connected PDF form is a self-contained file with everything packaged within the visual image. To make an I-form submittable, the originator must go beyond the form image and interact with software for field data extraction, data communication with acknowledgement, and navigational methods to start and end the form filling session. These functions have traditionally been performed by computer programmers, and are worrisome tasks for graphic designers. Adding database connectivity also introduces another layer of complexity onto I-forms. This white paper is intended to clarify the technical issues involved in implementing an I-forms data collection and retrieval system. Basic Internet Forms Functionality Internet forms can be used for many online transaction functions. The starting point is where the image of a form is converted so that it can be displayed on a computer screen and output to a local printer. Most Acrobat Distiller users have mastered this conversion step, and many web sites now have links to PDF forms for user access. Upon clicking a link, the free Adobe Reader opens within the browser window and a PDF form is displayed. The form can then be locally saved and/or printed. Amgraf, Inc. PDF Conference 2005 Page 2 of 10 With the Amgraf OFDP and Adobe Acrobat software, the form owner or originator can add many other functions to make PDF forms: • fillable • pre-populated • submittable • dynamic database views • field flattened Fillable forms have fill-fields overlaid on the form background so that field information can be keyed. Fields can be coded so that input validation occurs immediately, helping to reduce errors. With a little extra effort, fields can be programmed so that standard answers are chosen from drop-down lists, numerical amounts are immediately calculated, and other input values are automatically tested for correctness. Pre-populated forms open at the client PC with many fields already filled in. Field data can be transmitted along with the PDF file as Forms Data Format (FDF) instructions, or merged with the PDF form before it is served to the client. By pre-populating fields, the client is relieved of the burden of re-keying information already on file, and assured that the central system knows who is on the other end of the transaction. Submittable forms move field data in the other direction, from the client to the server. When a form is filled out, the information can be transmitted to the server so that it can be saved and/or processed immediately, without the need to rekey or scan in keystrokes from a paper document image. The benefit is that the costs associated with handling forms can be greatly reduced. Dynamic Detection Power, Estimation Efficiency, and Predictability in Event-Related fMRI Thomas T. Liu,* Lawrence R. Frank,* , † Eric C. Wong,* , ‡ and Richard B. Buxton* *Department of Radiology and ‡Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92037; and †Veterans Administration San Diego Healthcare System, La Jolla, California 92037 Received September 18, 2000; published online February 16, 2001 Experimental designs for event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging can be characterized by both their detection power, a measure of the ability to detect an activation, and their estimation efficiency, a measure of the ability to estimate the shape of the hemodynamic response. Randomized designs offer maximum estimation efficiency but poor detection power, while block designs offer good detection power at the cost of minimum estimation efficiency. Periodic single-trial designs are poor by both criteria. We present here a theoretical model of the relation be- tween estimation efficiency and detection power and show that the observed trade-off between efficiency and power is fundamental. Using the model, we ex- plore the properties of semirandom designs that offer intermediate trade-offs between efficiency and power. These designs can simultaneously achieve the estima- tion efficiency of randomized designs and the detec- tion power of block designs at the cost of increasing the length of an experiment by less than a factor of 2. Experimental designs can also be characterized by their predictability, a measure of the ability to circum- vent confounds such as habituation and anticipation. We examine the relation between detection power, es- timation efficiency, and predictability and show that small increases in predictability can offer significant gains in detection power with only a minor decrease in estimation efficiency. © 2001 Academic Press INTRODUCTION Event-related experimental designs for functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) have become in- creasingly popular because of their flexibility and their potential for avoiding some of the problems, such as habituation and anticipation, of more traditional block designs (Buckner et al., 1996, 1998; Dale and Buckner, 1997; Josephs et al., 1997; Zarahn et al., 1997; Burock et al., 1998; Friston et al., 1998a, 1999; Rosen et al., 1998; Dale, 1999; Josephs and Henson, 1999). In the evaluation of the sensitivity of experimental designs, it is useful to distinguish between the ability of a design to detect an activation, referred to as detection power, and the ability of a design to characterize the shape of the hemodynamic response, referred to as estimation efficiency (Buxton et al., 2000). Stimulus patterns in which the interstimulus intervals are properly ran- domized from trial to trial achieve optimal estimation efficiency (Dale, 1999) but relatively low detection power. Block designs, in which individual trials are tightly clustered into “on” periods of activation alter- nated with “off” control periods, obtain high detection power but very poor estimation efficiency. Dynamic stochastic designs have been proposed as a compromise between random and block designs (Friston et al., 1999). These designs regain some of the detection power of block designs, while retaining some of the ability of random designs to reduce preparatory or anticipatory confounds. In this paper we present a theoretical model that describes the relation between estimation efficiency and detection power. With this model we are able to show that the trade-off between estimation efficiency and detection power, as exemplified by the difference between block designs ... power and authority? Authority involves intimidation Authority is more subtle than power Authority is based on the perceived legitimacy of the individual in power 6/9 Power and Authority Authority... charismatic authority and legal-rational authority (Weber 1922) 4/9 Power and Authority Weber’s Three Types of AuthorityMax Weber identified and explained three distinct types of authority: Traditional... Endeavors to gain power and influence not necessarily lead to violence, exploitation, or abuse Leaders such as Martin Luther King Jr and Mohandas Gandhi, for example, commanded powerful movements