Tài liệu PDF Sex and Sexuality

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Fulbright Economics Teaching Program 2006-2007 Trade: Institutions and impact Ari Kokko 1 Lecture 1 Ari Kokko TRADE: INSTITUTIONS AND IMPACT Why and how do countries trade? Outline and schedule Ari Kokko Why do countries trade? • Get goods and services that cannot be produced at home • To accumulate gold • Get cheaper goods and services • Efficiency and growth • Different theories and policies for different motives Fulbright Economics Teaching Program 2006-2007 Trade: Institutions and impact Ari Kokko 2 Lecture 1 Ari Kokko Gains from trade: the simple view • Clear gains if countries are strong in different areas: absolute advantages • Less obvious - but undisputed - gains even if one country is “better” in all areas: comparative advantages Ari Kokko Absolute advantages Motorbikes Rice Vietnam 20 10 Laos 10 20 Labor requirements for one unit of output Fulbright Economics Teaching Program 2006-2007 Trade: Institutions and impact Ari Kokko 3 Lecture 1 Ari Kokko Comparative advantages Motorbikes Rice Vietnam 20 10 Laos 100 20 Labor requirements for one unit of output Ari Kokko Comparative advantages  Trade is profitable as soon as relative prices differ between countries  Why are there differences in relative prices?  Classical and neoclassical theory: – technology differences (Adam Smith 1776 / David Ricardo 1815) – differences in factor endowments (Heckscher- Ohlin 1930) Fulbright Economics Teaching Program 2006-2007 Trade: Institutions and impact Ari Kokko 4 Lecture 1 Ari Kokko Policy conclusions: neoclassical theory  Free trade and specialization is optimal  pattern of comparative advantages is given by nature  all industries are equally “desirable”  International framework should support development of free trade  unilateral liberalization more difficult because of protectionist interest groups and lack of coordination Ari Kokko Institutions: Bretton-Woods solutions  Four cornerstones of international economy after WWII to support growth of free trade – International Bank for Reconstruction and Development – International Monetary Fund – International Trade Organization – Price stabilization fund Fulbright Economics Teaching Program 2006-2007 Trade: Institutions and impact Ari Kokko 5 Lecture 1 Ari Kokko But why is world trade not free? • Protectionism leads to higher prices, lower consumption, and lower welfare both at home and abroad . • …so why is there still a lot of protectionism? Ari Kokko Unequal gains from trade at the micro level • Interest groups matter: trade benefits some groups but hurts others • trade raises the rewards of a country’s abundant factor of production and reduces the rewards of the scarce factor (Stolper-Samuelson theorem) • the groups that lose may oppose free trade • the transition to free trade may have troublesome social consequences Fulbright Economics Teaching Program 2006-2007 Trade: Institutions and impact Ari Kokko 6 Lecture 1 Ari Kokko Shortcomings in neoclassical trade theory  What if the assumptions of the neoclassical theory aren’t true? – all industries are not equally valuable: better to produce micro chips than potato chips – comparative advantages can be created: economies of scale and agglomeration effects Ari Kokko Modern trade theory  Economies of scale – Bigger is better – Hard to manage in free trade environment if American and Japanese companies will always be stronger  Need to manipulate comparative advantages – Strategic trade policy? Fulbright Economics Teaching Program 2006-2007 Trade: Institutions and impact Ari Kokko 7 Lecture 1 Ari Kokko Why strategic trade policy may be useful in theory • The location of industries with scale economies / agglomeration effects may be determined by history Sex and Sexuality Sex and Sexuality Bởi: OpenStaxCollege Sexual practices can differ greatly among groups Recent trends include the finding that married couples have sex more frequently than singles and that 27 percent of married couples in their 30s have sex at least twice a week (NSSHB 2010) (Photo courtesy of epSos.de/flickr) Sexual Attitudes and Practices In the area of sexuality, sociologists focus their attention on sexual attitudes and practices, not on physiology or anatomy Sexuality is viewed as a person’s capacity for sexual feelings Studying sexual attitudes and practices is a particularly interesting field of sociology because sexual behavior is a cultural universal Throughout time and place, the vast majority of human beings have participated in sexual relationships (Broude 2003) Each society, however, interprets sexuality and sexual activity in different ways Many societies around the world have different attitudes about premarital sex, the age of sexual consent, homosexuality, masturbation, and other sexual behaviors that are not consistent with universally cultural norms (Widmer, Treas and Newcomb 1998) At the same time, sociologists have learned that certain norms (like disapproval of incest) are shared among most societies Likewise, societies generally have norms that reinforce their accepted social system of sexuality What is considered “normal” in terms of sexual behavior is based on the mores and values of the society Societies that value monogamy, for example, would likely oppose extramarital sex Individuals are socialized to sexual attitudes by their family, education system, peers, media, and religion Historically, religion has been the greatest influence on sexual behavior in most societies, but in more recent years, peers and the media have 1/11 Sex and Sexuality emerged as two of the strongest influences, particularly with American teens (Potard, Courtois, and Rusch 2008) Let us take a closer look at sexual attitudes in the United States and around the world Sexuality around the World Cross-national research on sexual attitudes in industrialized nations reveals that normative standards differ across the world For example, several studies have shown that Scandinavian students are more tolerant of premarital sex than are American students (Grose 2007) A study of 37 countries reported that non-Western societies—like China, Iran, and India—valued chastity highly in a potential mate, while Western European countries—such as France, the Netherlands, and Sweden—placed little value on prior sexual experiences (Buss 1989) Even among Western cultures, attitudes can differ For example, according to a 33,590-person survey across 24 countries, 89 percent of Swedes responded that there is nothing wrong with premarital sex, while only 42 percent of Irish responded this way From the same study, 93 percent of Filipinos responded that sex before age 16 is always wrong or almost always wrong, while only 75 percent of Russians responded this way (Widmer, Treas, and Newcomb 1998) Sexual attitudes can also vary within a country For instance, 45 percent of Spaniards responded that homosexuality is always wrong, while 42 percent responded that it is never wrong; only 13 percent responded somewhere in the middle (Widmer, Treas, and Newcomb 1998) Of industrialized nations, Sweden is thought to be the most liberal when it comes to attitudes about sex, including sexual practices and sexual openness The country has very few regulations on sexual images in the media, and sex education, which starts around age six, is a compulsory part of Swedish school curricula Sweden’s permissive approach to sex has helped the country avoid some of the major social problems associated with sex For example, rates of teen pregnancy and sexually transmitted disease are among the world’s lowest (Grose 2007) It would appear that Sweden is a model for the benefits of sexual freedom and frankness However, implementing Swedish ideals and policies regarding sexuality in other, more politically conservative, nations would likely be met with resistance Sexuality in the United States The United States prides itself on being the land of the “free,” but it is rather restrictive when it comes to its citizens’ general attitudes about sex compared to other industrialized nations In an international survey, 29 percent of Americans stated that premarital sex is always wrong, while the average among the 24 countries surveyed was 17 percent Similar discrepancies were found in questions about the condemnation of sex before the age of 16, extramarital sex, and homosexuality, with American total 2/11 Sex and Sexuality disapproval of these each acts being 12, 13, and 11 percent higher, respectively, than the study’s average (Widmer, Treas and Newcomb 1998) American culture is particularly restrictive in its attitudes about sex when it comes to women and sexuality It is widely believed that men are more sexual than are women In fact, there is a ... Common Idioms and Expressions ThaoThy’s Common Idioms and Expressions  Here is a list of the most common idioms that you could expect to encounter. 1. ace: make an "A" on a test, homework assignment, project, etc. "Somebody said you aced the test, Dave. That's great!" 2. all right (1): expression of reluctant agreement. A: "Come to the party with me. Please!" B: "Oh, all right. I don't want to, but I will." 3. all right (2): fair; not particularly good. A: "How's your chemistry class?" B: "It's all right, I guess, but it's not the best class I've ever had." 4. all right (3): unharmed; in satisfactory condition. A: "You don't look normal. Are you all right?" B: "Yes, but I have a headache." 5. and then some: and much more besides. A: "I'd guess your new computer cost about $2,000. " B: "It cost that much and then some because I also bought extra RAM and VRAM." 6. antsy: restless; impatient and tired of waiting. "I hope Katy calls soon. Just sitting around and waiting is making me antsy." 7. as easy as pie: very easy. "I thought you said this was a difficult problem. It isn't. In fact, it's as easy as pie." 8. at the eleventh hour: at the last minute; almost too late. "Yes, I got the work done in time. I finished it at the eleventh hour, but I wasn't late. 9. bad-mouth: say unkind, unflattering, embarrassing (and probably untrue) things about someone. A: "I don't believe what Bob said. Why is he bad-mouthing me?" B: "He's probably jealous of your success." 10. be a piece of cake: be very easy. A: "Bob said the test was difficult, but I thought it was a piece of cake."" 11. be all ears: be eager to hear what someone has to say. A: "I just got an e-mail message from our old friend Sally." B: "Tell me what she said. I'm all ears!" 12. be broke: be without money. "No, I can't lend you ten dollars. I'm completely broke until payday." 13. be fed up with (with someone or something): be out of patience (with someone or something); be very tired of someone or something. "Bill, you're too careless with your work. I'm fed up with apologizing for your mistakes!" 14. be in and out: be at and away from a place during a particular time. "Could we postpone our meeting until tomorrow? I expect to be in and out of the office most of the day today." 15. be on the go: be very busy (going from one thing or project to another). “I'm really tired. I've been on the go all week long." 16. be on the road: be traveling. "You won't be able to contact me tomorrow because I'll be on the road." 17. be over: be finished; end. “I can't see you until around 4 o'clock. My meetings won't be over until then." 18. be up and running: (for a technological process) be operational; be ready to use . Sources: the Internet 1 Common Idioms and Expressions ThaoThy’s “Dave's ESL Cafe on the Web has been up and running since December 1995." 19. be used to (+Ving/noun): be accustomed to; not uncomfortable with. “It won't be hard to get up at 5:00 AM. I'm used to getting up early." 20. beat: exhausted; very tired (adj.). “This has been a long day. I'm beat!" 21. beat around the bush: evade an issue; avoid giving a direct answer. “Quit beating around the bush! If you don't want to go with me, just tell me!" 22. beat one's brains out: try very hard to understand or do something. "Can you help me with this problem? I've been beating my brains out with it, but I just can't solve it." 23. Amgraf, Inc. PDF Conference 2005 Page 1 of 10 PDF Forms and Database Connectivity Solutions By Franklin J. Garner, III President and CEO Amgraf, Inc. September 26, 2005 Introduction Every company and organization uses business forms, and now most have PC’s with access to the Internet. With great software like Amgraf OneForm Designer Plus (OFDP) and Adobe Acrobat, paper forms can be converted to Internet forms (I-forms) thereby saving significant costs in printing and storage. With additional effort, I-forms can be extended into fillable, submittable containers for data capture, retrieval, presentation, and processing. The benefits of database-connected I-forms solutions include improvements in productivity, transaction accuracy, and user satisfaction. So where’s the problem? Forms layout and design, and even the steps to insert fill fields, are usually graphic designer tasks. A non-connected PDF form is a self-contained file with everything packaged within the visual image. To make an I-form submittable, the originator must go beyond the form image and interact with software for field data extraction, data communication with acknowledgement, and navigational methods to start and end the form filling session. These functions have traditionally been performed by computer programmers, and are worrisome tasks for graphic designers. Adding database connectivity also introduces another layer of complexity onto I-forms. This white paper is intended to clarify the technical issues involved in implementing an I-forms data collection and retrieval system. Basic Internet Forms Functionality Internet forms can be used for many online transaction functions. The starting point is where the image of a form is converted so that it can be displayed on a computer screen and output to a local printer. Most Acrobat Distiller users have mastered this conversion step, and many web sites now have links to PDF forms for user access. Upon clicking a link, the free Adobe Reader opens within the browser window and a PDF form is displayed. The form can then be locally saved and/or printed. Amgraf, Inc. PDF Conference 2005 Page 2 of 10 With the Amgraf OFDP and Adobe Acrobat software, the form owner or originator can add many other functions to make PDF forms: • fillable • pre-populated • submittable • dynamic database views • field flattened Fillable forms have fill-fields overlaid on the form background so that field information can be keyed. Fields can be coded so that input validation occurs immediately, helping to reduce errors. With a little extra effort, fields can be programmed so that standard answers are chosen from drop-down lists, numerical amounts are immediately calculated, and other input values are automatically tested for correctness. Pre-populated forms open at the client PC with many fields already filled in. Field data can be transmitted along with the PDF file as Forms Data Format (FDF) instructions, or merged with the PDF form before it is served to the client. By pre-populating fields, the client is relieved of the burden of re-keying information already on file, and assured that the central system knows who is on the other end of the transaction. Submittable forms move field data in the other direction, from the client to the server. When a form is filled out, the information can be transmitted to the server so that it can be saved and/or processed immediately, without the need to rekey or scan in keystrokes from a paper document image. The benefit is that the costs associated with handling forms can be greatly reduced. Dynamic Power and Authority Power and Authority Bởi: OpenStaxCollege The White House, one of the world’s most widely recognized state buildings, symbolizes the authority of the U.S presidency (Courtesy U.S National Archives/Wikimedia Commons) From the time of King Henry VIII to the time of Will and Kate, the role of the royal family in the British government has shifted dramatically Between those two eras—and across the Atlantic—former British subjects in what is now the United States fought for an alternative system of government one that left no room for royalty Despite these differences, governments play the same fundamental role: in some fashion, they exert control over the people they govern The nature of that control—what we will define as power and authority—is an important part of society Sociologists have a distinctive approach to studying governmental power and authority that differs from the perspective of political scientists For the most part, political scientists focus on studying how power is distributed in different types of political systems They would observe, for example, that the United States’ political system is divided into three distinct branches (legislative, executive, and judicial), and they would explore how public opinion affects political parties, elections, and the political process in general Sociologists, however, tend to be more interested in the influences of governmental power on society and in how social conflicts arise from the distribution of power Sociologists also examine how the use of power affects local, state, national, and global agendas, which in turn affect people differently based on status, class, and socioeconomic standing 1/9 Power and Authority What Is Power? Nazi leader Adolf Hitler was one of the most powerful and destructive dictators in modern history, pictured here with fascist Benito Mussolini of Italy (Photo courtesy of U.S National Archives and Records Administration) For centuries, philosophers, politicians, and social scientists have explored and commented on the nature of power Pittacus (c 640-568 B.C.E.) opined, “The measure of a man is what he does with power,” and Lord Acton perhaps more famously asserted, “Power tends to corrupt; absolute power corrupts absolutely” (1887) Indeed, the concept of power can have decidedly negative connotations, and the term itself is difficult to define Many scholars adopt the definition developed by German sociologist Max Weber, who said that power is the ability to exercise one’s will over others (Weber 1922) Power affects more than personal relationships; it shapes larger dynamics like social groups, professional organizations, and governments Similarly, a government’s power is not necessarily limited to control of its own citizens A dominant nation, for instance, will often use its clout to influence or support other governments or to seize control of other nation states Efforts by the U.S government to wield power in other countries have included joining with other nations to form the Allied forces during World War II, entering Iraq in 2002 to topple Saddam Hussein’s regime, and imposing sanctions on the government of North Korea in the hopes of constraining its development of nuclear weapons Endeavors to gain power and influence not necessarily lead to violence, exploitation, or abuse Leaders such as Martin Luther King Jr and Mohandas Gandhi, for example, commanded powerful movements that affected positive change without military force Both men organized nonviolent protests to combat corruption and injustice and succeeded in inspiring major reform They relied on a variety of nonviolent protest strategies such as rallies, sit-ins, marches, petitions, and boycotts Modern technology has made such forms of nonviolent reform easier to implement Today, protesters can use cell phones and the internet to disseminate information and 2/9 Power and Authority plans to masses of protesters in a rapid and efficient manner In Tunisia Fulbright Economics Teaching Program 2006-2007 Trade: Institutions and impact Ari Kokko 1 Lecture 1 Ari Kokko TRADE: INSTITUTIONS AND IMPACT Why and how do countries trade? Outline and schedule Ari Kokko Why do countries trade? • Get goods and services that cannot be produced at home • To accumulate gold • Get cheaper goods and services • Efficiency and growth • Different theories and policies for different motives Fulbright Economics Teaching Program 2006-2007 Trade: Institutions and impact Ari Kokko 2 Lecture 1 Ari Kokko Gains from trade: the simple view • Clear gains if countries are strong in different areas: absolute advantages • Less obvious - but undisputed - gains even if one country is “better” in all areas: comparative advantages Ari Kokko Absolute advantages Motorbikes Rice Vietnam 20 10 Laos 10 20 Labor requirements for one unit of output Fulbright Economics Teaching Program 2006-2007 Trade: Institutions and impact Ari Kokko 3 Lecture 1 Ari Kokko Comparative advantages Motorbikes Rice Vietnam 20 10 Laos 100 20 Labor requirements for one unit of output Ari Kokko Comparative advantages  Trade is profitable as soon as relative prices differ between countries  Why are there differences in relative prices?  Classical and neoclassical theory: – technology differences (Adam Smith 1776 / David Ricardo 1815) – differences in factor endowments (Heckscher- Ohlin 1930) Fulbright Economics Teaching Program 2006-2007 Trade: Institutions and impact Ari Kokko 4 Lecture 1 Ari Kokko Policy conclusions: neoclassical theory  Free trade and specialization is optimal  pattern of comparative advantages is given by nature  all industries are equally “desirable”  International framework should support development of free trade  unilateral liberalization more difficult because of protectionist interest groups and lack of coordination Ari Kokko Institutions: Bretton-Woods solutions  Four cornerstones of international economy after WWII to support growth of free trade – International Bank for Reconstruction and Development – International Monetary Fund – International Trade Organization – Price stabilization fund Fulbright Economics Teaching Program 2006-2007 Trade: Institutions and impact Ari Kokko 5 Lecture 1 Ari Kokko But why is world trade not free? • Protectionism leads to higher prices, lower consumption, and lower welfare both at home and abroad . • …so why is there still a lot of protectionism? Ari Kokko Unequal gains from trade at the micro level • Interest groups matter: trade benefits some groups but hurts others • trade raises the rewards of a country’s abundant factor of production and reduces the rewards of the scarce factor (Stolper-Samuelson theorem) • the groups that lose may oppose free trade • the transition to free trade may have troublesome social consequences Fulbright Economics Teaching Program 2006-2007 Trade: Institutions and impact Ari Kokko 6 Lecture 1 Ari Kokko Shortcomings in neoclassical trade theory  What if the assumptions of the neoclassical theory aren’t true? – all industries are not equally valuable: better to produce micro chips than potato chips – comparative advantages can be created: economies of scale and agglomeration effects Ari Kokko Modern trade theory  Economies of scale – Bigger is better – Hard to manage in free trade environment if American and Japanese companies will always be stronger  Need to manipulate comparative advantages – Strategic trade policy? Fulbright Economics Teaching Program 2006-2007 Trade: Institutions and impact Ari Kokko 7 Lecture 1 Ari Kokko Why strategic trade policy may be useful in theory • The location of industries with scale economies / agglomeration effects may be determined by history Taste and Smell Taste and Smell Bởi: OpenStaxCollege Taste, also ... such as women, homosexuals, and transgendered individuals 7/11 Sex and Sexuality Summary When studying sex and sexuality, sociologists focus their attention on sexual attitudes and practices, not... perceives and experiences sex, gender, and sexuality, opening the door to new scholarly understanding Throughout this chapter we have examined the complexities of gender, sex, and sexuality Differentiating... between sex, gender, and sexual orientation is an important first step to a deeper understanding and critical analysis of these issues Understanding the sociology of sex, gender, and sexuality