phan loai cac bon 1234

phan loai cac bon Mc lc Cacbon 1.1 Cỏc thuc tớnh c trng 1.1.1 Cỏc thự hỡnh 1.1.2 S ph bin 1.1.3 Chu trỡnh cacbon 1.1.4 ng v 1.1.5 Hỡnh thnh cỏc ngụi 1.1.6 Chu trỡnh cacbon 1.2 ng dng Cỏc ng dng khỏc 1.3 Lch s 1.4 Sn xut 1.4.1 an chỡ 1.4.2 Kim cng 1.5.1 Hp cht vụ c 1.5.2 Hp cht vi kim loi 1.5.3 Mch cacbon 1.2.1 1.5 Cỏc hp cht 1.6 Cnh bỏo 1.7 iu ch 1.8 am kho 1.9 Xem thờm 1.10 Ghi chỳ 1.11 Liờn kt ngoi Cacbon iụxớt 2.1 Cỏc thuc tớnh húa-lý 2.2 S dng 2.3 Bng khụ 2.3.1 S dng 2.3.2 Tip xỳc 10 2.4 Sinh hc 10 2.5 Khớ quyn Trỏi t 11 i ii MC LC 2.5.1 ay i quỏ kh 11 2.6 y quyn Trỏi t 12 2.7 Trong v tr 13 2.8 Lch s 13 2.9 Xem thờm 13 2.10 am kho 13 2.11 Liờn kt ngoi 13 Cacbohydrat 14 3.1 Cu trỳc 14 3.2 Phõn loi 14 3.3 Monosaccharide 14 3.3.1 Phõn loi cỏc monosaccharide 15 3.3.2 S dng sinh vt 15 3.4 Disaccharide 16 3.5 Xem thờm 16 3.6 am kho 16 3.7 Ghi chỳ 16 3.8 Liờn kt ngoi 17 Cacbon tetraclorua 18 4.1 Lch s v tng hp 18 4.2 Tớnh cht 18 4.3 S dng 18 4.4 Phn ng 19 4.5 Dung mụi 19 4.6 An ton 19 4.7 Xem thờm 19 4.8 Chỳ thớch 19 4.9 Liờn kt ngoi 20 4.10 Ngun, ngi úng gúp, v giy phộp cho bn v hỡnh nh 21 4.10.1 Vn bn 21 4.10.2 Hỡnh nh 21 4.10.3 Giy phộp ni dung 22 Chng Cacbon Cacbon (bt ngun t ting Phỏp: carbone)[9] l nguyờn t húa hc bng tun hon cú ký hiu l C v s nguyờn t bng 6, nguyờn t bng 12 L mt nguyờn t phi kim cú húa tr ph bin, cacbon cú nhiu dng thự hỡnh khỏc nhau, ph bin nht l dng thự hỡnh gm cacbon vụ nh hỡnh, graphit v kim cng Cỏc si cacbon l tng t nh cacbon thy tinh Di cỏc x lý c bit (kộo gión cỏc si hu c v cacbon húa) nú cú kh nng sp xp cỏc mt tinh th cacbon theo hng ca si Vuụng gúc vi trc ca si khụng cú cỏc mt tinh th cacbon Kt qu l cỏc si cú bn c bit cao hn c thộp Cacbon tn ti a s mi s sng hu c v nú l nn tng ca húa hu c Phi kim ny cũn cú thuc tớnh húa hc ỏng chỳ ý l cú kh nng t liờn kt vi nú v liờn kt vi mt lot cỏc nguyờn t khỏc, to gn 10 triu hp cht ó bit Khi liờn kt vi ụxy nú to cacbon iụxớt l rt thit yu i vi s sinh trng ca thc vt Khi liờn kt vi hirụ, nú to mt lot cỏc hp cht gi l cỏc hirụcacbon l rt quan trng i vi cụng nghip dng ca cỏc nhiờn liu húa thch Khi liờn kt vi c ụxy v hirụ nú cú th to rt nhiu nhúm cỏc hp cht bao gm cỏc axớt bộo, l cn thit cho s sng, v este, to hng v ca nhiu loi hoa qu Biu pha c bn ca cacbon, ch trng thỏi ca vt cht i vi cỏc mc nhit v ỏp sut Phn gch chộo l cỏc iu kin m cacbon cú th trng thỏi a n nh, ú hai pha cú th cựng tn ti cú kh nng to liờn kt phc Vỡ cỏc thuc tớnh ny, cacbon c bit n nh l nguyờn t cú th to c 10 triu loi hp cht khỏc nhau, chim phn ln cỏc hp cht húa hc.[10] Cỏc hp cht ca cacbon to nn tng cho mi loi hỡnh s sng trờn Trỏi t v chu trỡnh cacbon-nit d tr v tỏi cung cp mt s nng lng c sn sinh t Mt Tri v cỏc ngụi ng v cacbon-14 c s dng xỏc nh tui tuyt i cho cỏc mu vt ngun gc sinh vt theo phng phỏp nh tui bng ng v cacbon, c ng dng kho c hc v nghiờn cu a cht k T Cacbon cng cú im thng hoa cao nht tt c cỏc nguyờn t Trong iu kin ỏp sut khớ quyn nú khụng cú im núng chy vỡ im ba trng thỏi ca nú ti 10,8 0,2 MPa v 4.600 300 K (~4.330 hay 7.820 ),[2][3] ú nhit thng hoa ca nú trng hp ny vo khong 3.900 K.[11][12] 1.1 Cỏc thuc tớnh c trng 1.1.1 Cỏc thự hỡnh Carbon l nguyờn t ỏng chỳ ý vỡ nhiu lý Cỏc dng khỏc ca nú bao gm mt nhng cht mm nht (graphit) v hai nhng cht cng nht (graphene v kim cng, hay fullerene -hp cht rt cng cú th núi l cng nht ca carbon v cỏc hp cht khỏc) cng nh l cht bỏn dn tt nht, hn c silic (graphene) Ngoi ra, nú cú ỏi lc ln to liờn kt vi cỏc nguyờn t nh khỏc, bao gm c cỏc nguyờn t cacbon khỏc, v kớch thc nh ca nú lm cho nú Cỏc thự hỡnh ca cacbon l khỏc v cu trỳc mng nguyờn t m cỏc nguyờn t tinh khit cú th to Ba dng c bit nhiu nht l cacbon vụ nh hỡnh, graphit v kim cng Mt s thự hỡnh k d khỏc cng ó c to hay phỏt hin ra, bao gm cỏc fullerene, cacbon ng nano v lonsdaleit Mui ốn bao gm cỏc b mt dng graphit nh Cỏc b mt ny phõn b ngu nhiờn, vỡ th cu trỳc tng th l ng hng Cacbon thy tinh l ng hng v cú t l xp cao Khụng ging nh graphit thụng thng, cỏc lp graphit khụng xp lờn ging nh cỏc trang sỏch, m chỳng cú s sp xp ngu nhiờn dng vụ nh hỡnh, cacbon ch yu cú cu trỳc tinh th ca graphit nhng khụng liờn kt li dng tinh th ln Trỏi li, chỳng ch yu nm dng bt v l thnh phn chớnh ca than, mui, b húng, nh ni v than hot tớnh ỏp sut bỡnh thng cacbon cú dng ca graphit, ú mi nguyờn t liờn kt vi nguyờn t khỏc mt phng to cỏc vũng lc giỏc, ging nh cỏc vũng cỏc hirụcacbon thm Cú hai dng ca graphit ó bit, l alpha (lc giỏc) v beta (rhombohedral), c hai cú cỏc thuc tớnh vt lý ging nhau, ngoi tr v cu trỳc tinh th Cỏc loi graphit cú ngun gc t nhiờn cú th cha ti 30% dng beta, graphit tng hp ch cú dng alpha Dng alpha cú th chuyn thnh dng beta thụng qua x lý c hc v dng beta chuyn ngc thnh dng alpha b nung núng trờn 1000 C CHNG CACBON mnh v nhit cao ti nhng ni m thiờn thch ú va chm.[13] Cú khong 10 triu hp cht khỏc ca cacbon m khoa hc ó bit v hng nghỡn s ú l ti quan trng cho cỏc quỏ trỡnh ca s sng v cho cỏc phn ng trờn c s hu c rt quan trng v kinh t Trong t hp vi cỏc nguyờn t khỏc, cacbon c tỡm thy bu khớ quyn Trỏi t v hũa tan mi thc th cú cha nc Vi mt lng nh hn ca canxi, magiờ v st, nú to thnh phn ch yu ca mt lng rt ln ỏ cacbonat (ỏ vụi, ụlụmit, ỏ cm thch v.v.) Khi t hp vi hirụ, cacbon to thnh than, du m v khớ t nhiờn, cũn c gi l cỏc hirụcacbon Graphit c tỡm thy vi mt s lng ln cỏc bang New York v Texas (M); Nga; Mộxico; Greenland v n Kim cng t nhiờn cú khoỏng cht kimberlit tỡm thy cỏc c" hay "ng nỳi la c i Phn ln cỏc m kim cng nm chõu Phi, ch yu l Nam Phi, Namibia, Botswana, Cng hũa Congo v Sierra Leone Cng cú cỏc m Arkansas, Canada, vựng Bc cc nc Nga, Brasil v bc v tõy nc c Vỡ s phi trung húa ca cỏc ỏm mõy pi, graphit cú tớnh dn in Vt liu vỡ th l mm v cỏc lp, thng xuyờn b tỏch bi cỏc nguyờn t khỏc, c gi cựng 1.1.3 Chu trỡnh cacbon ch bng cỏc lc van der Waals, vỡ th chỳng d Bi chớnh: Chu trỡnh cacbon dng trt trờn ỏp sut cc k cao cỏc nguyờn t cacbon to thnh Trong nhng iu kin ca Trỏi t, s chuyn húa t thự hỡnh gi l kim cng, ú mi nguyờn t c mt ng v sang mt ng v khỏc l rt him Vỡ th, liờn kt vi nguyờn t khỏc Kim cng cú cu trỳc i vi cỏc mc ớch thc tin, lng ca cacbon lp phng nh silic v gecmani v vỡ bn ca cỏc trờn Trỏi t cú th coi l mt hng s Vỡ vy cỏc quỏ liờn kt cacbon-cacbon, cựng vi cht ng in nitrua trỡnh s dng cacbon phi thu nhn nú t mt ni no bo (BN) l nhng cht cng nht vic chng li ú v gii phúng nú mt ni no khỏc Chu trỡnh m s mi mũn S chuyn húa thnh graphit nhit cacbon luõn chuyn mụi trng c gi l chu phũng l rt chm v khong th nhn thy Di cỏc trỡnh cacbon Vớ d, thc vt ly cacbon iụxớt t mụi iu kin khỏc, cacbon kt tinh nh l Lonsdaleit, mt trng v s dng nú to lng sinh hc dng ging nh kim cng nhng cú cu trỳc lc giỏc Mt s lng sinh hc ny c ng vt n, ú mt phn chỳng cui cựng li c thi Cỏc fulleren cú cu trỳc ging nh graphit, nhng thay di dng cacbon iụxớt Chu trỡnh cacbon thc vỡ cú cu trỳc lc giỏc thun tỳy, chỳng cú th cha t phc hn nhiu so vi vớ d nh ny; vớ d, mt (hay 7) nguyờn t cacbon, nú un cong cỏc lp thnh phn cacbon iụxớt b hũa tan nc bin; cỏc ng cỏc dng hỡnh cu, elip hay hỡnh tr Cỏc thuc tớnh thc vt cht cú th tr thnh ỏ trm tớch v.v ca cỏc fulleren cha c phõn tớch y Tt c cỏc tờn gi ca cỏc fulleren ly theo tờn gi ca Buckminster Fuller, nh phỏt trin ca kin trỳc mỏi 1.1.4 ng v vũm, nú bt chc cu trỳc ca cỏc buckyball Cacbon cú ng v n nh, cú ngun gc t nhiờn: cacbon-12, hay 12 C, (98,89%) v cacbon-13, hay 13 C, (1,11%),[14] Nm 1961, Liờn on c t v Hoỏ hc 1.1.2 S ph bin un tỳy v ng dng (IUPAC) ó chp nhn ng v [15] Cacbon l nguyờn t ph bin th v tr v cacbon-12 lm c s o lng nguyờn t lng sau hydro, heli, v ụxy Cacbon cú rt nhiu Mt Tri, cỏc ngụi sao, chi v bu khớ quyn ca phn ln cỏc hnh tinh Mt s thiờn thch cha cỏc kim cng vi tinh th, loi c hỡnh thnh h Mt Tri cũn l mt a tin hnh tinh Cỏc kim cng vi tinh th ny cú th ó c to bng ỏp lc rt Mt ng v khụng n nh, cng cú ngun gc t nhiờn l ng v phúng x cacbon-14 hay 14 C ng v 14 C phỏt sinh s tng tỏc ca neutron n bc x v tr vi nit 14 N khớ quyn Nú c thc vt hp th bng quỏ trỡnh quang hp nh vi mi ng v carbon khỏc, v lan truyn vo mi c th 1.2 NG DNG sng theo chui thc n Khi sinh vt cht chỳng lng ng cỏc tng t, c bit than bựn v cỏc vt liu hu c khỏc.[16] ng v ny phõn ró bng cỏch phỏt x ht cú nng lng 0,158 MeV Do chu k bỏn ró cú 5730 nm, 14 C hu nh khụng cú mt cỏc ỏ c,[17] S phong phỳ ca 14 C khớ quyn v cỏc c th sng l mt hng s, nhng chỳng s gim sau sinh vt ú cht i, v t s ng v 14 C/12 C núi lờn quóng thi gian cht ca chỳng Nguyờn tc ny c s dng phng phỏp nh tui bng ng v cacbon cho mu vt, c Willard Libby phỏt minh nm 1949, v c s dng rng rói xỏc nh tui ca cỏc mu vt cha cacbon vi gii hn lờn n khong 60.000 nm[18][19] v c ng dng ch yu kho c hc T s ng v 13 C/12 C trm tớch c c s dng nghiờn cu c khớ hu (Paleoclimate) Nú da trờn hin tng thc vt thc hin quang hp vi 12 C d hn Do ú nhng sinh vt phự du bin nh benthic foraminifera phỏt trin mnh thỡ lm lch t s ng v Nu cỏc tng nc i dng khụng b i lu pha trn, thỡ s lch t s ny xy thi gian di, v du hiu ny c lu gi cỏc tng trm tớch bin (Lynch-Stieglitz et al., 1995)[20] Tng s ng v carbon l 15, t C n 22 C, ú 12 ng v l nhõn to ng v cú tui ngn nht l C, nú phõn ró theo bc x proton v phõn ró alpha, cú chu k bỏn ró l 1,98739x1021 s[21] ng v kớch thớch 19 C th hin tớnh cht ca mt ht nhõn halo, tc l bỏn kớnh ca nú cú th ln hn ỏng k so vi bỏn kớnh d oỏn nu ht nhõn nguyờn t l mt hỡnh cu cú t trng khụng i.[22] Carbon Cycle Atmosphere 750 CO2 5.5 0.5 Vegetation 610 121.3 60 Fossil Fuels & Cement Production 4,000 1.6 60 90 92 Soils 1,580 Rivers Surface Ocean 1,020 50 Marine Biota 100 91.6 40 Deep Ocean 38.100 Dissolved Organic Carbon 3.000 àL/L) khong 600- 400 triu nm trc v khong 200150 triu nm trc Trờn biu thi gian di, hm lng CO2 khớ quyn c xỏc nh theo cõn bng gia cỏc quỏ trỡnh a húa hc (bao gm cacbon hu c b chụn vựi cỏc trm tớch, ỏ silicat phong húa) v tỏc ng ca nỳi la Hiu ng rũng ca s khụng cõn bng nh chu trỡnh cacbon trờn hng chc n hng trm triu nm ó lm gim CO2 khớ quyn Cỏc tc ca cỏc quỏ trỡnh ny l cc chm; vỡ th chỳng cú mi tng quan b gii hn i vi cỏc phn ng ca CO2 khớ quyn vic thoỏt hng trm nm sau Trong thi gian gn õy, nng CO2 khớ quyn tip tc theo suy gim k t khong 60 triu nm trc, v õy cng cú chng c a húa hc cho thy nng ó nh hn 300 àL/L vo khong 20 triu nm trc Nng CO2 thp cú th ó l tỏc nhõn kớch thớch cho s tin húa ca cỏc thc vt [[S c nh cacbon C4|C4 ]], l nhng loi ó tng ỏng k v s lng khong 7-5 triu nm trc Mc dự cỏc nng CO2 thi ú ó vt quỏ vũng cỏc k nguyờn a cht din sm hn, cỏc nng cacbon iụxớt hin cú l l cao hn so vi bt k thi gian no vũng 20 triu nm qua nhng li l thp hn so vi bt k thi gian no lch s nu ta nhỡn vo thang thi gian di hn 50 triu nm 2.6 Thy quyn Trỏi t Cỏc i dng ca Trỏi t cha mt lng khng l cacbon iụxớt dng cỏc ion bicacbonat v cacbonatnhiu hn rt nhiu so vi lng CO2 khớ quyn Bicacbonat c to cỏc phn ng ca ỏ, nc v cacbon iụxớt Di õy l vớ d v s hũa tan canxi cacbonat: CaCO3 + CO2 + H2 O Ca2+ + HCO3 - Cỏc phn ng tng t nh th cú xu hng to cỏc thay i m ca CO2 khớ quyn Cỏc phn ng gia cacbon iụxớt v cỏc loi ỏ khụng cacbonat cng b sung thờm bicacbonat vo bin c, chỳng sau ú phn ng theo chiu ngc li ca phn ng trờn to cỏc loi ỏ cacbonat v gii phúng mt na cỏc bicacbonat thnh CO2 Hng trm triu nm qua chỳng Cỏc thay i ca cacbon iụxớt t thi Phanerozoic (542 triu ó to mt lng ln ỏ cacbonat Nu tt c cỏc nm trc) Thi k gn õy nm bờn trỏi ca biu , v nú loi ỏ cacbonat lp v Trỏi t c chuyn húa dng nh l 550 triu nm trc thỡ nng cacbon iụxớt cao ngc li thnh cacbon iụxớt thỡ lng khớ ny s nng hn ỏng k so vi ngy gp 40 ln ton b khớ quyn 2.9 XEM THấM 13 Phn ch yu ca CO2 c b sung vo khớ quyn cui v thy tuyt ca CO2 rn cựng s b cỏc i dng hp th dng cỏc ion bicacbonat, nhng quỏ trỡnh ny phi mt hng trm nm phn ln nc bin li khụng gn b mt 2.9 Xem thờm 2.7 Trong v tr Cacbon iụxớt l thnh phn chớnh ca khớ quyn Sao Ha, v l mt thnh phn quan trng ca khớ quyn Sao Kim Cú gi thuyt cho rng vo thi k h Mt Tri mi hỡnh thnh, cỏc hnh tinh nm vũng (Trỏi t, Sao Ha, Sao Kim) u cú khớ quyn khỏ ging v cha nhiu thỏn khớ ỏn khớ cng cú mt dng bng khụ trờn cỏc chi Cht khớ ny ó c quan sỏt l cú mt khong khụng v tr, gn nhng thuc th h hoc th h 3, ni m sn phm ca quỏ trỡnh phn ng nhit hch cỏc ó tớch t nhiu cỏcbon v ụxy Cú th t gi thuyt rng cht khớ ny cú mt khớ quyn ca cỏc hnh tinh thuc vũng bay quanh cỏc thuc th h t tr i 2.8 Lch s Cacbon iụxớt l mt cỏc khớ u tiờn c miờu t nh l cht hin hu khụng khớ Vo th k 17, nh húa hc ngi Flanders l Jan Baptist van Helmont ó quan sỏt thy ụng t than ci bỡnh kớn thỡ lng cũn li ca tro l thp hn so vi lng nguyờn thy ca than ci Din gii ca ụng l phn cũn li ca than ci ó c bin t thnh cht khụng nhỡn thy m ụng gi l khớ" hay linh hn hoang dó" (spiritus sylvestre) Cỏc thuc tớnh ca cacbon iụxớt c nh vt lý ngi Scot l Joseph Black nghiờn cu nhiu hn thp niờn 1750 ễng phỏt hin l ỏ vụi (canxi cacbonat) cú th nung núng hay x lý bng cỏc axớt sinh khớ m ụng gi l khụng khớ c nh ễng quan sỏt thy khụng khớ c nh nng hn khụng khớ v khụng h tr s chỏy cng nh s sng ca ng vt ễng cng phỏt hin l nú cú th, cho chy qua dung dch nc ca vụi tụi (canxi hirụxớt) lm kt ta canxi cacbonat v s dng hin tng ny minh rng cacbon iụxớt l sn phm ca s hụ hp ca ng vt v lờn men vi sinh vt Nm 1772, Joseph Priestley s dng cacbon iụxớt to t phn ng ca axớt sulfuric vi ỏ vụi iu ch nc sụa, vớ d u tiờn c bit ca ung cacbonat húa nhõn to Cacbon iụxớt c Humphrey Davy v Michael Faraday húa lng ln u tiờn nm 1823 bng tng ỏp sut Mụ t u tiờn v cacbon iụxớt rn l ca Charles ilorier, l ngi nm 1834 ó m thựng cha iụxớt cacbon lng b nộn, ch tỡm sn phm c to b lm lnh vỡ s bay hi nhanh ca iụxớt cacbon lng Khớ thiờn nhiờn Nhiờn liu húa thch Khớ nh kớnh Chu trỡnh cacbon 2.10 Tham kho Friederike Wagner, Bent Aaby v Henk Visscher (2002) Rapid atmospheric CO2 changes associated with the 8,200-years-B.P cooling event, PNAS 99 (19): 12011-12014 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.182420699 Andreas Indermỹhle, Bernhard Stauer, omas F Stocker (1999) Early Holocene Atmospheric CO2 Concentrations, Science 286 (5446): 1815 DOI: 10.1126/science.286.5446.1815a Early Holocene Atmospheric CO2 Concentrations Science URL truy cp 26 thỏng nm 2005 H.J Smith, M Wahlen v D Mastroianni (1997) e CO2 concentration of air trapped in GISP2 ice from the Last Glacial Maximum-Holocene transition, Geophysical Research Leers 24(1) 1-4 Joseph Priestley (1772) Observations on Dierent Kinds of Air, Philosophical Transactions 62: 147264 Humphry Davy (1823) On the Applicatin of Liquids Formed by the Condensation of Gases as Mechanical Agents, Philosophical Transactions 113: 199-205 2.11 Liờn kt ngoi an ton húa cht s 0021 CID280 t PubChem ụng tin v bng khụ Bassam Z Shakhashiri: Húa cht tun: Cacbon iụxớt Keeling, C.D and T.P Whorf: Ghi chộp v iụxớt cacbon khớ quyn ti Mauna Loa, 2002 Cp nht Mauna Loa 2004 CO2 Cacbon iụxớt uc tớnh, S dng, ng dng Wiki húa in toỏn Biu pha theo ỏp sut-nhit ca iụxớt cacbon Chng Cacbohydrat HO OH cỏc thnh phn khỏc mụi trng ca t bo OH Carbohydrat l hp cht hu c n gin nht gm andehyt hoc xeton vi mt s nhúm hydroxyl, thng O O thỡ mi nguyờn t cacbon cha nhúm chc aldehyt O HO OH hoc xeton Cỏc n v c bn ca carbohydrat c OH HO gi l monosacarit; vớ d nh glucose, galactose, OH v fructose Cụng thc thu gn tng quỏt ca mt monosaccarit l (CãH2 O), vi n ln hn hoc bng Lactose l mt loi disacarit cú sa Nú bao gm mt phõn 3; nhiờn, khụng phi tt c carbohydrat u tuõn t D-galactose v mt phõn t D-glucose liờn kt vi bi theo cụng thc ny (nh axit uronic, cỏc ng deoxy mt liờn kt glycosit 1-4 nh fucose), hoc khụng phi tt c cỏc cht húa hc cú cụng thc nh trờn thỡ c xp vo nhúm Carbohydrat [] (ting Anh: carbohydrate) hay gluxit carbohydrat.[2] (ting Phỏp: glucide) l mt cht hu c cú cha Monosaccarit cú th c liờn kt vi to thnh nguyờn t l cỏcbon (C), oxi (O) v Hirụ (H) vi t polysaccarit (hay oligosaccarit) theo nhiu cỏch khỏc l H:O = 2:1 (tng t t l ca nc H2 O) Mt cỏch Mt s carbohydrat cha mt hoc nhiu hn cỏc tng quỏt, cú th biu din cụng thc phõn t ca phõn t monosaccarit cú mt hoc vi nhúm chc b Carbohydrat l C(H2 O) (trong ú m v n l cỏc s t thay th hoc b kh Vớ d, deoxyribose l thnh phn nhiờn khỏc khụng, cú th bng hoc khỏc nhau) õy l cu to ca ADN b bin i t ribose; chitin c cu mt nhúm ph bin nht bn nhúm phõn t sinh to bi cỏc n v N-acetylglucosamine cú tớnh tun hc chớnh Chỳng cú nhiu vai trũ quan trng hon, l mt dng glucose cha nit cỏc c th sng nh tớch tr v chuyn nng lng (nh tinh bt, glycogen) v cỏc thnh phn cu trỳc Danh phỏp khoa hc ca cỏc cacbohydrat rt phc (nh cellulose thc vt v chitin ng vt) cũn cỏc tờn gi thụng thng ca cỏc cacbohydrat ờm vo ú, carbohydrat v cỏc dn xut ca nú cú vai thng cú phn uụi l -ose Glycoinformatics l ngnh trũ chớnh quỏ trỡnh lm vic ca h dch, th nghiờn cu c bit tip cn n tin sinh hc nht tinh, phỏt bnh, s ụng mỏu, v sinh hc phỏt trin.[1] v c bit ca cỏc carbohydrat 3.2 Phõn loi 3.1 Cu trỳc Carbohydrat cu to nờn hu ht cỏc vt cht hu c trờn Trỏi t cỏc vai trũ bao quỏt ca chỳng tt c cỏc dng sng u tiờn l tn ti dng d tr nng lng, nhiờn liu v cht trao i trung gian 2, cỏc loi ng ribose v deoxyribose to thnh mt phn cu trỳc ca ARN v ADN 3, polysacarit l cỏc thnh phn cu trỳc ca thnh t bo vi khun v thc vt c ra, cellulose l thnh phn chớnh ca thnh t bo thc vt v l mt nhng hp cht hu c ph bin nht sinh quyn 4, carbohydrat cú quan h vi mt s protein v lipid, cỏc cht ny cú vai trũ quan trng vic tng tỏc giỏn tip gia cỏc t bo v s tng tỏc gia cỏc t bo vi Carbohydrates l cỏc aldehyde polyhydroxy, xeton, ru, axit, cỏc cht dn xut n gin ca chỳng v polyme ca chỳng cú s liờn kt ca cỏc loi acetal Chỳng cú th c phõn loi theo mc trựng hp (polymerization) v cú th c chia thnh ba nhúm chớnh ban u, c th l cỏc loi ng (thc phm), oligosaccharides v polysaccharides[3] DP * = Degree of polymerization (mc trựng hp) 3.3 Monosaccharide 14 3.3 MONOSACCHARIDE 15 Cỏc ng phõn v ca glucose V trớ ca nhúm hydroxyl ( hoc lc) trờn cỏc cacbon ng phõn tng i so vi nhúm CH2 OH liờn kt vi carbon 5: chỳng hoc l v trớ i din (), hoc vựng phớa () Monosaccharide c phõn loi da trờn c im khỏc gm: v trớ ca cỏc nhúm carbonyl, s nguyờn t cacbon, v i xng bn tay ca chỳng Nu nhúm carbonyl l aldehyde, monosaccharide l aldose; nu nhúm carbonyl l xeton, monosaccharide l ketose Monosaccharide cú nguyờn t cacbon l triose, nguyờn t cacbon l tetrose, nguyờn t cacbon l pentose, sỏu l hexose, v tng t.[4] Hai h thng phõn loi ny thng c s dng kt hp Vớ d, glucose l mt aldohexose (aldehyde sỏu cacbon), ribose l mt aldopentose (aldehyde cacbon), v fructose l mt ketohexose (xeton cacbon) D-glucose l mt aldohexose cú cụng thc l (CãH2 O)6 Cỏc nguyờn t mu thuc nhúm aldehyde, v mu xanh thuc nhúm asymmetric center nm xa aldehyde; vy gúc -OH ny nm phờn phi ca Fischer projection, õy l ng loi D Monosaccharide l cỏc carbohydrate n gin ú chỳng khụng th thu phõn thnh cỏc carbohydrate nh hn Chỳng l cỏc andehit hoc xeton cú hai hay nhiu nhúm hydroxyl Cụng thc hoỏ hc tng quỏt ca mt monosaccharide cha hiu chnh l (CH2 O), ngha en l mt carbon hydrate. Monosaccharide l cỏc phõn t nhiờn liu quan trng cng nh l nhng liờn kt cỏc axit nucleic Monosaccharide n gin nht cú n = l cỏc dihydroxyacetone v Dv L-glyceraldehyde 3.3.1 Phõn loi cỏc monosaccharide Cỏc nguyờn t cacbon liờn kt vi mt nhúm hydroxyl (-OH), vi ngoi l l cacbon u tiờn va cui cựng l khụng i xng, to hai v trớ cú th khỏc theo cu trỳc khụng gian trung tõm (R hay S) Do tớnh bt i xng ny, mt s ng phõn cú th tn ti i vi bt k mt cụng thc monosaccharide cho trc Vớ d, aldohexose D-glucose cú cụng thc l (CãH2 O) , ú tt c ch sỏu nguyờn t carbon l khụng ng phng vi cỏc phõn t cũn li, lm cho D-glucose to 24 = 16 v trớ ng phõn khụng gian Trong trng hp ca glyceraldehydes, aldotriose, cú mt cp ng phõn khụng gian l enantiomers v epimer 1, 3-dihydroxyacetone, ketose ging vi aldose glyceraldehydes, l mt phõn t i xng khụng cú cỏc tõm khụng gian) Vic hoỏn i v trớ D hay L c thc hin da trờn hng ca cỏrbon bt i xng xa nht tớnh t nhúm carbonyl: h ta Fischer chun nu nhúm hydroxyl nm bờn phi thớ phõn t ú l ng D, ngc li l ng L Tip u ng D-" v L-" khụng nờn nhm ln vi d-" hay l-", vi ý ngha ch hng xoay mt phng ỏnh sỏng phõn cc Vic s dng d-" v l-" khụng tuõn theo quy tc hoỏ hc ca carbohydrate.[5] 3.3.2 S dng sinh vt Monosaccharide l ngun nhiờn liu chớnh quỏ trỡnh trao i cht, c s dng lm ngun nng lng (glucose l ngun nng lng quan trng nht t nhiờn) cng nh quang hp Khi monosaccharide khụng c nhiu t bo s dng lp tc thỡ chỳng thng chuyn sang cỏc dng cú lu tr cú hiu qu hn v mt khụng gian nh polysaccharide Trong cỏc loi ng vt, bao gm c ngi, dng lu tr ny 16 l glycogen, c bit cú gan v cỏc t bo c Cũn thc vt, tinh bt l mt cỏch lu tr tng t CHNG CACBOHYDRAT 3.5 Xem thờm Húa sinh hc 3.4 Disaccharide Bioplastic Gluconeogenesis Glycolipid Glycoprotein Glycoinformatics Low-carbohydrate diet Sucrose, also known as table sugar, is a common disaccharide It is composed of two monosaccharides: D-glucose (left) and Dfructose (right) No-carbohydrate diet Cao phõn t Nutrition Pentose phosphate pathway Khi hai monosaccharide liờn kt vi s to thnh disaccharide v chỳng l cỏc polysaccharide n gin nht, vớ d nh sucrose v lactose Chỳng liờn kt vi bng mt liờn kt cng húa tr to thnh t phn ng kh nc, theo ú s tỏch mt nguyờn t hydro ca mt monosaccharide v mt nhúm hydroxyl ca monosaccharide cũn li Cụng thc húa hc ca disaccharides l C12 H22 O11 Mc dự cú nhiu kiu disaccharide, ch mt s ớt disaccharides l c chỳ ý Sucrose l mt disaccharide ph bin nht v l kiu chớnh c vt chuyn thc vt Nú bao gm mt phõn t D-glucose v mt phõn t D-fructose Danh phỏp khoa hc ca sucrose l O--D-glucopyranosyl(12)-D-fructofuranoside, bao gm yu t: Tờn gi ca hai monosaccharide cu to nờn nú: glucose v fructose Kiu cu to vũng ca chỳng: glucose l pyranose, v fructose l furanose Cỏch chỳng liờn kt vi nhau: oxy ni vi cacbon s (C1) ca -D-glucose c liờn kt vi C2 ca D-fructose Tip v ng -oside ch ng phõn cacbon ca hai monosaccharide tham gia vo liờn kt cng húa tr ang hp ng 3.6 Tham kho [1] Maton, Anthea; Jean Hopkins, Charles William McLaughlin, Susan Johnson, Maryanna on Warner, David LaHart, Jill D Wright (1993) Human Biology and Health Englewood Clis, New Jersey, USA: Prentice Hall tr 5259 ISBN 0-13-981176-1 [2] Mahews, C E.; K E Van Holde; K G Ahern (1999) Biochemistry n bn ln th Benjamin Cummings ISBN 0-8053-3066-6 [3] Carbohydrates in human nutrition - Chapter - e role of carbohydrates in nutrition Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations FAO [4] Campbell, Neil A.; Brad Williamson; Robin J Heyden (2006) Biology: Exploring Life Boston, Massachuses: Pearson Prentice Hall ISBN 0-13-250882-6 [5] Pigman, Ward; Horton, D (1972) Chapter 1: Stereochemistry of the Monosaccharides Trong Pigman and Horton e Carbohydrates: Chemistry and Biochemistry Vol 1A (n bn 2) San Diego: Academic Press tr 167 Lactose, l mt disaccharide c cu to t mt phõn t D-galactose v mt phõn t D-glucose, cú 3.7 Ghi chỳ nhiu sa ca ng vt cú vỳ Danh phỏp khoa hc ca lactose l O--D-galactopyranosyl-(14)-D^ glucopyranose Cỏc disaccharides ni ting khỏc l cú ngha 'hydrat ca cacbon' maltose (2 D-glucoses liờn kt 1,4) v cellulobiose ^ cú ngun gc t Hy Lp , sỏkcharon, (2 D-glucoses liờn kt 1,4) ngha l "ng" 3.8 LIấN KT NGOI 3.8 Liờn kt ngoi Carbohydrates, including interactive models and animations (Requires MDL Chime) IUPAC-IUBMB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN): Carbohydrate Nomenclature Carbohydrates detailed Carbohydrates and Glycosylation - e Virtual Library of Biochemistry and Cell Biology Consortium for Functional Glycomics Wine Carbohydrates 17 Chng Cacbon tetraclorua Cacbon tetraclorua hay tetraclorua cacbon, tetraclomờtan l mt hp cht húa hc cú cụng thc húa hc CCl4 Ngi ta s dng ch yu hp cht ny lm cht phn ng tng hp hu c Trc õy nú cũn lm cht dp la v lm cht lm lnh õy l mt cht lng khụng mu cú mựi thm kt cng húa tr n Do phõn bú i xng khụng gian nh vy nờn phõn t cacbon tetraclorua khụng cú mụmen lng cc rũng; ngha l CCl4 khụng phõn cc Trong vai trũ ca mt dung mụi, nú hũa tan khỏ tt cỏc hp cht khụng phõn cc khỏc, cht bộo v du m Nú hi d bay hi, to hi vi mựi c trng nh ca eo danh phỏp IUPAC, hp cht ny cú hai tờn gm cỏc dung mụi clo húa khỏc, hi tng t nh mựi ca tetracloroethylen dựng cỏc ca hng git l khụ cacbon tetraclorua v tetraclomờtan Ngi ta cũn gi nú mt cỏch thụng tc l cacbon tet Tetraclorometan rn cú dng thự hỡnh: dng kt tinh II di 47,5 (225,6 K) v dng kt tinh I trờn 47,5 .[3] 4.1 Lch s v tng hp 47,3 nú cú cu trỳc tinh th n t vi nhúm khụng gian C2/c v cỏc hng s li a = 20,3, b = 11,6, Sn xut cacbon tetraclorua suy gim mnh t thp c = 19,9 (.101 nm), = 111.[4] niờn 1980 cỏc e ngi v mụi trng v nhu cu b suy gim i vi cỏc CFC, cú ngun gc t cacbon tetraclorua Nm 1992, sn lng ti Hoa K-chõu uNht Bn c khong 720.000 tn.[1] Cacbon tetraclorua ban u c nh húa hc ngi 4.3 S dng Phỏp Henri Victor Regnault tng hp vo nm 1839 nh phn ng ca cloroform vi clo,[2] nhng hin u th k 20, cacbon tetraclorua c s dng rng ch yu c tng hp t mờtan: rói lm dung mụi ty khụ, cng nh lm cht lm ụng lnh hay cỏc bỡnh cha chỏy[5] Tuy nhiờn, CH4 + Cl2 CCl4 + 4HCl ngi nhn thy dng nh phi nhim cacbon tetraclorua cú nh hng nghiờm trng ti sc khe Vic sn xut nú thng tn dng cỏc ph phm ca thỡ cỏc cht thay th an ton hn nh tetracloroethylen cỏc phn ng clo húa khỏc, chng hn nh tng hp c dựng cho cỏc ng dng ú v vic s dng nú diclorometan v cloroform Cỏc clorocacbon cao hn cỏc ng dng ny b suy gim t khong nm cng cú th dựng phõn hy bng clo": 1940 tr i Cacbon tetraclorua cũn c dựng lm thuc tr dch hi git sõu b ng cc ang lu tr, nhng nm 1970 nú ó b cm dựng C2 Cl6 + Cl2 CCl4 cỏc sn phm tiờu dựng ti Hoa K Trc thp niờn 1950, cacbon tetraclorua c sn xut Trc cú ngh nh th Montreal, mt lng ln bng clo húa cacbon disulfua 105-130 : cacbon tetraclorua ó c s dng sn xut cỏc cht lm lnh freon R-11 (tricloroorometan) v R-12 (diclorodiorometan) Tuy nhiờn, cỏc cht lm lnh ny CS2 + 3Cl2 CCl4 + S2 Cl2 [1] hin b coi l úng vai trũ s suy gim ụzụn v b loi b Cacbon tetraclorua hin cũn c dựng sn xut cỏc cht lm lnh ớt phỏ hy hn 4.2 Tớnh cht Cacbon tetraclorua cng c s dng phỏt hin Trong phõn t cacbon tetraclorua, bn nguyờn t clo ntrino Cacbon tetraclorua l mt nhng cht nm cỏc v trớ i xng ti cỏc gúc ca cu hỡnh t c mnh nht i vi gan v c s dng din kt ni vi nguyờn t cacbon tõm bng cỏc liờn nghiờn cu khoa hc ỏnh giỏ cỏc cht bo v gan 18 4.8 CH THCH 19 4.4 Phn ng Cacbon tetraclorua trờn thc t khụng chỏy cỏc nhit thp nhit cao khụng khớ, nú to photgen (CCl2 O) c hi Do khụng cú liờn kt C-H, cacbon tetraclorua khụng d dng tham gia cỏc phn ng gc t Vỡ th nú l dung mụi hu ớch cỏc phn ng halogen húa bng cỏc halogen nguyờn t hay bng cỏc cht phn ng nh N -bromosuccinimid Trong húa hu c, cacbon tetraclorua úng vai trũ ca ngun cp clo phn ng Appel 4.5 Dung mụi Nú c dựng lm dung mụi nghiờn cu húa tng hp, nhng cỏc tỏc ng xu ti sc khe nờn nú khụng cũn c s dng rng rói na v cỏc nh húa hc núi chung c gng thay th nú bng cỏc dung mụi khỏc ụi nú l hu ớch lm dung mụi cho ph hng ngoi hc khụng cú cỏc di hp th ỏng k > 1.600 cm1 Do cacbon tetraclorua khụng cha bt k nguyờn t hirụ no, nờn quỏ kh nú c dựng ph NMR proton Tuy nhiờn, cacbon tetraclorua l c hi v kh nng hũa tan ca nú l thp[6] Nú ó b thay th phn ln bi cỏc dung mụi teri húa, thng l cú cỏc thuc tớnh hũa tan tt hn v cho phộp ph k giam gi teri 4.6 An ton Phi nhim trc hm lng cao ca cacbon tetraclorua (bao gm c th hi) cú th nh hng ti h thn kinh trung ng v lm suy thoỏi gan[7] v thn[8] cng nh cú th gõy (sau phi nhim kộo di) hụn mờ v thm gõy t vong[9] Phi nhim kinh niờn trc cacbon tetraclorua cú th gõy ng c gan[10][11] v tn thng thn hay gõy ung th[12] Cỏc thụng tin c th hn cú th tỡm thy cỏc MSDS ca nú Cacbon tetraclorua va l tỏc nhõn gõy suy gim ụzụn[13] va l khớ gõy hiu ng nh kớnh[14] Tuy nhiờn, k t nm 1992[15] nng ca nú khụng khớ ó suy gim vỡ cỏc lý cp trờn õy 4.7 Xem thờm Haloankan Halomờtan Clomờtan Diclomờtan Nng khớ quyn ca CCl4 theo thi gian (Walker v ctv., 2000) Clorofom Tetraomờtan Tetrabrommờtan Cacbon tetraiodua (Tetraiotmờtan) 4.8 Chỳ thớch [1] Manfred Rossberg, Wilhelm Lendle, Gerhard Peiderer, Adolf Tửgel, Eberhard-Ludwig Dreher, Ernst Langer, Heinz Rassaerts, Peter Kleinschmidt, Heinz Strack, Richard Cook, Uwe Beck, Karl-August Lipper, eodore R Torkelson, Eckhard Lửser, Klaus K Beutel, Chlorinated Hydrocarbons in Ullmanns Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, 2007 John Wiley & Sons: New York [2] V Regnault (1839) Ueber die Chlorverbindungen des Kohlenstos, C2Cl2 und CCl2 Annalen der Pharmacie 30 (3): 350 352 doi:10.1002/jlac.18390300310 [3] Carbon tetrachloride [4] F Brezina, J Mollin, R Pastorek, Z Sindelar Chemicke tabulky anorganickych sloucenin (Chemical tables of inorganic compounds) SNTL, 1986 [5] Doherty R E (2000) A History of the Production and Use of Carbon Tetrachloride, Tetrachloroethylene, Trichloroethylene and 1,1,1-Trichloroethane in the United States: Part Historical Background; Carbon Tetrachloride and Tetrachloroethylene (1) tr 69 81 doi:10.1006/enfo.2000.0010 [6] Introduction to Nuclear Magnetic Spectroscopy, i hc bang Michigan Resonance [7] W.F Seifert, A Bosma, A Brouwer, H.F Hendriks PJ (1994) Vitamin A deciency potentiates carbon tetrachloride-induced liver brosis in rats Hepatology 19: 193201 ó b qua bn issue (tr giỳp) 20 [8] Liu K.X., Kato Y., Yamazaki M., Higuchi O., Nakamura T., Sugiyama Y (1993) Decrease in the hepatic clearance of hepatocyte growth factor in carbon tetrachloride-intoxicated rats Hepatology 17: 65160 ó b qua bn issue (tr giỳp) [9] Recknagel R.O., Glende E.A., Dolak J.A., Waller R.L (1989) Mechanism of Carbon-tetrachloride Toxicity Pharmacology erapeutics (43): 139154 doi:10.1016/0163-7258(89)90050-8 [10] Recknagel R.O (1967) Carbon tetrachloride Hepatotoxicity Pharmacological Reviews 19 (2): 145 [11] Masuda Y (2006) Learning toxicology from carbon tetrachloride-induced hepatotoxicity Yakugaku Zasshi -Journal of the Pharmaceutical Society of Japan 126 (10): 885899 [12] Rood A.S., McGavran P.D., Aavenson J.W v ctv (2001) Stochastic estimates of exposure and cancer risk from carbon tetrachloride released to the air from the Rocky Flats Plant Risk Analysis 21 (4): 675695 [13] Fraser P (1997) Chemistry of stratospheric ozone and ozone depletion Australian Meteorological Magazine 46 (3): 185193 [14] Evans W.F.J., Puckrin E (1996) A measurement of the greenhouse radiation associated with carbon tetrachloride (CCl4 ) Geophysical Research Leers 23 (14): 17691772 [15] Walker S J., R F Weiss & P K Salameh (2000) Reconstructed histories of the annual mean atmospheric mole fractions for the halocarbons CFC-11, CFC-12, CFC-113 and carbon tetrachloride Journal of Geophysical Research 105: 1428514296 4.9 Liờn kt ngoi c tớnh ca cacbon tetraclorua an ton húa cht quc t 0024 NIOSH Hng dn b tỳi v cỏc nguy him húa cht 0107 Tng quan v lng giỏ ca IARC yn 71 (1999) Chuyờn lun ca IARC: Carbon Tetrachloride Tiờu chun sc khe mụi trng cho cacbon tetraclorua MSDS cho Cacbon tetraclorua ti CSDL Húa cht nguy him trờn ull.chemistry.uakron.edu MSDS ti i hc Oxford Bin i tetracloromethan thnh dicloromethan v iụxớt cacbon nh Acetobacterium woodii CHNG CACBON TETRACLORUA am gia ca cỏc cytochrom tong bin i sinh hc k khớ i vi tetraclorometan nh Shewanella putrefaciens 200 Miờu t húa cht ti ntp.niehs.nih.gov 4.10 NGUN, NGI ểNG GểP, V GIY PHẫP CHO VN BN V HèNH NH 21 4.10 Ngun, ngi úng gúp, v giy phộp cho bn v hỡnh nh 4.10.1 Vn bn Cacbon Ngun: https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cacbon?oldid=26626000 Ngi úng gúp: Mxn, Mekong Bluesman, Vng Ngõn H, Avia, Chobot, ỏi Nhi, YurikBot, Zwobot, Apple, Newone, DHN-bot, Escarbot, JAnDbot, ijs!bot, VolkovBot, TXiKiBoT, Synthebot, AlleborgoBot, SieBot, TVT-bot, PipepBot, Loveless, DragonBot, Idioma-bot, Qbot, Alexbot, MelancholieBot, Meotrangden, Terranhero, Luckas-bot, SilvonenBot, Ptbotgourou, ArthurBot, Porcupine, Xqbot, Volga, Trn Nam H 2001, TobeBot, Inhisname, Nguyenhuu221157, Leningrad1944, Tnt1984, DixonDBot, Ephemeronium, TuHan-Bot, EmausBot, ZộroBot, Jspeed1310, JackieBot, FoxBot, ChuispastonBot, Mjbmrbot, Movses-bot, Cheers!-bot, MerlIwBot, Peter.93, AlphamaBot, Hugopako, Addbot, OctraBot, Gaconnhanhnhen, itxongkhoiAWB, Ghetlionelmessi, Captainax, Chanduongpro, Tuanminh01, AlphamaBot3, TuanminhBot, BacLuong, YuYidoh, Fme1704, Baobaotran555, Nguyn ng Phang v 19 ngi vụ danh Cacbon iụxớt Ngun: https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cacbon_%C4%91i%C3%B4x%C3%ADt?oldid=26641610 Ngi úng gúp: Mekong Bluesman, Vng Ngõn H, Trung, YurikBot, Vinhtantran, DHN-bot, Dwhaj, Escarbot, JAnDbot, ijs!bot, CommonsDelinker, VolkovBot, TXiKiBoT, AlleborgoBot, SieBot, Loveless, DragonBot, Qbot, Alexbot, MelancholieBot, Ktrungthuy, WikiDreamer Bot, MystBot, AlleinStein, Luckas-bot, SilvonenBot, Eternal Dragon, Ptbotgourou, ArthurBot, Porcupine, Xqbot, PNG, TobeBot, KamikazeBot, Earthandmoon, Phng Huy, TjBot, MGA73bot, Tnt1984, TuHan-Bot, EmausBot, FoxBot, Movses-bot, Cheers!bot, MerlIwBot, AvocatoBot, enhitran, TuanUt, Kopiersperre, AlphamaBot, Addbot, Gaconnhanhnhen, Dakhoco2, Bluetpp, Nguyenxuantu92, Tuanminh01, TuanminhBot, anh-lan-nguyen, Cuongkeohuong, Phamviet ww, Franklin 71221119 v 17 ngi vụ danh Cacbohydrat Ngun: https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cacbohydrat?oldid=24163064 Ngi úng gúp: Mekong Bluesman, Casablanca1911, Newone, JAnDbot, ijs!bot, VolkovBot, TXiKiBoT, Harry Pham, SieBot, Loveless, Qbot, Alexbot, Nallimbot, Luckas-bot, SilvonenBot, Porcupine, Rubinbot, Xqbot, Tranletuhan, TobeBot, Banhtrung1, Hungda, TuHan-Bot, EmausBot, ZộroBot, Yduocizm, Cheers!, ChuispastonBot, WikitanvirBot, Cheers!-bot, Dokushin, Violetbonmua, MerlIwBot, AvicBot, Trn i c, JYBot, AlphamaBot, PentelandMartin, Addbot, OctraBot, TuanminhBot, Powerover, LeNguyenanhPhuc, Vdongold v ngi vụ danh Cacbon tetraclorua Ngun: https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cacbon_tetraclorua?oldid=22112835 Ngi úng gúp: DHN-bot, Ctmt, MSBOT, TXiKiBoT, Qbot, MelancholieBot, Song song, Xe lu, Amirobot, ArthurBot, Almabot, TuHan-Bot, Cheers!-bot, GrouchoBot, AlphamaBot, Addbot, Mốo mp, AlphamaBot4 v TuanminhBot 4.10.2 Hỡnh nh Tp_tin:1000_bi_c_bn.svg Ngun: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/95/1000_b%C3%A0i_c%C6%A1_b%E1% BA%A3n.svg Giy phộp: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Ngi úng gúp: File:Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg Ngh s u tiờn: is le: Prenn Tp_tin:AYool_CCl4_history.png Ngun: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0a/AYool_CCl4_history.png Giy phộp: CC BY 2.5 Ngi úng gúp: Chuyn t en.wikipedia sang Commons by Teratornis using CommonsHelper Ngh s u tiờn: Plumbago ti Wikipedia Ting Anh Tp_tin:Alpha-D-glucopyranose-2D-skeletal.png Ngun: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/48/ Alpha-D-glucopyranose-2D-skeletal.png Giy phộp: Public domain Ngi úng gúp: ? Ngh s u tiờn: ? Tp_tin:Beta-D-glucopyranose-2D-skeletal.png Ngun: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/60/ Beta-D-glucopyranose-2D-skeletal.png Giy phộp: Public domain Ngi úng gúp: ? Ngh s u tiờn: ? Tp_tin:CO2-Mauna-Loa.png Ngun: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c7/CO2-Mauna-Loa.png Giy phộp: Public domain Ngi úng gúp: Graph drawn by Hanno using data published on the web by P Tans (2007) as Monthly mean atmospheric carbon dioxide at Mauna Loa Observatory, Hawaii " Global Monitoring Division, Earth System Research Laboratory, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, U.S Department of Commerce, U.S.A [1] Ngh s u tiờn: Hanno Tp_tin:Cacbon_iụxớt.png Ngun: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fb/Cacbon_%C4%91i%C3%B4x%C3%ADt.png Giy phộp: Public domain Ngi úng gúp: Transferred from vi.wikipedia Ngh s u tiờn: Vng Ngõn H at vi.wikipedia Tp_tin:Carbon_Dioxide_400kyr.png Ngun: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/Carbon_Dioxide_400kyr.png Giy phộp: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Ngi úng gúp: ? Ngh s u tiờn: ? Tp_tin:Carbon_basic_phase_diagram.png Ngun: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/vi/4/46/Carbon_basic_phase_diagram png Giy phộp: Phm vi cụng cng Ngi úng gúp: ? Ngh s u tiờn: ? Tp_tin:Carbon_cycle-cute_diagram.svg Ngun: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/82/Carbon_cycle-cute_ diagram.svg Giy phộp: Public domain Ngi úng gúp: Carbon cycle-cute diagram.jpeg (i.e http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/ Features/CarbonCycle/carbon_cycle4.php) Ngh s u tiờn: Carbon_cycle-cute_diagram.jpeg: User Kevin Sa on en.wikipedia Tp_tin:Commons-logo.svg Ngun: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg Giy phộp: Public domain Ngi úng gúp: is version created by Pumbaa, using a proper partial circle and SVG geometry features (Former versions used to be slightly warped.) Ngh s u tiờn: SVG version was created by User:Grunt and cleaned up by 3247, based on the earlier PNG version, created by Reidab Tp_tin:D-glucose_color_coded.png Ngun: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8d/D-glucose_color_coded.png Giy phộp: Public domain Ngi úng gúp: Chuyn t en.wikipedia sang Commons Ngh s u tiờn: ClockworkSoul ti Wikipedia Ting Anh Tp_tin:Global_Carbon_Emissions.svg Ngun: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/44/Global_ Carbon_Emissions.svg Giy phộp: CC BY-SA 3.0 Ngi úng gúp: http://cdiac.ornl.gov/ftp/ndp030/CSV-FILES/ and Global_Carbon_Emission_by_Type_to_Y2004.png Ngh s u tiờn: Global_Carbon_Emission_by_Type_to_Y2004.png: Mak orpe Tp_tin:Lactose.svg Ngun: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/04/Lactose.svg Giy phộp: Public domain Ngi úng gúp: Selfmade with ChemDraw Ngh s u tiờn: Calvero 22 CHNG CACBON TETRACLORUA Tp_tin:NFPA_704.svg Ngun: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6f/NFPA_704.svg Giy phộp: Public domain Ngi úng gúp: Tỏc phm chớnh ngi ti lờn to Ngh s u tiờn: User:Denelson83 Tp_tin:Nfpa_f0.png Ngun: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2b/Nfpa_f0.png Giy phộp: Public domain Ngi úng gúp: Chuyn t en.wikipedia sang Commons Ngh s u tiờn: Addaone ti Wikipedia Ting Anh Tp_tin:Nfpa_h2.png Ngun: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Nfpa_h2.png Giy phộp: Public domain Ngi úng gúp: ? Ngh s u tiờn: ? Tp_tin:Nfpa_r0.png Ngun: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/19/Nfpa_r0.png Giy phộp: Public domain Ngi úng gúp: ? Ngh s u tiờn: ? Tp_tin:Phanerozoic_Carbon_Dioxide.png Ngun: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/76/Phanerozoic_Carbon_ Dioxide.png Giy phộp: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Ngi úng gúp: ? Ngh s u tiờn: ? Tp_tin:Question_book-new.svg Ngun: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Question_book-new.svg Giy phộp: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Ngi úng gúp: Chuyn t en.wikipedia sang Commons Created from scratch in Adobe Illustrator Based on Image: Question book.png created by User:Equazcion Ngh s u tiờn: Tkgd2007 Tp_tin:Sucrose_3Dprojection.png Ngun: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/56/Sucrose_3Dprojection.png Giy phộp: Public domain Ngi úng gúp: Tỏc phm chớnh ngi ti lờn to Ngh s u tiờn: glycoform Tp_tin:TOMS_indonesia_smog_lrg.jpg Ngun: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/db/TOMS_indonesia_smog_ lrg.jpg Giy phộp: Public domain Ngi úng gúp: ? Ngh s u tiờn: ? Tp_tin:Transparent.gif Ngun: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ce/Transparent.gif Giy phộp: Public domain Ngi úng gúp: Tỏc phm chớnh ngi ti lờn to Ngh s u tiờn: Edokter Tp_tin:Trockeneis.jpg Ngun: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e7/Trockeneis.jpg Giy phộp: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Ngi úng gúp: Fotograert am 29.09.04 Ngh s u tiờn: MarkS ti Wikipedia Ting c 4.10.3 Giy phộp ni dung Creative Commons Aribution-Share Alike 3.0 ... khng l cacbon iụxớt dng cỏc ion bicacbonat v cacbonatnhiu hn rt nhiu so vi lng CO2 khớ quyn Bicacbonat c to cỏc phn ng ca ỏ, nc v cacbon iụxớt Di õy l vớ d v s hũa tan canxi cacbonat: CaCO3 +... nộn Khong 1% cacbon iụxớt hũa tan chuyn húa thnh axớt cacbonic Axớt cacbonic phõn ly mt phn thnh cỏc ion bicacbonat (HCO3 - ) v cacbonat (CO3 ) Khi mt ngun la c a vo ng th cú cha cacbon iụxớt thỡ... thự hỡnh gm cacbon vụ nh hỡnh, graphit v kim cng Cỏc si cacbon l tng t nh cacbon thy tinh Di cỏc x lý c bit (kộo gión cỏc si hu c v cacbon húa) nú cú kh nng sp xp cỏc mt tinh th cacbon theo hng