EBOOK điện ổ đĩa các nguyên tắc lập kế hoạch ứng dụng các giải pháp sách (jens weidauer) sách (jens weidauer)EBOOK điện ổ đĩa các nguyên tắc lập kế hoạch ứng dụng các giải pháp sách (jens weidauer)EBOOK điện ổ đĩa các nguyên tắc lập kế hoạch ứng dụng các giải pháp sách (jens weidauer)
Weidauer/Messer Electrical Drives Electrical Drives Principles · Planning · Applications · Solutions by Jens Weidauer and Richard Messer Publicis Publishing Bibliographic information from the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data are available on the Internet at http://dnb.d-nb.de This contents of this book are based on a collaboration with the sfb Bildungszentrum www.sfb.ch Authors, editors and publisher have taken great care with all texts and illustrations in this book Nevertheless, errors can never be completely avoided The publisher, the editors and authors accept no liability, regardless of legal basis Designations used in this book may be trademarks whose use by third parties for their own purposes could violate the rights of the owners www.publicis-books.de Publishing editor: Gerhard Seitfudem, gerhard.seitfudem@publicis.de Print ISBN: 978-3-89578-434-7 ePDF ISBN: 978-3-89578-923-6 Editor: Siemens Aktiengesellschaft, Berlin and Munich Publisher: Publicis Publishing, Erlangen © 2014 by Publicis Erlangen, Zweigniederlassung der PWW GmbH The publication and all parts thereof are protected by copyright Any use of it outside the strict provisions of the copyright law without the consent of the publisher is forbidden and will incur penalties This applies particularly to reproduction, translation, microfilming or other processing, and to storage or processing in electronic systems It also applies to the use of extracts from the text Printed in Germany Foreword Foreword Electrical drives are the most important source of mechanical energy in machines and industrial plant In our modern world, they ensure that motion can take place, and that transport and manufacturing processes are possible at all Although the technical field of electrical drives is over 100 years old, today it is more dynamic and diverse than ever It starts with the electric motors themselves, the heart of all electrical drives Today, they are not only available in the widest range of designs and power classes – from standard motors for direct-on-line operation to highly-efficient servo motors – but they also distinguish themselves through their ever more ingenious design principles and use of novel materials Smaller, lighter, and more efficient electric motors give designers new degrees of freedom, pushing ahead the development of machines, plant equipment, and electrical vehicles Drive controllers are also becoming more powerful and smaller due to fast, low-loss switching power semiconductors, faster microprocessors, as well as modern manufacturing technologies In combination with innovative electrical motors, the torque, speed, and position of electrical drives can today, at any given time, be set exactly as required by the manufacturing or transport process In many instances, the controller and electric motor are brought together and combined in one device In particular, electromobility is driving the development of real mechatronic systems, in which gearbox, electric motor, and drive controller merge together to provide customised drive solutions As part of a modern automation solution, electrical drives must be universally coordinated To enable this, they are equipped with communication interfaces as well as integrated control, safety, and diagnostic functions going well beyond those of the classic drive controller These allow the planner to implement the required coordination functions centrally, distributed, or in the drive itself Through both technical advancements and increasingly finer adaptations for special requirements, the wealth of types of electrical drives will continue to increase Good orientation in the world of electrical drives is therefore indispensable for both decision makers and designers This book provides this Both the principles as well as the application of electrical drives are presented systematically and clearly This comprehensive overview will benefit the reader and provide added confidence when evaluating drive solutions Now in its third edition, this “standard work of electrical drives” will continue to broaden the knowledge of electrical drives, and for many technicians be a useful guide when designing efficient machines, plant equipment, and electrical vehicles Prof Dr Siegfried Russwurm Member of the Managing Board of Siemens AG Contents Electrical drives at a glance 12 1.1 A short history of electrical drives 1.2 Design of modern electrical drives 1.3 Classification of electrical drives 1.3.1 Speed variability 1.3.2 Motor and controller types 1.3.3 Technical data 12 16 18 18 21 22 Mechanical principles 26 Electrical principles 28 3.1 Fields in electrical engineering 3.2 Developing torque 3.2.1 Lorentz force 3.2.2 Current carrying loop in a magnetic field 3.2.3 Induced voltage 3.2.4 Quantities and equations of electrical engineering 3.2.5 Components of electrical engineering 28 30 30 31 32 33 34 Fixed-speed and variable-speed drives with DC motors 36 4.1 DC drives 4.2 The DC motor 4.2.1 Operating principle 4.2.2 Construction and electrical connections 4.2.3 DC motor maintenance 4.2.4 Mathematical description 4.2.5 Controllability 4.3 Fixed-speed drives using DC motors 4.3.1 Design and application 4.3.2 Shunt-wound characteristic 4.3.3 Series-wound characteristic 4.4 Variable-speed drives using DC motors 4.4.1 Design and application 4.4.2 Converter 4.4.3 Speed encoders for DC drives 4.4.4 Control structure 36 37 37 42 43 44 46 47 47 48 50 51 51 53 59 61 Contents Fixed-speed and variable-speed drives with asynchronous motors 64 5.1 Drives with asynchronous motors 64 5.2 The asynchronous motor 65 5.2.1 Functional principle 65 5.2.2 Construction and electrical connections 68 5.2.3 Mathematical description 71 5.2.4 Controllability 76 5.3 Fixed-speed drives using asynchronous motors 77 5.3.1 Design and applications 77 5.3.2 Starting an asynchronous motor 79 5.3.3 Stopping an asynchronous motor 85 5.4 Variable-speed drives with asynchronous motors 85 5.4.1 Design and applications 85 5.4.2 Changing the speed using contactors 86 5.4.3 Speed changing using frequency converters 89 5.4.4 V/f control 96 5.4.5 Vector-control operation 99 5.4.6 Speed encoder 103 5.5 Modern frequency converter functions 107 5.5.1 General 107 5.5.2 Power options 107 5.5.3 Electronic options 109 5.5.4 Process interfaces 111 5.5.5 User interface 113 5.5.6 Open-loop and closed-loop functions 114 Servo drives 123 6.1 Design and application 6.2 Classification of servo drives 6.2.1 Control functions 6.2.2 Motor types, types of amplifier 6.2.3 Technical data 6.3 Speed and position encoders for servo drives 6.3.1 Classification and characteristics 6.3.2 Commutation encoder 6.3.3 Resolver 6.3.4 Sine/cosine encoder 6.3.5 Absolute encoder 6.4 Servo drives using DC motors 6.4.1 Design and application 6.4.2 DC motors for servo drives 6.4.3 Controllers for servo drives using DC motors 6.4.4 Control scheme 6.5 Servo drives with brushless DC motors (block commutation) 6.5.1 Design and applications 6.5.2 The brushless DC motor 6.5.3 Frequency converters for servo drives with brushless DC motors 6.5.4 Control scheme 123 125 125 126 128 129 129 133 134 137 139 140 140 140 141 145 146 146 147 149 151 Contents 6.6 Servo drives using synchronous motors (sinusoidal commutation) 6.6.1 Design and application 6.6.2 The synchronous motor 6.6.3 Frequency converters for servo drives with synchronous motors 6.6.4 Control scheme 6.7 Servo drives with asynchronous motors 6.8 Direct drives 6.8.1 Designs and applications 6.8.2 Linear motor 6.8.3 Torque motor 6.9 Control of and tuning servo drives 6.9.1 General quality criteria for evaluating control loops 6.9.2 Servo drive control loops 6.9.3 Tuning the current control loop 6.9.4 Tuning the speed control loop 6.9.5 Tuning the position control loop 6.10 Functions of modern servo amplifiers 6.10.1 General 6.10.2 Power options 6.10.3 Electronic options 6.10.4 Process interfaces 152 152 153 155 155 157 158 158 160 162 163 163 167 168 171 175 177 177 178 178 178 6.10.5 User interfaces 179 6.10.6 Closed-loop and open-loop control functions 179 Stepper drives 182 7.1 Designs and applications 7.2 Classification of stepper drives based upon motor type 7.3 Technical data 7.4 The stepper motor 7.4.1 General 7.4.2 Permanent magnet stepper motor 7.4.3 Hybrid stepper motor 7.5 Controllers 7.6 Control characteristics 182 183 184 185 185 185 187 188 192 Electrical drive systems at a glance 194 8.1 From drive to drive system 8.2 Classification of electrical drive systems 8.2.1 Components in a drive system 8.2.2 Functionality of drive systems 8.2.3 Information flow in drive systems 8.2.4 Energy flow between drives 8.2.5 Electromagnetic interference 8.3 Planning of electrical drives as a system task 194 195 195 198 200 202 203 203 Contents Fieldbuses for electrical drives 204 9.1 Motivation and functional principle 9.2 Overview of fieldbuses in common use 9.3 AS-Interface 9.3.1 Overview 9.3.2 Topology, wiring, physics 9.3.3 Access method 9.4 CAN 9.4.1 Overview 9.4.2 Topology, wiring, physical interface 9.4.3 Access method 9.4.4 Engineering 9.5 PROFIBUS DP 9.5.1 Overview 9.5.2 Topology, wiring, physical interface 9.5.3 Access method 9.5.4 PROFIBUS DP-V2 9.5.5 Engineering 9.6 PROFINET I/O 9.6.1 Overview 9.6.2 Topology, wiring, physical interface 9.6.3 Access method 9.6.4 Device descriptions for engineering 204 208 209 209 210 213 213 213 215 216 218 218 218 219 221 223 225 228 228 230 232 237 10 Process control with electrical drives 238 10.1 Definition of terms 10.2 Process control with single drive systems 10.2.1 Components 10.2.2 Example: Level control with a fixed-speed drive 10.2.3 Example: Pressure control 10.2.4 Example: Elevator drive 10.3 Process control with multi-drive systems 10.3.1 Components 10.3.2 Example: Carriage with mechanically coupled drives 10.3.3 Example: Coating line with tension and winding drives 10.4 Drives with integrated technology functions 238 238 238 239 241 243 245 245 248 251 260 11 Motion control with electrical drives 263 11.1 Definition of terms and functions 11.2 Representing and processing position information 11.3 Positioning 11.3.1 Applications and fundamentals 11.3.2 Positioning controller 11.3.3 Machine data 11.3.4 Position detection, position processing and referencing 263 266 269 269 269 274 275 14 Troubleshooting electrical drives 14.1 Avoiding faults and troubleshooting Electrical drives not always operate faultlessly As drives belong to the core components of a machine or piece of industrial plant, faults in electrical drives mostly lead to failure and subsequent stoppage of the whole system Downtimes directly influence the availability and must therefore be reduced to a minimum To accomplish this, two approaches are adopted: • avoiding faults Electrical drives are manufactured to be robust and suitable for industrial use by their manufacturers They should therefore not be undersized by their user To avoid overloading drive components during operation, the manufacturer’s technical and installation guidelines as well as the maintenance instructions are to be strictly adhered to Many users put the electrical drives through extensive testing before using them in their machines and plant equipment Many drive manufacturers will provide MTBF (Mean Time Between Failures) values upon request for their drives, which enable a statement about the theoretical availability of the drives to be made and different units to be compared • Fast troubleshooting If a fault should occur, then this must be eliminated as fast as possible Fault elimination encompasses fault localisation and subsequently replacing the faulty components The average time to clear a fault is termed MTTR (Mean Time To Repair) and is also provided in part by drive manufacturers It should be noted, however, that this time only includes the repair time itself and not the time taken to localise the fault The time taken to localise the fault is, however, usually the more time consuming part of troubleshooting 14.2 Possible faults and errors Electrical drives comprise several, in some part complex, components General sources of which together solve a drive task The interfaces between these compo- faults and errors nents vary enormously The possible sources of errors are therefore extremely diverse They can be 383 14 Troubleshooting electrical drives • in the components involved themselves, • in the interface between the components, usually the electrical cabling, and • as a result of unfavourable matching between the components (see Figure 14.1) Programming error Supply fault Supply Switchgear and protection equipment Higher-level controller Communication fault Electrical drive EMC fault Parametersetting error Controller Wiring fault Signal electronics with control and monitoring Power section Device fault Planning error Current actual value Speed actual value Position actual value Additional data M E Encoder fault Motor encoder Motor temperature Driven machine 3~ Brake Motor fault Motor Gearbox Position actual value E Machine encoder Figure 14.1 An overview of fault possibilities in electrical drives Fault tracing Within an electric drive, the controller additionally has the task of recognising faults in the system, reacting appropriately, and providing the user with clear as possible information for diagnosing the cause of the fault Unfortunately, the controller cannot clearly recognise all faults and provide the user with clear information as to the cause of the fault As a result, manually searching for the fault using an oscilloscope and measuring equipment is still common practice Effective fault tracing therefore requires a very good understanding of the design and function of electrical drives and considerable experience The following typical faults and their effects are considered to classify fault tracing This list of possible faults is by no means complete and is limited to a representative selection 384 14.2 Possible faults and errors 14.2.1 Motor faults Supply Switchgear and protection equipment Higher-level controller Electrical drive Drive controller Power section Signal electronics with control and monitoring Current actual value Speed actual value Position actual value Additional data M E Motor temperature Driven machine 3~ Motor encoder Brake Motor Gearbox Position actual value E Machine encoder Motor fault Figure 14.2 Motor faults • Motor phases inverted Particularly with variable-speed drives, it is important that the motor phases are connected in the correct sequence In the case of variablespeed motors, incorrectly connecting the motor phases can result in uncontrollable operation of the motor or the motor even “running away” For checking that the motor phases are connected correctly, during commissioning, three-phase AC motors should initially be operated in open-loop mode, e.g using V/f control If, when a positive setpoint is applied the motor rotates clockwise, then the phase sequence is obviously correct With servo motors (brushless DC motors and synchronous servo motors) open-loop operation is often not possible In this case, pre-assembled motor cables which almost completely eliminate this kind of fault should be used • Motor cable not connected correctly It can sometimes happen that the motor cables are connected incorrectly A motor phase is missing or has sporadic contact These faults are sometimes recognised by the controller Sometimes they are not, and the motor exhibits untypical performance such as not running smoothly or speed dips This fault can be traced by measuring the motor currents using a current clamp • Winding short circuit The insulation of the motor windings or the motor cable is damaged, resulting in a breakdown in the insulation between the individual phases The controller recognises a general overcurrent and trips • Ground fault The insulation of the motor windings or the motor cable is damaged, resulting in a breakdown in the insulation between a motor phase and the protective earth conductor The controller recognises a general overcurrent and trips Some controllers have earth fault monitoring and indicate an earth fault If the motor currents in all three phases of the frequency converter are measured, then the total current can be calculated If this is not zero, then an earth fault is present 385 14 Troubleshooting electrical drives • Temperature sensor failure Many motors are equipped with a temperature sensor (PTC or KTY), enabling the motor temperature to be monitored If this is faulty or the connecting cable is interrupted, then this will be recognised by the evaluating controller as a general over-temperature and it trips Some controllers allow the temperature monitoring to be disabled as a bridging measure 14.2.2 Encoder faults Supply Switchgear and protection equipment Higher-level controller Electrical drive Drive controller Signal electronics with control and monitoring Power section Current actual value Speed actual value Position actual value Additional data M E Encoder fault Motor temperature Motor encoder Driven machine 3~ Brake Motor Gearbox Position actual value E Machine encoder Figure 14.3 Encoder faults • Encoder connections inverted If the encoder connections are inverted, then the encoder either does not provide any signals at all or the speed or position actual value is inverted and therefore incorrect In the case of variable-speed drives, this generally results in the motor “running away” Many manufacturers therefore offer pre-assembled encoder cables to prevent this kind of fault from occurring If the motor can be operated in an open-loop control mode, e.g V/f control, then in this mode the encoder actual value can be checked If it is correct, then the speed control mode can be activated • Encoder failure, encoder cable damaged In this case, the encoder does not provide any usable speed and position actual values If the encoder has a sense conductor, which feedbacks the absolute value of the supply voltage, the controller recognises the fault and trips In other instances, it results in uncontrolled movement of the motor A possible interim measure, until the encoder or the complete motor can be replaced, is open-loop control or encoderless operation • Encoder cable too long In this case, the encoder does not provide any usable speed and position actual values If the encoder has a sense conductor, which feedbacks the absolute value of the supply voltage, the controller recognises the fault and trips In other instances it results in uncontrolled movement of the motor In this case, it is either necessary to substi- 386 14.2 Possible faults and errors tute the encoder with a different encoder type or the controller must be located closer to the motor The permissible encoder cable length is specified by the drive manufacturer If this specification is not adhered to, then this is classified as a planning error 14.2.3 Faults in the controller Supply Switchgear and protection equipment Higher-level controller Electrical drive Device fault Drive controller Signal electronics with control and monitoring Power section Current actual value Speed actual value Position actual value Additional data M E Motor temperature Motor encoder Driven machine 3~ Brake Motor Gearbox Position actual value E Machine encoder Figure 14.4 Faults in the controller Faults in the controller can either be software or hardware in nature Software faults occur relatively seldom and must be clarified with the manufacturer Hardware faults can occur either in the signal electronics or power section Hardware faults in the signal electronics can in general be localised by • a blank display, Fault in the signal electronics • a unit that does not respond to inputs, and • illogical fault messages when the unit is switched on Countermeasures include replacing the signal electronics (if at all possible by the user) or exchanging the complete controller Hardware faults in the power electronics not always have a clear Fault in the power section fault indication • Breakdown in power semiconductors leads to short circuits and overcurrents In general, the incoming fuses of the converter will blow If this fault should occur and a motor is not connected, then the fault can clearly be localised to the controller • Power semiconductors which are no longer switching result in “unsmooth” running of the motor The rated operating point can usually no longer be reached The motor does not deliver the expected power This fault can be localised by measuring the phase currents in the motor cable using a current clamp If a motor phase current demonstrates a significant deviation, then the respective bridge arm in the power section is defective If no current should flow in a motor phase, then probably the motor is not connected correctly 387 14 Troubleshooting electrical drives • A faulty pre-charging circuit results in a reduction in the DC-link voltage when the motor is loaded The rated operating point will, in general, not be reached With increasing load the DC-link voltage collapses and the controller trips • Inverter commutation failure in a converter or a thyristor infeed/regenerative unit occurs when the firing angle delay is not sufficiently limited during regenerative operation 14.2.4 Supply faults Supply fault Supply Switchgear and protection equipment Higher-level controller Electrical drive Drive controller Signal electronics with control and monitoring Power section Current actual value Speed actual value Position actual value Additional data M E Motor temperature Motor encoder Driven machine 3~ Brake Motor Gearbox Position actual value E Machine encoder Figure 14.5 Supply fault • Temporary voltage drop If a voltage dip is very large, then this will lead to an impermissible reduction in the DC-link voltage This is recognised by the controller and the controller trips In the case of converters or line supply rectifier/regenerative units with thyristors, a reduction in the line supply voltage or a power outage during regenerative operation can lead to the fuses blowing Thyristor bridges are relatively sluggish and can only be turned on and off once every ms when operated from a 50 Hz supply Depending on the voltage difference between the line supply voltage and the thyristor bridge output voltage in this time, the current adjusts itself freely If the line voltage collapses, the regenerative current in the thyristor bridge rises very fast and leads to the fuses blowing If the fuse type is too slow in responding, then the thyristors will be destroyed For this reason, controllers with thyristor bridges should not be used in unstable power supply networks • Loss of one phase of a three-phase supply The loss of one phase results in a reduction in the DC-link voltage and an increase in its ripple This fault is not always recognised by the controller A loss in motor power is to be expected at higher speeds • Supply overvoltage If the supply voltage is outside of the permissible tolerance, then this can result in damage to the line-side rectifier The rectifier loses its 388 14.2 Possible faults and errors blocking capability, resulting in a short circuit between the line-supply phases and the line fuses blowing Supply faults can only be recognised by measuring the supply voltage These measurements are relatively complex as they cannot be made galvanically isolated and therefore require appropriate insulated measuring equipment Additionally, supply faults only occur sporadically and as such must be “captured” by making long-time measurements 14.2.5 Communication errors Supply Communication error Switchgear and protection equipment Higher-level controller Electrical drive Drive controller Signal electronics with control and monitoring Power section Current actual value Speed actual value Position actual value Additional data M E Motor temperature Motor encoder Driven machine 3~ Brake Motor Gearbox Position actual value E Machine encoder Figure 14.6 Communication errors • Incorrect fieldbus/interfaces addresses If the address in the drive is set incorrectly, then communication with a higher-level controller is not possible If the address set in the drive is already occupied by another node, then the whole bus can be disrupted • Incorrect fieldbus/interface baud rate setting If the baud rate in the drive is set incorrectly, then communication with a higher-level controller is not possible Other nodes may not necessarily be disrupted • Incorrect fieldbus/interface wiring or cable breakage In this case, communication with a higher-level controller is not possible, and the complete bus is disrupted • Missing fieldbus/interface bus termination resistors In this case, sporadic faults in the communication on the whole bus may occur • Cable breakage 4-20 mA interfaces If the controller has appropriate monitoring, then a cable breakage will be detected Possible reactions are a warning message or tripping Communication faults are often very difficult to trace In practice, by • taking-out nodes step-by-step, • adding-in nodes step-by-step, 389 14 Troubleshooting electrical drives • replacing nodes, and • replacing cables it is tried to isolate the faulty components 14.2.6 EMC problems Supply Switchgear and protection equipment Higher-level controller Electrical drive Drive controller EMC fault Signal electronics with control and monitoring Power section Current actual value Speed actual value Position actual value Additional data M E Motor temperature Motor encoder Driven machine 3~ Brake Motor Gearbox Position actual value E Machine encoder Figure 14.7 EMC problems • Encoder cable interference Electromagnetic interference can lead to distortion of the encoder signals The speed/position actual value signal received by the controller deviates sporadically from the real value As a result – overcurrents (due to incorrect current commutation) or – uncontrolled control movements occur These faults are not clearly recognised by the controller Countermeasures include – shielded encoder cables, – separation of power and encoder cables (do not route them in the same conduit), – good connection of the shield, and – shielded motor cables • Signal/communication cable interference Electromagnetic interference can lead to distortion of the signals These faults are not clearly recognised by the controller Countermeasures include – shielded signal cables, particularly for analogue signals and fieldbuses, – separation of power and signal cables (do not route them in the same conduit), – good connection of the shield, and – shielded motor cables When drive faults occur sporadically, EMC faults are likely to be the cause They can be proven when a connection between the operation of other consumers, e.g other drives and pieces of equipment, use of ra390 14.2 Possible faults and errors dio equipment and mobile telephones, can be proved The interference mechanism is then often traceable and countermeasures can be taken 14.2.7 Planning errors Supply Switchgear and protection equipment Higher-level controller Electrical drive Drive controller Signal electronics with control and monitoring Power section Planning error Current actual value Speed actual value Position actual value Additional data M E Motor temperature Motor encoder Driven machine 3~ Brake Motor Gearbox Position actual value E Machine encoder Figure 14.8 Planning errors Planning errors occur when during the planning phase the actual required power data as well as application boundary conditions are not known or insufficiently taken into account Sometimes, for cost reasons, the sizing of the drive components is deliberately borderline and it is speculated that there will be power reserve in the drive components This process is risky and should not be done In general, it will also invalidate the manufacturer warranty • Motor is too warm – the motor is thermally undersized for the required continuous power or the required duty cycle – the separate cooling fan is undersized – the cooling air is too warm • Converter is too warm – the controller is thermally undersized for the required continuous power of the required duty cycle – the cooling air is too warm The cause may be that the ambient temperature is too high or that the louvres in the control cabinet are blocked In these cases, an air-conditioner is often retrofitted • Required dynamic is not achieved The controller is undersized for the required peak power, i.e the necessary peak current • Maximum speed is not reached The voltage required to reach the maximum speed cannot be reached by the controller with the given line supply voltage The motor or the gearbox is incorrectly sized • Accuracy is not reached The speed or the position reached is not accurate enough The encoder does not supply the required accuracy 391 14 Troubleshooting electrical drives • Overcurrent The controller does not have control over the dynamic processes in the motor An incorrect control mode has been selected or the acceleration and deceleration ramp times are too short • Overvoltage when braking The braking energy results in an overvoltage in the DC-link and tripping of the controller A braking chopper must be activated or, if not available, retrofitted 14.2.8 Parameter setting errors Programming error Supply Switchgear and protection equipment Higher-level controller Electrical drive Drive controller Signal electronics with control and monitoring Power section Current actual value Speed actual value Position actual value Additional data M E Motor temperature Motor encoder Driven machine 3~ Brake Motor Gearbox Position actual value E Machine encoder Figure 14.9 Parameter setting error Parameter setting errors occur during the commissioning of electrical drives They are extremely diverse, and it is almost impossible to contain their effects Avoiding parameter setting errors requires both a careful and methodical approach during commissioning The steps to be taken during basic commissioning are often described in detail in the product documentation These should be followed Commissioning should always start with the unit being in its factory setting If some of the unit parameter values have been changed, then the unit should be reset to its factory setting The following procedure is recommended for a systematic start-up: Check the wiring and cabling, record the motor data, and enter Start-up the motor in open-loop mode, check the encoder signals Close the speed control loop Commission the technology functions, check limitations, and set Check the signal connections to the higher-level controller, e.g the signals at terminal strips or via a fieldbus Handover control to the PLC, activate monitoring 392 14.3 Fault indication 14.3 Fault indication Electrical drive controllers can detect incorrect operating conditions in the drive and report these to the user This fault indication can be done in many ways Very simple devices only have an LED fault indicator to indicate the Fault indication fault With this kind of display it can be seen if a fault is present in the via LED device By using different individual LEDs, or different colours and/or flashing modes, it is possible to roughly localise the fault High-performance controllers often have an operator panel with a nu- Fault indication via merical or alphanumerical display (Figure 14.10 shows an example) operator panel With these kinds of units it is possible to localise the fault more precisely Figure 14.10 Frequency converter operator panel Depending on the severity and relevance of the fault, electrical drive controllers differentiate between two types of fault messages: • warnings inform the user that a critical condition has been reached, e.g motor temperature is about to reach the tripping threshold, but operation of the drive has not yet been affected • faults indicate a critical condition and results in the drive tripping The user must acknowledge the fault via an operator panel, digital inputs or a serial interface Warnings and faults are assigned numbers enabling them to be Description of uniquely identified The faults and their possible causes are listed in fault messages the product documentation together with suitable countermeasures The fault history is very helpful for determining fault causes The fre- Fault history quency of certain faults or fault combinations can provide valuable information for tracing the cause of the faults Controllers therefore often have a fault buffer in which the faults that have occurred together with the status of the operational-hours counter at the time the fault occurred are permanently stored In the event of a fault, it is therefore advisable to read out the fault buffer and, based on this history, to make a picture for oneself High-performance controllers have an integrated trace function which Signal tracing and records the internal controller signals in a similar way to using an oscil- fault triggering 393 14 Troubleshooting electrical drives loscope Signal tracing can be triggered using internal and external signals It is therefore possible to start the trace function when • a digital signal assumes a certain logic level, e.g when the drive is switched on, or • an analogue signal falls below or exceeds a preset threshold, e.g the torque increases An integrated trace function can therefore be set to record the relevant signals when a fault occurs Using an appropriate pre-trigger signal, the signal waveform can also be recorded before the fault occurs The recorded signals can then be transferred via a serial interface to a PC, where they may be visualised and evaluated using appropriate software 394 Index A AC drives 22 Accelerating torque 342 Access method 213, 216, 221, 232 Accuracy 166 Addressing 213 Amplifier 189 Amplitude response 167, 312 Analogue tachometer 130 Angular synchronisation 266 APM 212 Armature motor 42 AS-Interface 209 Coupling mechanism 304 CSMA 216 Current controller 62, 101 Current reversal braking 85 Cutoff frequency 167 D Bell-shaped-rotor 42 Block memory 269 Brake 16 Brake control 120 Braking chopper 92, 108, 178, 374 Braking resistor 92, 374 Brushless DC motor 147 Built-in motors 344 Dahlander connection 87 DC drives 22 DC injection braking 85, 120 DC link 90, 91 DC motors 140 DC tachometer 59, 131 Degree of protection 24, 360 Delay time 165 Derating 356 Diagnosis 121, 181 Diode 35 Dipole 309 Direct converters 96 Direct drives 158, 344 Direct starter 79 Disc-rotor motor 42 Drive system 194 C E CA 216 CAN 209, 213 Capacitive coupling 307 Capacitive interference 325, 330 Claw pole motor 186 Clutch unit 281 Coating line 251 Commutation encoder 129, 133 Commutator 37 Contactor control 86 Converter 53, 314 Cooling method 359 Coordinate system 99 EDD 228 Efficiency 26, 27 Electric field 28 Electronic cam 279 Electronic cam profiling 266, 289 Electronic gear 279 Electronic gearing 286 Electronic options 109, 178, 377 Elevator drive 243 EMC 303 emf 33 Engaging and disengaging function 285 B F Far field 309 Faults 120 FDT 228 Feedforward control 281, 292 Field level 196 Field weakening 47, 77 Fieldbus 202, 204 Firing angle delay 54 Fixed-speed drive 47, 77, 239, 346 Flying restart 117 Fourier analysis 311 Free-wheeling diode 50 Frequency converter 86, 149, 155 Full-step operation 190 Fundamental frequency 311 G Galvanic coupling 306 Galvanic disturbances 314 Galvanic interference 328 Gear ratio 27, 340 Gearbox 17, 339 GSD 225, 237 H Half-step operation 190 Harmonics 311 Heyland-Ossanna locus diagram 73 Hybrid stepper motor 183, 187 I I/O-Controller 231 I/O-Device 231 I/O-Supervisor 231 Incremental encoder 103, 129, 131 Indexer (pulse source) 189 395 Index Inducted interference 326, 331 Inductive coupling 306 Interbus 209 Interference model 304 Internet protocol 233 Interpolator 270 Inverter 90, 93, 319 Inverter commutation failure 56 ISO/OSI basic reference model 206 Isochronous mode operation 223 Multi-drive systems 245 Multi-turn encoder 129, 139 N Near field 309 NRZ 216, 221 O Kinetic buffering 118 Operating characteristic 193 Operating quadrants 20 Operator level 196 Optical encoders 104 Output reactor 108, 178 Override 249 Overshoot 165 L P Leading value conditioner 281 Leading value generator 281 Level control 239 Line filter 107 Line reactor 107 Linear axes 269 Linear motor 160, 344 Load balancing control 250 Load torque 342 Lorentz force 30 Parameters 113 PCD 237 Permanent magnet stepper motor 183, 185 Phase margin 167 Phase response 167, 312 PI controller 169 Planning 203, 335 PLCopen 293 Pole pairs 154 Position encoders 129 Positioning 265, 269 Positioning command 271 Positioning control 180 Positioning controller 269 Positioning mode 271 Power Factor Control (PFC) 96, 319 Power options 107, 178, 377 Power section 17 Pre-charging 91 Pressure control 241 Process control 238 PROFIBUS 209, 218 PROFINET 209, 228 Proportional gain 169 Protocol 206 Pulse amplifier 141 K M MAC address 232 Machine data 274, 293 Magnetic encoders 105 Magnetic field 29 Magnitude optimum 169, 175 Master 211, 222 Master/slave operation 248, 249 Matrix converter 96 Mechanical power 26 Modes of operation 354 Moment of inertia 27 Motion control 263 Motor encoder 16 Motor identification 122 Motor model 101, 156 Motor re-calculation 350 396 Q Quality criteria 164 R Radiated interference 325, 327 Rated data 22, 368 Rated speed 74 Reaction to disturbances 164 Real-Time 235 Rectifier 90 Reduced-voltage soft starting 84 Referencing 275, 277, 290 Reluctance stepper motor 183 Repeater 211 Reproducibility 166 Reset time 169 Resolution 166 Resolver 130, 131, 134 Response to setpoint changes 164 Ripple 166 Rise time 164 Rotary axes 269 RS 485 221 S Safe brake functions 298 Safe movement functions 298, 300 Safe stop functions 298 Safety functions 296 Selecting the motor 339 Sercos 209 Serial interfaces 202 Series-wound characteristic 50 Servo controllers 128, 177 Servo drives 123, 364, 369 Setpoint conditioner 281 Setpoint conditioning 116, 180 Settling time 165 Shielding 327, 330, 332 Shunt-wound characteristic 45, 48 Signal electronics 17 Signal flow diagrams 164 Sine/cosine encoders 131, 137 Sine-wave filter 325 Single drive systems 238 Index Single-turn encoder 129, 139 Slave-to-slave communication 224 Slip 72 Soft starter 49, 80 Space vector 93, 99 Speed controller 62, 102 Speed encoder 59, 103, 129 Speed limit 348 Speed synchronisation 265 Stability 166 Star-delta starting 80 Starting characteristic 48, 193 Starting resistors 82 Step enabling condition 271 Step response 170, 172, 176 Stepper drives 182 Stepper motor 185 Supply infeed 370 Symmetrical optimum 172 Synchronisation 265, 279 Synchronisation control 280 Synchronous motor 152, 153 Synchronous speed 67 T Technology controller 116 Terminal designation 43, 69 Thermal class 24, 353 Thermal model 352, 365, 375 Three-level converter 96 Thyristor 35 Time domain 164 Token passing 222 Topology 210, 215, 219, 230 Torque 26 Torque limit 348 Torque motor 162, 344 Tracking error 165, 176 Tracking error monitoring 292 Transport Control Protocol 234 Traversing blocks 270 Traversing range 269, 280 Troubleshooting 383 Tuning 122, 168, 171, 175 Twelve-pulse rectifier 96, 319 Type of construction 23 Types of connection 70 U User Datagram Protocol 235 V Variable-speed drives 51, 85, 348, 364, 368 VDCmax control 118 Vector control 99, 101 Virtual master 281 Voltage/field-weakening limiting curve 348 W Warnings 120 Winding drives 251, 253 397 ... variability, drives can be roughly divided into three categories: • fixed-speed drives • variable-speed drives • servo drives Electrical drives Fixed-speed drives Variable-speed drives Servo drives. .. Switchable-speed Open-loop variable-speed Closed-loop variable-speed Figure 1.9 Classification of electrical drives by their speed variability 18 1.3 Classification of electrical drives Fixed-speed drives. .. rights of the owners www.publicis-books.de Publishing editor: Gerhard Seitfudem, gerhard.seitfudem@publicis.de Print ISBN: 97 8-3 -8 957 8-4 3 4-7 ePDF ISBN: 97 8-3 -8 957 8-9 2 3-6 Editor: Siemens Aktiengesellschaft,