Alternative schooling programs for at risk youth three case studies

ALTERNATIVE SCHOOLING PROGRAMS FOR AT RISK YOUTH THREE CASE STUDIES Cheryl Livock BA, Grad Dip Adult Ed and Training, MEd This thesis is submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy School of Cultural and Language Studies Queensland University of Technology July 2009 KEY WORDS at risk youth alternative schooling alternative education programs national reporting system productive pedagogies literacy critical literacy resources model critical realism case study Alternative Schooling Programs for At Risk Youth – Case Studies -i- ABSTRACT This thesis develops a critical realist explanatory critique of alternative schooling programs for youth at risk taking place at three case study sites Throughout the thesis the author pursues the question, ―Are alternative provisions of schooling working academically and socially for youth at risk?‖ The academic lens targets literacy learning and associated pedagogies Social outcomes are posited as positive social behaviours and continued engagement in learning A four phased analysis, drawing on critical realism, interpretive and subject specific theories is used to elicit explanations for the research question An overall framework is a critical realist methodology as set out by Danermark, Ekstrom, Jakobsen and Karlsson (2002, p 129) Consequently phase one describes the phenomena of alternative schooling programs taking place at three case study sites This is reported first as staff narratives that are resolved into imaginable historical causal components of ―generative events‖, ―prior schooling structures‖, ―models of alternative schooling‖, ―purpose‖, ―individual agency‖, and ―relations with linked community organisations‖ Then transcendental questions are posed about each component using retroduction to uncover structures, underlying mechanisms and powers, and individual agency In the second phase the researcher uses modified grounded theory methodology to theoretically redescribe causal categories related to a ―needed different teaching and administrative approach‖ that emerged from the previous critique A transcendental question is then applied to this redescription The research phenomena are again theoretically redescribed in the third phase, this time using three theoretically based constructs associated with literacy and literacy pedagogies; the NRS, the Resources Model, and Productive Pedagogies This redescription is again questioned in terms of its core or ―necessary‖ components The fourth phase makes an explanatory critique by comparing and critiquing all previous explanations, recontextualising them in a wider macro reality of alternative schooling Through this critical realist explanatory critiquing process, a response emerges not only to whether alternative provisions of schooling are working, but also how they are working, and how they are not working, with realistically based implications for future improvement Alternative Schooling Programs for At Risk Youth – Case Studies - ii - TABLE OF CONTENTS KEY WORDS i ABSTRACT ii TABLE OF CONTENTS iii LIST OF FIGURES vii LIST OF TABLES vii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS viii STATEMENT OF ORIGINAL AUTHORSHIP ix ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS x INTRODUCTION 1.1 BACKGROUND and RESEARCH QUESTION 1.2 YOUTH AT RISK .2 1.2.1 Case Study Term – Youth At Risk 1.3 ALTERNATIVE SCHOOLING - SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY WITHIN CURRENT RESEARCH .5 1.3.1 Case Study Term - Alternative Schooling Provision 1.4 LITERACY CRISIS – PUBLIC PERCEPTION 1.4.1 Case Study Term – Literacy 10 1.5 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF CRITICAL REALISM 11 1.5.1 Case Study Terms - Empowerment/ Agency 12 1.6 RESEARCH QUESTION REVIEWED 13 1.6.1 Scope, Limitations and Ethical Considerations 13 LITERATURE REVIEW 15 2.1 YOUTH AT RISK 15 2.1.1 Historical definitions of ―Risk‖, ―Risk Society‖ 15 2.1.2 Youth ―At Risk‖ – Perceived ―Risky‖ Groups of Young People 17 2.1.3 Educational and Social Impact of Risk Factors 27 2.2 ALTERNATIVE SCHOOLING – A RESPONSE TO EDUCATIONAL FAILURE 28 2.2.1 Educational Failure - Historical Construction of a Class or Individual‘s Problem 28 2.2.2 Educational Failure - a Training Problem of Government Institutions 30 2.2.3 Educational Failure - Input of the New Right 31 2.3 SOLUTIONS TO EDUCATIONAL FAILURE FOR YOUTH AT RISK 34 2.3.1 Institutional - School Reform 34 2.3.2 Establishing Alternative Schools / Education Sites 35 2.4 A PERCEIVED LITERACY CRISIS 41 2.4.1 Origins of a Perceived Literacy Crisis 41 2.5 LITERACY EDUCATION 44 2.5.1 Definitions of Literacy 44 2.5.2 Models of Literacy linked to Interventionist Programs 49 2.5.3 Theoretical Literacy ―Models‖ Framing this Study 57 2.6 LITERATURE REVIEWED 64 CRITICAL REALISM: META-THEORY 66 3.1 A SOMEWHAT INTERPRETIVE FRAMEWORK 66 Alternative Schooling Programs for At Risk Youth – Case Studies - iii - 3.2 CRITICAL REALIST EPISTEMOLOGY 66 3.3 CRITICAL REALIST ONTOLOGY 68 3.4 BHASKAR‘S TRANSFORMATIONAL MODEL – The Connection Between Social Structures and Individual Agency 72 RESEARCH DESIGN, METHODOLOGY AND METHODS 78 4.1 CASE STUDY DESIGN 78 4.1.1 Case Study Design within a Critical Realist Framework 78 4.1.2 Purposeful Sampling 79 4.1.3 Sampling Criteria 80 4.2 METHODS – DATA COLLECTION 83 4.2.1 Research Implements 83 4.2.2 Research Timetable 85 4.3 METHODS – DATA ANALYSIS 91 4.3.1 Stages of a Critical Realist Explanatory Research 92 CASE STUDY 1: FLEXI SCHOOL 95 5.1 STAGE 1: FLEXI SCHOOL, PARTICIPANT STAFF DESCRIPTIONS 95 5.2 HISTORY 95 5.2.1 Flexi School Model 95 5.2.2 Flexi School - Purpose 96 5.2.3 Flexi School – Background and Location 97 5.3 PEOPLE 99 5.3.1 Flexi School - Teaching Staff 99 5.3.2 Flexi School – Students 103 5.4 PROGRAMS 104 5.4.1 Flexi School – Student Programs 104 5.4.2 Flexi School – Resources and Teaching Strategies 105 5.4.3 Flexi School – Outcomes: Most Effective and Suggested Improvements 107 CASE STUDY 2: ALTERNATIVE EDUCATION CENTRE 110 6.1 STAGE 1: ALTERNATIVE EDUCATION CENTRE, PARTICIPANT STAFF DESCRIPTIONS 110 6.2 HISTORY 110 6.2.1 Alternative Education Centre Model 110 6.2.2 Alternative Education Centre - Purpose 111 6.2.3 Alternative Education Centre – Background and Location 112 6.3 PEOPLE 114 6.3.1 Alternative Education Centre - Teaching Staff 114 6.3.2 Alternative Education Centre – Students 117 6.4 PROGRAMS 118 6.4.1 Alternative Education Centre – Student Programs 118 6.4.2 Alternative Education Centre – Resources and Teaching Strategies 121 6.4.3 Alternative Education Centre – Outcomes: Most Effective and Suggested Improvements 122 CASE STUDY 3: SUBURBAN TAFE, YOUTH AT RISK PROGRAM 124 7.1 STAGE 1: SUBURBAN TAFE YOUTH AT RISK PROGRAM, PARTICIPANT STAFF DESCRIPTIONS 124 7.2 HISTORY 124 7.2.1 Suburban TAFE, Youth At Risk Program – Model 124 7.2.2 Suburban TAFE, Youth At Risk Program – Purpose 125 7.2.3 Suburban TAFE, Youth At Risk Program – Background and Location 126 7.3 PEOPLE 127 Alternative Schooling Programs for At Risk Youth – Case Studies - iv - 7.3.1 Suburban TAFE, Youth At Risk Program – Teaching Staff 127 7.3.2 Suburban TAFE, Youth At Risk Program – Students 129 7.4 PROGRAMS 132 7.4.1 Suburban TAFE, Youth At Risk Program – Student Programs 132 7.4.2 Suburban TAFE, Youth At Risk Program – Resources and Teaching Strategies 134 7.4.3 Suburban TAFE, Youth At Risk Program – Outcomes: Most Effective and Suggested Improvements 136 CRITICAL REALIST ANALYSIS OF CASE STUDY NARRATIVES 141 8.1 STAGE 2: ANALYTICAL RESOLUTION and STAGE 4: RETRODUCTION 141 8.1.1 Flexi School – Resolution and Retroduction 142 8.1.2 Alternative Education Centre – Resolution and Retroduction 149 8.1.3 Suburban Tafe, Youth At Risk Program – Resolution and Retroduction 156 8.1.4 Reviewing Three Case Study Alternative ‗Schools‘ – Resolution and Retroduction 164 8.1.5 Conclusion – To Review of Historical Transcendental Question 169 PARTICIPANT PERSPECTIVE ANALYSIS THROUGH CODING 170 9.1 STAGE 3: THEORETICAL REDESCRIPTION and STAGE 4: RETRODUCTION 170 9.2 TWO LENSES: CODING – INTERROGATED BY TRANSCENDENTAL CRITICAL REALIST QUESTIONING 171 9.2.1 First Lens: Coding Categories – Academic and Social Coding ALL Student and Staff Narratives 172 9.2.2 Second Lens: Critical Realist Retroduction – Reframing Academic and Social Categories 195 10 CASE STUDY LITERACY PRACTICES AND PEDAGOGIES 198 10.1 STAGE 3: THEORETICAL REDESCRIPTION and STAGE 4: RETRODUCTION 198 10.2 TWO LITERACY LENSES – THREE THEORETICALLY BASED MODELS 198 10.3 ANALYSIS OF LITERACY PRODUCTIONS AND PEDAGOGIC PRACTICES AT CASE STUDY SITES 200 10.3.1 Rural Flexi School - Literacy Experiences of Students: John 14; Nicole, 16 200 10.3.2 Alternative Education Centre - Literacy Experiences of students: Matt 13; Alf, 14 216 10.3.3 Suburban TAFE Youth at Risk Program - Literacy Experiences of students: Shaniah 17; John, 17 230 10.4 CRITICAL REALIST RETRODUCTION – TRANSCENDENTAL QUESTION: REGARDING LITERACY PRODUCTIONS, PRACTICES AND PEDAGOGIES 246 10.4.1 Necessary Academic Outcomes: NRS Literacy Levels, Social/Critical Literacy, Productive Pedagogies 247 10.4.2 Necessary Social Outcomes: Students‟ social practices and continued engagement in learning 248 10.5 NECESSARY RELATIONAL AND INDIVIDUAL COMPONENTS: FACILITATING LITERACY LEARNING and ENGAGEMENT 250 11 FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 253 11.1 STAGE 5: COMPARING THEORIES/ABSTRACTIONS and STAGE 6: CONCRETIZATION and CONTEXTUALIZATION 253 11.2 ALTERNATIVE SCHOOLING – A RESPONSE TO WHOSE EDUCATIONAL FAILURE? 253 11.2.1 Interaction of Society and the Individual – The Effect of Schooling Structures and Mechanisms on Individual Agency of Staff and Parents in continuing alternative schooling and/or an alternative approach 254 11.3 YOUTH AT RISK – AN ALTERNATIVE APPROACH NEEDED 258 11.3.1 Necessary Categories Derived from Coding – What was Alternative about Alternative Schooling, as experienced by students and staff? 259 11.4 LITERACY – AS A CRITICAL/SOCIAL PRACTICE 262 Alternative Schooling Programs for At Risk Youth – Case Studies -v- 11.4.1 Literacy Practices and Pedagogies – the Essential Components 263 11.5 FINAL DISCUSSION and RECOMMENDATIONS 268 11.5.1 Findings Summarized 268 11.5.2 Recommendations - Essential ‗Academic‘ Components 270 11.5.3 Recommendations - Essential ‗Social‘ Components 271 11.5.4 Recommended Theoretical Stance 273 REFERENCE LIST 275 APPENDICES 291 Appendix 1: Interview - Program Coordinator 292 Appendix 2: Interview - Individual Student 293 Appendix 3: Interview – Student‘s Teacher 295 Appendix 4: Teacher Questionnaire - Site Literacy Practices 297 Appendix 5: Research Information Sheet 298 Appendix 6: Research Consent Form – Students 300 Appendix 7: Research Consent Form – Parents/Carers 301 Appendix 8: Research Consent Form – Staff 302 Appendix 9: Heuristics On Categories Of Productive Pedagogies 303 Appendix 10: Critical Reading / Critical Literacy Theoretical Background 304 Appendix 11: 4228.0 Aspects of Literacy: Assessed Literacy Skills 305 Appendix 12: The National Reporting System (NRS), Australia Literacy – Reading and Writing Indicators, Levels 1-5 321 Appendix 13: Alternative Schooling Sites‘ Characteristics 323 Appendix 14: Stratified: Social Structures and Mechanisms; Individuals‘ Agency and Power (Chapter 8) 324 Appendix 15: ―Different‖ Teaching and Administrative Approaches At Alternative Schooling Sites (Chapter 9) 327 Alternative Schooling Programs for At Risk Youth – Case Studies - vi - LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1 Newmann and Associates: "Standards for Authentic Achievement" 54 Figure 2.2 New Basics Project, Productive Pedagogies aligned with Newmann et al.‘s Authentic Achievement: Instruction 55 Figure 2.3 The National Reporting System (NRS), Australia – reading and writing (simplified) 60 Figure 3.1 Bhaskar's Transformational Model of the Society/Person Connection (1979) 73 Figure 3.2 Bhaskar "on the Society/Person Connection" (1979) 74 Figure 4.1 Visits to case study sites - 2004/2007 85 Figure 4.2 Critical Realist stages in explanatory research 93 Figure 5.1 Flexi School exterior 99 Figure 5.2 Flexi School classroom 106 Figure 6.1 Alternative Education Centre classrooms and reception area 112 Figure 6.2 Alternative Education Centre - verandah morning tea area, radio room, art room, kitchen 113 Figure 7.1 Suburban TAFE - computer classroom, campus grounds, literacy classroom 127 Figure 9.1 Pedagogic differences 174 Figure 9.2 Social support 177 Figure 9.3 Literacy experience 179 Figure 9.4 Positive administrative approaches 182 Figure 9.5 Reasons for continued disengagement and solutions 186 Figure 9.6 Administrative approaches 190 Figure 11.1 Theory: the "Get" and "Give principles 274 LIST OF TABLES Table 2.1 Table 4.1 Table 9.1 Table 9.2 Table 10.1 Table 10.2 Table 10.3 Table 10.4 Table 10.5 Table 10.6 Table 11.1 Table 11.2 Table 11.3 Table 11.4 Language and Pedagogical Composite Assessment Model 63 Research Timetable – Data Collection and Analysis 86 Suburban TAFE: Literacy „Theme Work‟ 180 Suburban TAFE: Literacy „Fundraising Committee‟ 181 Composite Literacy Assessment Model (abbreviated), Flexi School Student-John 204 Composite Assessment Model (abbreviated), Flexi School Student-Nicole 212 Composite Assessment Model (abbreviated), AEC Student-Alf 219 Composite Assessment Model (abbreviated), AEC Student-Matt 226 Composite Literacy Assessment Model (abbreviated),Suburban TAFE StudentShaniah 234 Composite Literacy Assessment Model (abbreviated), Suburban TAFE StudentJohn 237 Necessary Components for Successful Alternative Schooling - Implemented/Not Implemented 269 Recommendations: Essential Academic Components of a "Different" Approach 271 Recommendations: Essential Social Components of a “Different” Approach - for Individuals 272 Recommendations: Essential Social Components of a “Different” Approach - for Social Institutions 273 Alternative Schooling Programs for At Risk Youth – Case Studies - vii - LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ACER Australian Council for Educational Research BSDE Brisbane School of Distance Education CGEA Certificate in General Education for Adults DEEWR Department of Education Employment and Workplace Relations [Australian Government] DET Department of Employment and Training [Queensland, Australia] ETRF Education and Training Reforms for the Future GED General Education Diploma IALS International Adult Literacy Survey JPET Job Placement, Employment and Training Program JPP Jobs Pathway Program LLNP Language, Literacy and Numeracy Program MUD Moral Underclass Discourse NCVER Australia‘s National Centre for Vocational Education Research NRS National Reporting System OEDC Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development PRUs Pupil Referral Units RED Redistributive Egalitarian Discourse SID Social Integrationist Discourse TAFE Technical and Further Education College Alternative Schooling Programs for At Risk Youth – Case Studies - viii - APPENDIX 11 1.7 SELF-RATING OF BASIC MATHS SKILLS, By Quantitative Skill Level STATE OR TERRITORY OF USUAL RESIDENCE New South Wales and Victoria had the largest proportions at Level of all the States and Territories for each literacy scale, while the two Territories had the smallest proportions at Level The SAL excluded people living in remote and sparsely settled parts of Australia and in the Northern Territory such regions account for over 20% of the population, as a result the Northern Territory estimates are not fully representative The Australian Capital Territory contained the largest proportion of people at Level 4/5 on each literacy scale Tasmania and New South Wales had relatively small proportions at Level 4/5 on each scale Some of the differences between States and Territories in terms of literacy performance may be explained by differences in the socio-demographic characteristics of their populations LITERACY-RELATED ACTIVITIES IN DAILY LIFE On each of the three scales, larger proportions of people at the higher skill levels undertook literacy-related activities at least once a week compared with those at lower skill levels 1.8 PROPORTION UNDERTAKING ACTIVITIES AT LEAST WEEKLY - Prose Scale On all scales, very large proportions of people at Levels 2, and 4/5 read newspapers or - 315 - APPENDIX 11 magazines at least weekly and these proportions increased slightly with skill level (approximately 93%, 96% and 97% respectively) However, the proportion at Level who read newspapers or magazines at least weekly was smaller (about 85% on all scales) The proportion of people who read books at least weekly increased as skill level increased On the prose scale, 36% of people at Level read books at least weekly, compared with 45% at Level 2, 60% at Level and 71% at Level 4/5 Clearly, frequent reading of books was more closely related to prose skill level than was reading of newspapers or magazines The proportion of people at Level who wrote material more than one page in length at least weekly was less than half the proportion at Level 4/5 On the prose scale, 14% of people at Level wrote such material at least weekly compared with 37% at Level 4/5 On all scales, the proportion of people at Level 4/5 who used a public library at least weekly was larger than the proportion at Level However, a smaller proportion of people at Level 4/5 on the quantitative scale attended a public library, compared with those at Level 4/5 on the prose scale (12% compared with 16%) This emphasises that performance on one scale does not necessarily relate to performance on a different scale READING MATERIALS IN THE HOME The proportions of people at Level who had more than 25 books, a dictionary, or a daily newspaper in the home were markedly smaller than the corresponding proportions of people at higher skill levels Having more than 25 books in the home appeared to be more closely related to performance on the prose scale than did having a dictionary or a daily newspaper On the prose scale, 70% of people at Level had more than 25 books in the home, compared with 85% at Level 2, 94% at Level and 98% at Level 4/5 1.9 PROPORTION WITH READING MATERIALS IN THE HOME - Prose Scale LITERACY-RELATED ACTIVITIES IN THE WORKPLACE People who had worked in the 12 months before the survey were asked questions about literacy-related activities performed in their main job Some 9,589,000 people aged 15-74 had worked in the 12 months before the survey A larger proportion of workers at Level 4/5 performed four or more reading activities at least weekly than did those at Level (62% to 65% compared with 22% to 25% depending on the scale) Similarly, depending on the scale, 52% to 55% of those at Level 4/5 performed two or more writing activities at least weekly, compared with 16% to 19% of workers at Level - 316 - APPENDIX 11 Prose literacy The proportion of workers at each level on the prose scale who read or used letters or memos daily increased with higher skill levels Of workers at Level 1, 31% read or used letters or memos daily, compared with 43% at Level 2, 53% at Level and 63% at Level 4/5 Similarly, the proportion of workers who wrote letters or memos daily increased with skill level However, at each skill level, smaller proportions wrote letters or memos daily compared with the proportion that read or used letters or memos daily The proportion of workers at each level on the prose scale who read or used reports, articles, magazines or journals daily also increased with higher skill levels Of workers at Level 1, 14% read or used reports, articles, magazines or journals daily, compared with 35% at Level 4/5 However, the proportion of people at each level on the prose scale who wrote reports or articles daily increased less markedly with higher skill levels, rising from 9% at Level to 14% at Level 4/5 1.10 DAILY USE OF REPORTS, ARTICLES, MAGAZINES OR JOURNALS Document literacy The proportion of workers who read or used bills, invoices, spreadsheets or budget tables daily increased with higher skill levels, rising from 14% at Level to 32% at Level 4/5 However, the proportions who filled out forms such as bills, invoices or budgets daily were largest at Levels and (18% at both levels) 1.11 DAILY USE OF BILLS, INVOICES, SPREADSHEETS OR BUDGETS The proportion of workers who read or used diagrams or plans daily was largest at Levels and 4/5 (20% and 21% respectively) However, for those who read or used diagrams or plans at - 317 - APPENDIX 11 least weekly, the difference between Level and 4/5 was more marked: 41% of those at Level read or used diagrams or plans at least weekly compared with 48% at Level 4/5 Quantitative literacy The proportion of workers at Level on the quantitative scale who used arithmetic or mathematics at least weekly to measure or estimate the size or weight of objects was larger than the proportion that used arithmetic or mathematics at least weekly to calculate prices, costs or budgets (36% and 27% respectively) However, at Levels and 4/5, larger proportions of workers used arithmetic or mathematics at least weekly to calculate prices, costs or budgets (51% at Level and 53% at Level 4/5) than to measure or estimate the size or weight of objects (41% at Levels and 4/5) 1.12 USED ARITHMETIC OR MATHS AT LEAST WEEKLY - Quantitative Scale SOCIAL ACTIVITIES People with high literacy skills had larger rates of participation in the following social activities nominated in the survey: attending a movie, play or concert; attending or taking part in a sporting event; and participating in volunteer or community organisations On all scales, at Level 4/5, approximately 14% of people undertook two or more activities at least weekly, compared with 5% at Level On all scales, the proportions of people who did not undertake any of the activities at least weekly decreased as skill level increased: approximately 70% at Level did not undertake any of the activities at least weekly, compared with about 53% at Level 2, 46% at Level and 43% at Level 4/5 NEEDING HELP WITH SELECTED LITERACY-RELATED ACTIVITIES People were asked whether they needed help to undertake any of the following literacy-related activities in English: read information from government agencies, businesses and other institutions; read newspaper articles; read instructions such as on a medicine bottle; read instructions on packaged goods; write notes or letters; or fill out forms such as applications or bank deposit slips They were also asked whether they needed help with basic arithmetic Compared to all other levels, much larger proportions of people at Level (on each scale) reported needing help often with various activities On all scales, approximately 7% of people at Level reported needing help often with basic arithmetic, ranging up to 19% who reported needing help often to read information (in English) from government agencies, businesses or other institutions - 318 - APPENDIX 11 INTERNATIONAL COMPARISONS Australia participated in the second round of the International Adult Literacy Survey (IALS) in 1996, along with New Zealand, the United Kingdom, and Belgium (Flemish-speaking) Pending the availability of results from these countries, the following table compares the skill level distributions for Australia with those of the other countries that participated in the first round of the IALS in 1994 To enable valid comparisons across countries, the following table is restricted to people aged 16-65 and consequently the estimates in this table will differ from others in this publication 1.13 INTERNATIONAL COMPARISONS(a), People Aged 16-65 Level % Country Level % Level % Level 4/5 % 27.1 25.6 34.2 30.1 34.5 20.3 33.7 35.7 25.9 36.9 35.1 38.0 44.1 19.8 39.7 38.6 36.1 32.4 18.9 22.7 13.4 15.3 3.1 32.4 10.0 8.9 21.1 27.8 24.7 32.7 25.7 30.7 18.9 28.8 29.1 25.9 37.7 32.1 39.5 44.2 18.0 39.4 38.9 36.6 31.4 17.4 25.1 18.9 20.0 5.8 35.5 16.0 16.1 19.0 26.5 26.1 26.6 25.5 30.1 18.6 24.5 26.2 25.3 37.7 34.8 43.2 44.3 23.9 39.0 42.2 40.7 31.3 19.1 22.2 23.5 19.9 6.8 35.8 20.4 19.0 22.5 PROSE SCALE Australia Canada(b) Germany Netherlands Poland Sweden Switzerland (French) Switzerland (German) United States of America 17.0 16.6 14.4 10.5 42.6 7.5 17.6 19.3 20.7 DOCUMENT SCALE Australia Canada(b) Germany Netherlands Poland Sweden Switzerland (French) Switzerland (German) United States of America 17.0 18.2 9.0 10.1 45.4 6.2 16.2 18.1 23.7 QUANTITATIVE SCALE Australia Canada(b) Germany Netherlands Poland Sweden Switzerland (French) Switzerland (German) United States of America 16.8 16.9 6.7 10.3 39.1 6.6 12.9 14.2 21.0 (a) Source: OECD 1995 (b) Combined results for English and French languages Related links Back to top Main Features Time Series Spreadsheets Catalogue Data Cubes - 4228.0 May 1996 - 319 - APPENDIX 11 Aspects of Literacy: Assessed Skill Levels, Australia Australia Now Publications - 1301.0 - 2002 Libraries and archives Media Releases 2001 Census Data - 4228.0 Australians' literacy skills put to the test This document published September 1997 and last updated June 2002 - 320 - APPENDIX 12 Appendix 12: The National Reporting System (NRS), Australia Literacy – Reading and Writing Indicators, Levels 1-5 The National Reporting System (NRS), Australia (Coates, Fitzpatrick, McKenna, & Makin, 1996, pp 27-29) Literacy – Reading & Writing Indicators of Competencies Level Reading Writing Level Reading Writing Level Reading 1.1 Reads and identifies letters of the alphabet in the context of whole words, numbers, signs and symbols relating to personal details and immediate environment 1.2 Identifies specific information in a personally relevant text with familiar content which may include personal details, locations or calendar information in simple graphic, diagrammatic, formatted or visual form 1.3 Copies letters of the alphabet, numbers and dates in order to convey personal details such as name, address, telephone number 1.4 Writes basic personal details about self or others such as name, address and signature 1.5 Writes one or two phrases/ simple sentences conveying an idea, message or opinion drawing from a modelled text 2.1 Reads and interprets short simple texts on a personally relevant topic 2.2 Locates specific information relating to familiar contexts in a text which may contain data in simple graphic, diagrammatic, formatted or visual form 2.3 Writes about a familiar topic using simple sentence structure and joining ideas through conjunctive links where appropriate 2.4 Completes forms or writes notes using factual or personal information relating to familiar contexts 3.1 Reads and interprets texts of some complexity, integrating (where relevant) a number of pieces of information in order to generate meaning 3.2 Displays awareness of purpose of text, including unstated meaning 3.3 Interprets and extrapolates from Conditions of Performance These statements outline the maximum degree of support allowable in interpreting student performance on the indicators for this level:  Works alongside expert/ mentor/ teacher where advice/modelling is readily available and recourse to first/other language is acceptable if required  Incorporates communication supports as required  Demonstrates competence in immediate contexts  Performs where advice/ modelling is available if required  Incorporates communication supports as required  Demonstrates competence in a number of contexts which may be interrelated  Performs where advice/ modelling is available if required  Incorporates communication supports as required  Demonstrates competence in a number of contexts which may be - 321 - APPENDIX 12 texts containing data which is unambiguously presented in graphic, diagrammatic, formatted or visual form Level Level Writing Reading Writing Level Reading Writing 3.4 Communicates relationships between ideas through selecting and using grammatical structures and notations which are appropriate to the purpose 3.5 Produces and sequences paragraphs according to purpose of text 4.1 Reads and interprets structurally intricate texts in chosen fields of knowledge which require integration of several pieces of information for generating meaning 4.2 Interprets texts which include ambiguity and inexplicitness where reader needs to distinguish fact from opinion and infer purpose 4.3 Interprets and extrapolates from texts containing data which includes some abstraction, symbolism and technicality presented in graphic, diagrammatic, formatted or visual form 4.4 Communicates complex relationships between ideas and matches style of writing to purpose ad audience 4.4 Generates written texts reflecting a range of genres and using appropriate structure and layout 5.1 Reads and interprets structurally intricate texts in chosen fields of knowledge and across a number of gtenres, which involve complex relationships between pieces of information and/or propositions 5.2 Interprets subtle nuances, infers purpose of author and makes judgements about the quality of an argument 5.3 Reads and critically evaluates texts containing data which include sabstraction, symbolism and technicality presented in graphic, diagrammatic, formatted or visual forms 5.4 Demonstrats well developed writing skills by selecting stylistic devices to express complex relationships between ideas and purposes 5.5 Generates complex written texts with control over generic structures interrelated as above  Performs where support is available only if required  Incorporates communication supports as required  Demonstrates competence within a variety of contexts  Requires little or no support from techer, other participants or interlocutors  Incorporates communication supports as required  Demonstrates competence across a broad range of contexts - 322 - APPENDIX 13 Appendix 13: ALTERNATIVE SCHOOLING SITES‟ CHARACTERISTICS ALTERNATIVE SCHOOLING SITES‟ CHARACTERISTICS Alternative Education Sites/Models PILOT STUDY SITE: Regional TAFE, Qld [large coastal region] Rural Flexi School, Suburban TAFE, Alternative Education Qld Qld Centre, Qld [rural city] [in state capital, [small rural town] Brisbane] Language, Literacy Brisbane School of & Numeracy Distance Education Program [LLNP] Cert I Vocational Access for Youth at Risk National (Australia wide) Site specific & State (Education Site specific & National (Australia State (Education Queensland) Queensland) wide) schools] Staff Teachers, Volunteer Tutors Coordinator, Acting Coordinator, Teacher, Para Teacher Acting Coordinator, Teachers, Tutors & Volunteer Tutors Coordinators/ Teachers (a husband and wife team), TAs, teachers, volunteer tutors Organisation Curriculum Materials TAFE – Teacher developed workbooks and worksheets Brisbane School of Distance Education (BSDE) workbooks /online learning & TAFE course materials TAFE – Teacher developed materials with student input Teacher developed material based on individual student needs Assessment Teacher marked workbooks, Voc Ed outcome test sheets, NRS test sheets and oral presentations Workbooks, assignments & assessment sheets sent to & marked by BSDE or TAFE Teacher marked workbooks, assignments and oral presentations Teacher marked work Performance Indicators 1) TAFE Certificate Vocational Access outcomes 2) NRS outcomes required by Centrelink 3) TAFE Curriculum outcomes 1) TAFE Certificate I Outcome based leading Vocational Access to Year 10 Certificate / outcomes Yr 12 Post Compulsory 2) NRS Level Certificate outcomes Outcomes based – vocational and personal goals achieved Gaining a High School Gaining Employment Education to Year 10 OR Access to further level [Year 12 Training available] Glasser’s … Choice Theory & Quality World Students choosing to include learning and acceptable behaviours in their Quality World Program Program sponsored by Individual Programs [one of trial alternative Learning … Theories / Focus Gaining Employment OR Access to further Training Literacy Outcomes (NRS levels) a) Skills to participate in a mainstream class Achieve NRS LEVEL Gain Year 10 statement Achieve NRS LEVEL AND/OR literacy of attainment (NRS 4) literacy b) Able to fill out forms, read & understand basic printed material (NRS 1-2) Oral and written literacy associated Literacy with the workplace Pedagogic Focus and gaining employment Year level Queensland English curriculum, OR Vocational /Daily Life focussed literacy booklets Oral and written assessment tasks based on real life tasks, chosen democratically by students 1) Reading daily to students 2) Activities based on students’ interests, “seizing the moment” - 323 - APPENDIX 14 Appendix 14: STRATIFIED: SOCIAL STRUCTURES & MECHANISMS; INDIVIDUALS‟ AGENCY & POWER (Chapter 8) RETRODUCTION - Answering the Transcendental Question: What are the necessary conditions that brought each alternative schooling site into being, and that made it possible for their continued existence? ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL Generative Event Prior Schooling Structure Flexi School Alternative Education Centre Youth At Risk Program Parents whose children ―couldn‘t handle high school‖ started Flexi school in 1999 Education Queensland started trial alternative education centres in 2000 Brisbane senior community college administrators decide to start program for youth without Year 10 certificate about 1994 STRUCTURE: STRUCTURE: STRUCTURES: Public Mainstream High Schooling Queensland‘s Education Department Queensland‘s Education Department & TAFE MECHANISM: MECHANISMS: MECHANISMS: Mainstream high school being ―too officious‖ Two Ed Qld reports re:: behaviour management & 10 yr future ed strategy Two separate teaching approaches: pedagogy & andragogy SUB MECHANISMS: SUB MECHANISMS: EMERGENT STRUCTURE: Need for schooling form that is ―different‖ ―alternative‖ Ideas – 1st) at risk & equity; 2nd) future strategies – alternate schools CONCURRENT SOCIAL CONTEXTS: EMERGENT MECHANISMS: Social phenomena & behaviours – growing rich/poor divide; perceived behaviour problems in schools; increasing private school numbers; need for skilled workers in globalized marketplace Combining two teaching approaches: pedagogy & andragogy (favouring andragogy) GEO-HISTORICAL SCHOOLING/ED CONTEXTS: GEO-HISTORICAL SOCIAL CONTEXTS: School reform movement; concerns about national literacy Model of Schooling Brisbane Senior Community College Qld changing political parties and policies STRUCTURE: STRUCTURE: STRUCTURE: Flexi school model Alternative Education Centre model Cert Workplace Access for Youth At Risk Program SUB STRUCTURES: SUB STRUCTURES: SUB STRUCTURES: 1) Non teacher Administration 2) Curriculum: BSDE 1) Ed Qld hierarchical Administration 2) Curriculum: teacher devised; student needs based 1) TAFE Administration 2) TAFE Curriculums - 324 - APPENDIX 14 ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL Model of Schooling [cont.] Flexi School Alternative Education Centre Youth At Risk Program EMERGENT SUB STRUCTURES: VARIABLE SUB STRUCTURES: EMERGENT MECHANISMS: 1st) Admin: parents/ social worker 2nd) Admin: parent management committee + local high school admin 3rd) Admin: local high school - Location; - Funding & resources; - Administration [see below – Relations] Modifying above teaching approach (of Senior Community College) for youth at risk - more ―student input‖ ―supportive‖ ―caring‖ ―flexible‖ CORE / NECESSARY PURPOSE: Provide a CORE / NECESSARY PURPOSE [Ed Qld]: CORE / NECESSARY PURPOSE: Fulfil a learning place for students who couldn‘t handle high school To remove disruptive students from mainstream public schools and provide an alternative learning place for them Community Need SYMMETRICAL SUB PURPOOSE: SYMMETRICAL SUB PURPOOSE: For the school to be different or an alternative to mainstream high school Develop individual needs based programs SYMMETRICAL SUB PURPOSES: 1) ―reengage high POWER/AGENCY of above individuals & emergent substructures SOCIAL CONTEXTS: Social phenomenon – exponential increase in insurance premiums Purpose CORE / NECESSARY PURPOSE [Staff]: To develop a one on one relationship with each student school students‖ 2) ―give them employable skills‖ RELATED SUBSIDIARY PURPOSES: to build student confidence and resilience MECHANISMS: fulfilling students‘ emotional needs through applying Glasser philosophy STRUCTURES: Necessary Relations with Organisations Town‘s community & service organisations STRUCTURES: STRUCTURES: Schooling structures of Education Queensland Site TAFE structures, Brisbane High Schools, Local and City Media NECESSARY FOR: NECESSARY FOR: NECESSARY FOR: Physical locations, some funding Physical locations, funding, reference group & students Physical location, curriculum, funding & students - 325 - APPENDIX 14 ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL Necessary Relations with Organisations [cont.] Flexi School Alternative Education Centre Youth At Risk Program INDIVIDUALS‘ CORE NETWORKS [parents/ staff] exemplifications of: INDIVIDUALS‘ CORE NETWORKS [2 coordinators] exemplifications of: - Personal & INDIVIDUALS‘ CORE NETWORKS [general TAFE staff – particularly coordinator] exemplifications of: - Personal networks - Rural networks - Professional networks with schooling structures of Ed Qld INDIVIDUALS‘ AGENCY SYMMETRICALLY dependent on: - Being well known/ liked in the town; - Holding a variety of positions in the town - Ability to liaise POWER/AGENCY of parents & staff– amount of transformative capacity [Power1 ]: – Parent Power somewhat blocked; – Staff able to utilize their networks INDIVIDUALS‘ AGENCY – EXTERNAL /INTERNAL - Relational: 25 years with Ed Qld & individual students, parents - Dispositional: personalities & wide/ varied teaching experience POWER/AGENCY of coordinators– amount of transformative capacity [Power1 ] – Able to utilize schooling structures - Organisational network INDIVIDUALS‘ AGENCY CONFINED WITHIN TAFE STRUCTURE – able to liaised wtih: - program teachers: within literacy unit & in vocational units; - principals: from surrounding high schools - local businesses - media: local & city newspapers POWER/AGENCY of coordinator & literacy staff – amount of transformative capacity [Power1 ] 1ST) Facilitated within TAFE structure with some problems 2nd) Blocked by more powerful internal vocational TAFE structures & external contextual factors - 326 - 1) 2) NEGATIVE ASPECTS How the learning experience differs from high school  Pedagogies - monitored for understanding not behaviour - various explanations until understanding achieved o sat down with o fully explained o explained in different ways o explained until student understood  Affect – emotions & values o student / teacher: trust long term relationship o student empowerment / ownership  Organisational – administrative o 2nd chance opportunity at schooling At risk students supportive of each other‘s learning [student interviews]  Previously / first began o bashed other students o too shy to speak in front of other students/teachers o would shake if had to speak 3) Teaching of social skills  Affect – emotions & values o not judgemental of other students o value others opinions o good to each other  Communication skills o confidence o speak in front of/to others 4) Nature of the Literacy learning  Specific Literacy Improvements  Program Formats o in real life context o allow for student choice/input o allow for 2nd chance to achieve outcomes  Pedagogies that o seize the moment o teacher models correct answers o students allowed to ‗yell out‘ answers o students allowed to assist each other o use worksheets o use little/no board work APPENDIX 15 COLOUR KEY ADMINISTRATIVE/ORGANISATIONAL LITERACY/PEDAGOGIES POSITIVE AFFECT Appendix 15: „DIFFERENT‟ TEACHING & ADMINISTRATIVE APPROACHES AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOLING SITES (Chapter – Coding Categories & Sub-categories) (Chapter – Coding Categories & Sub-categories)  Learning & Engagement o none of the above o make friends with other students o encourage each other to attend o help each other in class with work APPENDIX 15: “DIFFERENT” TEACHING & ADMINISTRATIVE APPROACHES AT ALTERNATIVE SCHOOLING SITES - 327 - NEGATIVE ASPECTS 6) Causes for continued disengagement  younger students – 14 & under  chaos in their lives o accommodation issues o loss of work books  getting out of the habit of attending o sickness o holiday breaks o get behind in work  not motivated  unclear written information [workbooks, internet]  loss of supportive teacher o conflicting approaches o dispirit approaches = ½ / ½ 7) Solutions to continued disengagement  higher teacher/student ratio  stable supportive staff o teacher‘s personal commitment o help solve student problems o help motivate students that they can succeed  positive teacher/parent or significant other ongoing contact  Written information in simple & clear English 8) Detrimental administrative approaches  no commitment to staff o casual employment o no paid preparation o not consulted  accountability o rolls – regulate attend o rules – behaviour o outcomes – student  difficulty attached to mainstream 9) Solutions to detrimental administrative approaches  no commitment to staff o permanent employment o paid preparation o be consulted/ trusted/ valued APPENDIX 15 COLOUR KEY ADMINISTRATIVE/ORGANISATIONAL LITERACY/PEDAGOGIES POSITIVE AFFECT 5) Flexible timetabling and flexible patterns of attendance  small class sizes [8] … [AEC 10-11 too big /TAFE 16 dropped out to in & in 1]  unique daily attendance patterns  flexible assessment deadlines - student needs centred  no fixed time for o subjects o breaks  [students reported attending regularly …?] - 328 - [ continued]  accountability o rolls – flexible attendance o relationship – behaviour o outcomes – flexible end dates  difficulty attached to mainstream o having links – relationships / personal & professional o trust in alternative staff, especially coordinator o training in philosophy underlying alternative schools APPENDIX 15 COLOUR KEY ADMINISTRATIVE/ORGANISATIONAL LITERACY/PEDAGOGIES POSITIVE AFFECT NEGATIVE ASPECTS 9) Solutions to detrimental administrative approaches - 329 - ... Alternative Schooling Programs for At Risk Youth – Case Studies -i- ABSTRACT This thesis develops a critical realist explanatory critique of alternative schooling programs for youth at risk taking... Administrative Approaches At Alternative Schooling Sites (Chapter 9) 327 Alternative Schooling Programs for At Risk Youth – Case Studies - vi - LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1 Newmann and Associates:... investigate three intertwining issues of youth at risk, alternative education provisions and literacy It will ask the question: What alternative provisions of schooling are working for youth at risk?