Investigating the roles of neuroscience and knowledge management in higher education

The chapter argues that encouraging neuroscience and KM has the potential to improve educational performance and reach educational goals in higher education.INTRODUCTION Higher education

educa-so that individuals can benefit from its use The achievement of neuroscience and KM is required in higher education institutions (HEIs) in order to serve school administrators and students, increase edu- cational performance, sustain competitiveness, and fulfill expected accomplishment in higher education The chapter argues that encouraging neuroscience and KM has the potential to improve educational performance and reach educational goals in higher education.

INTRODUCTION

Higher education emphasizes the goal of promoting the reflective engagement among learners in order to engage the learners in the active learning for knowledge generation with self-reflection on their learning process and learning outcomes (Kong & Song, 2015) Higher education institutions (HEIs) aim to prepare the new generations with the skills, culture, and flexibility necessary to make their own contribution to society (Cranfield & Taylor, 2008) The current HEIs in overseas have adapted to their changing role in the knowledge-based society (Singh, 2010) Higher education is expected to meet three goals: to develop learners’ mastery of expert knowledge specific for major disciplines; to promote learners’ development

Investigating the Roles

of Neuroscience and Knowledge Management

in Higher Education

Kijpokin Kasemsap

Suan Sunandha Rajabhat University, Thailand

of generic competencies essential for the 21st century; and to stimulate the learners’ reflection on the continual pursuits, especially the learning pursuits (Njenga & Fourie, 2010).

The relationship between neuroscience and education can prove most productive when it fosters a bidirectional exchange of educational ideas and approaches (Christodoulou & Gaab, 2015) Neuroscien-tists and educators have recently begun to evaluate how to transfer brain-based research to the classroom (Alibali & Nathan, 2010) It is time to consider the implications of neuroscience for education (Ansari,

de Smedt, & Grabner, 2012) Neuroscience can contribute the obvious insights into education beyond traditional behavioral findings (Meltzoff, Kuhl, Movellan, & Sejnowski, 2009) The knowledge of the human brain has posed many questions about the potential for the knowledge of neural processing to

be translated into the valuable knowledge that teachers and faculties can employ in their educational curriculum tasks (Clement & Lovat, 2012)

In the knowledge-based economy, KM is rapidly disseminated in both academic areas and the ness world (Park, Jang, Lee, Ahn, & Yoon, 2013) In higher education, KM-related research is the key for knowledge creation and knowledge dissemination (Laal, 2011) Petrova et al (2015) stated that KM becomes an educational strategy of management in the research university KM strategy is an important factor that enables universities to have more effective role in relation to society with the international market and the political perspective (Trivella & Dimitrios, 2015) KM is important to HEIs, when the expectations of stakeholders (e.g., government, local employers, and students) are increasing (Demchig, 2015)

busi-This chapter aims to bridge the gap in the literature on the thorough literature consolidation of neuroscience and KM in higher education The extensive literatures of neuroscience and KM provide a contribution to practitioners and researchers by describing the theory and applications of neuroscience and KM in order to maximize educational impact of neuroscience and KM in higher education

In the past two decades, the interest of neuroscientists in building bridges between neuroscience and education has considerably increased (Sigman, Peña, Goldin, & Ribeiro, 2014) Hermida et al (2015) indicated that knowledge about neural development of cognitive and emotional processes can be incor-porated and applied to learning and teaching Advances in the neurosciences have many implications for

a collective understanding of what it means to be human, in particular, notions of the self, the concept

of volition, the questions of individual’s responsibility, and the phenomenology of consciousness (Frost

& Lumia, 2012)

The adoption of neuroscience to improve education has often been considered (Butterworth & Kovas, 2013) The connection between neuroscience and education can be guided by defining roles, approaches, implications, and applications (Christodoulou & Gaab, 2015) Neuroscience and education should be

regarded as a two-way path (Turner, 2011) If the path is one-way, neuroscience is intended to be plied to educational practice, and the theorizing on student cognition and learning that the brain makes possible, should be adjusted (Mason, 2009) A two-way path, in contrast, implies that outcomes from neuroscience influence education since they act as a sort of constraint on that theorizing (Mason, 2009).University has the power of shaping the 21st century (Gül, Gül, Kaya, & Alican, 2010) Universities are the main formal method of creating, disseminating, and transferring knowledge, as the important fac-tor for economic growth (Trivella & Dimitrios, 2015) There is a tremendous value to higher education that develops the effective initiatives to share knowledge toward reaching business objectives (Kidwell, Linde, & Johnson, 2000) Most colleges have web-based learning system to keep a large number of course resources during higher education process (Peng, Jiang, & Zhang, 2013) Traditional course-based learning confines knowledge to one course Both teachers and learners often require extracting the useful knowledge from educational courses for themselves (Peng et al., 2013).

ap-NEUROSCIENCE AND KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT IN HIGHER EDUCATION

This section emphasizes the current trends in higher education, the overview of neuroscience, the tifaceted applications of neuroscience, the overview of KM, the perspectives of KM, the significance of neuroscience in higher education, and the significance of KM in higher education

mul-Current Trends in Higher Education

Education is broadly recognized as a key issue in the economic and social development of a country (Barro & Lee, 2013) There is a direct link between school quality and educational achievement (Boccan-fuso, Larouche, & Trandafir, 2015) Quality of education is related to the income and economic growth (Manuelli & Seshadri, 2014), as well as with the higher individual returns to education (Zhong, 2011) Higher education is recognized as the major factor of social and economic progress (Dossybayeva, 2014) HEIs have to do their business with the limited resources of finance and experienced teachers (Demchig, 2015) In the last decade, there has been a shift from the teacher-centered education to learner-centered education (Reynolds & Miller, 2013) Wesselink et al (2010) stated that there has been a shift from the content-centered curricula to the competence-centered curricula

Information and communication technology (ICT) has become extensive in higher education (Boe, Gulbrandsen, & Sorebo, 2015) The advent of digital technology in the recent decade has driven the growth of electronic learning (e-learning) in HEIs across the globe (Kong & Song, 2015) Web-based learning allows students to learn at their own pace, access the information at a time that is convenient for them, and provides education to the remote students (Kasemsap, 2016a) Higher education promotes the bring your own device (BYOD) as a prevailing e-learning initiative (Al-Qahtani & Higgins, 2013) BYOD refers to a technology model which aims to foster learners to bring a personally owned device

to the learning institutes for the purpose of learning, of which the personally owned device is any tal device brought into the learning institutes and owned by a learner (Thomas, O’Bannon, & Bolton, 2013) The practice of BYOD in the digital classrooms is considered as one of the prevailing e-learning initiatives in the higher education sector, as learners at this stage can afford to procure and bring their own digital portable devices for campus learning, and are capable of manipulating various functions of digital devices for multiple tasks (Osborne, Dunne, & Farrand, 2013)

digi-The revival of competence-based education is connected with the shift to a knowledge-based society and a constructivist view of learning in higher education (Koenen, Dochy, & Berghmans, 2015) Bergs-mann et al (2015) indicated that in competence-based higher education, concepts, and methods for the evaluation of all student competencies of a concrete curriculum at a concrete university are needed Competence-based higher education requires a more comprehensive view of competence-based teaching

in higher education that leads to the systematic evaluation If competencies are educationally recognized, quality criteria derived from competence research should be considered in defining the competencies students should acquire within the curriculum (Bergsmann et al., 2015) A participatory evaluation ap-proach (Hansen, Alkin, & Wallace, 2013) that includes the relevant stakeholders of HEIs in the evalu-ation process should be applied to the evaluation of competence-based teaching in higher education.For higher education, the internationalization gives a real opening toward the exchange of best practices (Nechita, Cojocariu, & Păcurari, 2014) The internationalization of education is the process of various international aspects in the research, teaching, and administrative activities of educational institutions of different levels (Maudarbekova & Kashkinbayeva, 2014) The internationalization of higher education contributes to the attainment of global career-readiness competencies (Yeravdekar & Tiwari, 2014)

Overview of Neuroscience

Neuroscience raises the high attention by the educational and neuroscientific community (Rato, Abreu, & Castro-Caldas, 2011) Neuroscience is an increasing area of research (Snook, 2012) The brain sciences have gone through an innovation for theories and procedures for understanding the neural function and its associations with human cognition, experience, and modification (Lende & Downey, 2012) Neuro-science methods have gained widespread use in many areas of psychological and behavioral sciences (Harmon-Jones & van Honk, 2012) Much recent work in systems neuroscience has focused on how dynamic interactions between different cortical regions underlie complex brain functions, such as mo-tor coordination, language, and emotional regulation (Shafi, Westover, Fox, & Pascual-Leone, 2012).Neuroscience is the basic science of psychiatry (Akil & Etkin, 2014) Psychiatric disorders are the brain disorders (Akil & Etkin, 2014) Neuroscience has begun to demonstrate the mechanisms of voli-tion, decision making, and action (Shields, 2014) The neuroscience revolution has led many scientists

to posit the thinking brains initiating rich psychological properties (Gillet, 2014) Organizational

neu-roscience continues to flourish in organizational behavior and management studies as indicated by the growing number of publications (Lindebaum & Jordan, 2014) Educational neuroscience has begun to move into the limelight, suggesting an increased importance on the ethical considerations of educational neuroscience (Zocchi & Pollack, 2013)

Researchers in many areas of psychology and neuroscience have grown concerned with what has been referred to as a crisis of replication and reliability in the field (Barch & Yarkoni, 2013) The advent of neuroscience as a defining paradigm for psychiatry has challenged residencies with a humanistic focus due to common perceptions that it will entail constriction of psychiatric practice to the psychopharmacol-ogy roles (Griffith, 2014) Efforts to bridge between research in the neurosciences and research, theory, and practice in education have grown from a mere hope to the scholarly sophistication (Hruby, 2012) Organizational neuroscience has great commitment for promoting organizational research and practice (Ashkanasy, Becker, & Waldman, 2014)

The ability to simulate the entire brains is a revolutionary scientific advance with the substantial benefits for brain science (Bancroft, 2013) The collateral sulcal complex is an important landmark

on the medial surface of the temporal lobe (Huntgeburth & Petrides, 2012) The mismatch negativity (MMN) component of event-related brain potentials has become an important tool for investigating the neurobiological mechanisms toward underlying auditory perception, memory, attention, speech, and music (Sussman & Shafer, 2014) Michael et al (2013) stated that the power of brain images has captivated scholars in many disciplines The goal of behavioral neuroscience is to map the psychologi-cal concepts onto the physiological and anatomical concepts (Rösler, 2012) Personality neuroscience involves examining relations between behavioral variability and neural variables, such as brain structure and function (Mar, Spreng, & DeYoung, 2013).

Neuroscience research can help practitioners and researchers organize many hypothesized influences for each of the decision complexes into the meaningful clusters that rely on the same brain mechanisms (Doucerain & Fellows, 2012) Studying human brain remains one of the greatest scientific challenges (Amunts, Lindner, & Zilles, 2014) Knowledge about the brain and the human nervous system relates

to human thought, perception, and behavior (Howard & Lieberman, 2014) Identifying neural systems responsible for improvements in self-control is of tremendous benefit not only for overall intervention efficacy, but also for basic science issues related to the shared biological mechanisms of psychopathol-ogy (Berkman, Graham, & Fisher, 2012)

Multifaceted Applications of Neuroscience

Neuroscience is advancing at a rapid pace, with new technologies and approaches that are creating ethical challenges (Al-Delaimy, 2012) The advances of neuroscience in revealing the neural bases of mental processes have shown that the answer cannot be exhaustive without looking into the human brain (Mar-greth, Carafoli, & Berlucchi, 2014) Growing a new breed of specialists mastering the art of teaching grounded in the mind and brain research-based science of learning, appears to be one of the roadblocks for a meaningful connection between mind, brain, and educational practice (Summak, Summak, & Summak, 2010) Neuroscience can offer the understanding of how the brain learns new information and processes this information throughout life (Shonkoff & Levitt, 2010) The developments in neurosci-ence move brain research to the center of learning science and open a new perspective for educational policymakers and practitioners (Hinton, Miyamoto, & Della-Chiesa, 2008)

Cognitive theory has analyzed human mental abilities into cognitive systems, and cognitive ence succeeded in recognizing a host of relationships between cognitive systems and specific structures

neurosci-of human brain (Pulvermüller, Garagnani, & Wennekers, 2014) The philosophy neurosci-of neuroscience needs

to capture how educational events are tested through experience and modified in the brain to comprise a knowledge base (Schulkin, 2013) Cognitive neuroscience uses the probes (e.g., neuropsychological tasks and neuroimaging techniques) to identify the neural underpinnings of behavior (Kidd & Steinglass, 2012).Neuroscience has seen dramatic advances over the past few decades (Akil & Etkin, 2014) Advances

in neuroscience technology make it possible to monitor the activity of human brain in educational tions (Scott, 2012) The relation between mind and brain is one of the most scientific questions attract-ing scientists’ attention (Gobet, 2014) The National Institute of Mental Health seeks to address the gap between modern neuroscience and psychiatric training (Chung & Insel, 2014) Neuroscience can provide the causal explanations and predictions of behavior (Rösler, 2012) A frequent topic in neuroscience is the challenge of knowledge explanation (Ascoli, 2013) The outcomes of neuroscience research have affected the change in the human condition (Giordano, 2013)

ac-Rapid advances in neuroscience enable practitioners and researchers to identify the neural correlates

of ordinary decision making (Clarke, 2013) Neuroscience is re-orienting itself toward more lytically relevant questions and gives the new insights into the nature of basic drives and social relations (Watson & Michels, 2014) Neuroscientists can establish the functional network between neural impulses and an individual’s capacity for moral evaluation of situations (Tsomo, 2012) Theoretical neuroscience

psychoana-is a domain involving area for new developments initiated by an interaction with experiment (van men, 2014)

Hem-It is important to understand how the brain deals with innovation (Goldberg, Funk, & Podell, 2012) The collaboration of neuroscience and cultural psychology is emerged as the cultural neuroscience (Mah-mood, Othman, & Yusof, 2012) Work in the cultural developmental neuroscience is vital in determining the degree of generality that can be attributed to neuroscientific findings toward providing the insight into how developmental neurobiology interacts with sociocultural parameters (Miller & Kinsbourne, 2012) Enhancing neuroscience education during psychiatry residency training requires the organiza-tion of comprehensive pedagogy in various aspects of clinical neuroscience (Gopalan, Azzam, Travis, Schlesinger, & Lewis, 2014) Neuroscience and humanoid robotics have converged to the different frameworks which aim at enhancing motor abilities of humanoids (Ivaldi, Sigaud, Berret, & Nori, 2012)

Overview of Knowledge Management

Globalization has resulted in the use of knowledge as the beneficial tool in many organizations (Chu, Kumar, Kumar, & Khosla, 2014) The application of emerging knowledge is crucial for innovation by firms competing in the science and technology-intensive industries (Hohberger, 2014) KM should be coherent and based on the firm’s strategy (Bagnoli & Vedovato, 2014) Effective KM frequently leads

to value-added innovations and consequently raises competitiveness of its products and services (Kim, 2014) Noruzy et al (2013) indicated that KM and organizational learning positively influence the organizational innovation Knowledge-intensive firms need to obtain their individual knowledge assets through knowledge sharing to create the collective knowledge resources (Swart, Kinnie, van Rossenberg,

KM has become increasingly significant (Liu & Abdalla, 2013) Managing knowledge constitutes one

of the major strategic advantages of an organization (Lunnan & Zhao, 2014) Three key factors affecting the conduct of business include human, knowledge, and the environment (Intezari & Pauleen, 2014) Knowledge infrastructure and process capabilities are highly correlated (Cho & Korte, 2014)

There is a positive relationship between KM capabilities and organizational performance (Cho & Corte, 2014) Knowledge transfer is more likely to succeed if the recipient organization has absorptive capability (Schulze, Brojerdi, & von Krogh, 2014) Knowledge must be integrated throughout organiza-tion to facilitate the strategic process (Lionzo & Rossignoli, 2013) Organizational learning positively affects KM in the manufacturing firms (Noruzy et al., 2013) Knowledge growth measurement is the active research spanning from the concepts that include the stages of knowledge growth (Al-Omari, Al-Shaki, Ahmad, & Ahmed, 2014)

There is an increasing need for the usable tools to support knowledge elicitation, knowledge ization, and KM (Catenazzi & Sommaruga, 2013) Knowledge sharing is the behavior of disseminating acquired knowledge to organizational members (Tsai, Chang, Cheng, & Lien, 2013) Knowledge sharing mediates the relationship between team identification and research and development (R&D) creativity (Tang, Shang, Naumann, & von Zedtwitz, 2014) Organizational learning partially mediates the relation-ship between entrepreneurial orientation and performance and fully mediates the link between learning orientation and performance (Real, Roldán, & Leal, 2014) Learning and sharing through discussion forms is the most used practices among all organizational respondents (Singh, Singh, & Sharma, 2014).

formal-KM, organizational culture, and organizational climate lead to the increased job performance in modern organizations (Kasemsap, 2014a) Social media allows technological access to the data and video information for potential consumers in the knowledge-based organizations (Kasemsap, 2014b)

KM, strategic orientation, and organizational innovation are practically related to the improved zational performance (Kasemsap, 2014c) Human resource management, organizational learning, and

organi-KM capability lead to the improved organizational performance in global business (Kasemsap, 2015a).Organizations aiming to improve business performance within enterprise architecture should create and develop information technology, technical alignment, information system capabilities, and infor-mation system effectiveness (Kasemsap, 2015b) The integration of KM and organizational innovation

is important for modern organizations to acquire improved organizational performance (Kasemsap, 2016b) Modern organizations that emphasize employees’ learning requirements can achieve business objectives through building knowledge, transferring knowledge, and applying knowledge in the learning organizations (Kasemsap, 2016c)

Perspectives of Knowledge Management

Cooperation with a diverse set of partners leads to learning opportunities with regard to both tion and innovation skills and is expected to enhance the firm’s innovation performance (van Beers & Zand, 2014) External information acquisition has a positive effect on service innovation performance (Kang & Kang, 2014) Participation in knowledge-building communities is organized through learning the moves of such games (Bielaczyc & Ow, 2014) Learning ability has been proven to increase when organizations employ the dynamic processes that help nurture, enhance, and motivate people to improve their capacity to act (Tzortzaki & Mihiotis, 2014) Organizational learning moderates the relationship between managerial ties and opportunity capture (Li, Chen, Liu, & Peng, 2014) Factors influencing inter-project knowledge sharing include trustworthiness, organizational culture, and knowledge-sharing mechanisms (Wiewiora, Murphy, Trigunarsyah, & Brown, 2014)

coopera-KM is a critical antecedent of new product development (NPD) (Yu, Chen, & Nguyen, 2014) uct innovation strategies and KM efficiently support each other and together to achieve planned goals (Kasemsap, 2016d) Knowledge creation influences new product performance through creativity, which includes novelty and appropriateness (Chang, Hung, & Lin, 2014) With increasing pressure to sustain competitive advantage, NPD activities remain the perspective of recognized interest from top manage-ment in many organizations (Felekoglu & Moultrie, 2014) Patel et al (2014) indicated that being able

Prod-to internationally launch new products is critical for technology-based ventures Prod-to recover the high cost

of R&D and to exploit their innovations

KM of NPD-related project team is critical for the project-based organization’s competitive advantage (Zhang & Zhang, 2014) Project-based organizations should focus on building and maintaining knowl-

edge through using information technology because the increased knowledge is positively correlated with the improved project performance (Kasemsap, 2015c) Strategic requirements (e.g., organizational learning and employees’ competence) are effectively utilized through projects (Breunig & Hydle, 2013) Organizations specializing in project management can manage a project for the benefit of third party by applying the client’s technical knowledge (Stoshikj, Kryvinska, & Strauss, 2014).

The global economies thrive on cutting-edge knowledge, which drives entrepreneurship education

in competitive environments (Kasemsap, 2016e) Regarding the increasing advances in technology, information technology and KM applications effectively improve the strategic tools for providing the direct link between customers and tourism organizations, thus encouraging the communication channels

in global tourism (Kasemsap, 2016f) KM strategy and intellectual capital effectively enhance tional performance (Ling, 2013) It is crucial to negotiate a legitimate knowledge system, which should include both expert and local knowledge (Giordano, Preziosi, & Romano, 2013) The development of information technology relies on the transfer of knowledge from onshore units to offshore subsidiaries (Zimmermann & Ravishankar, 2014) Managers are optimistic about the benefit of ICT-based knowledge sharing (Trusson, Doherty, & Hislop, 2014)

organiza-Within the new business environment, an organization’s profitability depends on its ability to learn and adapt (Tzortzaki & Mihiotis, 2014) Knowledge transfer is a critical factor in ensuring the success of offshore outsourcing software development projects (Betz, Oberweis, & Stephan, 2014) Social capital allows entrepreneurial firms to capitalize on learning the advantages of innovation and gain access to knowledge as the foundation for improving performance (Hughes, Morgan, Ireland, & Hughes, 2014) Knowledge effectively influences supply chain performance (Schoenherr, Griffith, & Chandra, 2014) Knowledge-sharing processes play as the mediators in the effect of trust, collaboration, and learning on

KM effectiveness (Moon & Lee, 2014)

Organizations need to put more tangible effort to improve their organizational knowledge tation (Kim, 2014) The structure of knowledge system is a crucial component to make the knowledge system effective and acceptable to organizational users (Turchetti & Geisler, 2013) The integration of business process management (BPM) and KM helps organizations improve the cost aspects of the provi-sion of products and services toward increasing their innovative capacities (Schmid & Kern, 2014) The combination of the right type of KM strategy with the useful pattern of intellectual capital practically enhances organizational performance (Ling, 2013)

implemen-Modern agricultural business gains benefit from information sharing and knowledge exchange (Bernardi, 2013) Tengo et al (2014) indicated that the indigenous and local knowledge systems can provide the useful knowledge to enhance the understanding of biodiversity governance The degradation

of human resource decreases an organizational performance (Lecuona & Reitzig, 2014) Organizations serve as the knowledge repositories (Holcombe, 2013) Strong ties enhance knowledge sharing (Huang, 2014) Social interaction ties and shared knowledge-sharing vision are the antecedents of interpersonal trust (Hsu & Chang, 2014)

Significance of Neuroscience in Higher Education

The role of neuroscience in education is still under discussion (Samuels, 2009) Summak et al (2010) stated that the developments in neuroscience and psychology seem to create a significant foundation for connecting mind and brain research with educational practices Since there is no learning without brain (Goswami, 2004), modern research on learning processes practically relates education with neurosci-

ence (Rato et al., 2011) Hardiman et al (2012) indicated that the popularization of neuroscientific ideas about learning explains a real challenge for classroom teachers who want to understand how children learn The information that education researchers try to import from neuroscience concerns a single cognitive process in isolation, but the interactions with other systems are part of educational context (Willingham, 2009).

One application of neuroscience for informing education is explaining the science behind teaching principles (Christodoulou & Gaab, 2015) Many schools utilize the teaching principles to guide the approach and framework for interacting with students and fostering learning (Christodoulou & Gaab, 2015) To translate the teaching principle to research topics in neuroscience can involve the discussion of mirror neurons (Rizzolatti & Craighero, 2004) to demonstrate the ways in which neuroscience does and does not corroborate the principle Mirror neurons can inform the understanding of how the perception and execution of motor actions may operate at the level of the brain (Lepage & Theoret, 2007)

Fischer et al (2007) indicated that the creation of a strong research infrastructure that education lacks for connecting research with practice is recommended The relationship between neuroscientific find-ings and classroom applications is spoiled by popular neuromyths (Pickering & Howard-Jones, 2007) Social environment, which includes the formal education, affects the neurocognitive development of a population (Baker, Salinas, & Eslinger, 2012) Education requires a research infrastructure to promote the know-how generation by connecting neuroscience to education (Fischer & Daniel, 2009) Educators need to know the human brain and neuroscience because neuroscience findings provide the insights into the learning process (Brandt, 1999)

Teachers usually express the interest in the brain research, although the educational literature poorly discusses the neuroscientific perspective (OECD, 2002) Teachers can receive neuroscientific informa-tion in an accessible pattern Teachers can contribute to informing cognitive neuroscience research with their practical knowledge (Szücs, 2005) Educational psychology incorporates the research findings from cognitive neuroscience (Byrnes & Fox, 1998) The current gap between neuroscience and education can

be bridged, at least as the first step, by educational psychology, which is interested in developing the descriptive, interpretive, and prescriptive models of student learning and other educational phenomena (Mason, 2009)

Significance of Knowledge Management in Higher Education

Driven by globalization, HEIs have expanded their provisions through the educationally strategic ances to enhance their influences, visibility, market share on the international perspectives (Denman, 2000) KM strategy is needed to modernize the universities’ operation to adapt to the demand of the changing environment in order to be educationally competitive (Trivella & Dimitrios, 2015) Rowley (2000) stated that if HEIs are in the knowledge business since they are involved in knowledge creation, dissemination and learning, they must be full of successful examples and best practices of advancing their learning and teaching, research, and consultancy services by knowledge creation

alli-KM is an educational management for the research university (Smokotin, Petrova, & Gural, 2014) Knowledge sharing has become an increasing concern in higher education (Ramayah, Yeap, & Ignatius, 2013) Angelstam et al (2013) indicated that the collaboration, communication, and dissemination of knowledge are the meaningful management perspectives regarding KM in education Kutsikos et al (2014) indicated that the academic staff must be trained to develop, manage, and utilize the KM based

on their ability of collaboration

Organizational culture, leadership, and employee satisfaction are the major factors for the development

of KM strategy, which determine the overall service quality in higher education (Trivellas & Dargenidou, 2009) Organizational culture is positively correlated with organizational climate (Kasemsap, 2016g) HEIs that embed KM practices across a range of lifelong learning activities effectively establish a bound-ary spanning culture, which links various organizational disciplines in the knowledge-based economy (Kasemsap, 2016h) Leadership development can maximize productivity, shape a positive culture, and promote harmony (Kasemsap, 2016i) The character of organizational culture in higher education has been challenged by the rise of a more managerial culture in many universities (Christopher, 2012).Knowledge acquired through cooperating with an international partner helps universities stand out from the crowd (Chen, 2004) In higher education, Coukos-Semmel (2003) categorized knowledge into two types (i.e., academic knowledge and non-academic knowledge) The dissemination of academic knowledge represents the primary purpose of universities, while non-academic knowledge refers to the accumulated management experience required to support a university’s primary purpose (Coukos-Semmel, 2003) Both types of higher-education knowledge exist in the explicit and tacit knowledge perspectives (Li, Roberts, Yan, & Tan, 2014)

Explicit academic knowledge exists in the patterns of textbooks, course outlines, and teaching als, which serve the important aspect of the university’s primary objective (Li, Li, & Chen, 2014) For example, course outlines allow the course distribution and development (Guzman & Trivelato, 2011), and books represent an important method of transmitting the explicit knowledge in higher education (Teichler, 2004) Regarding teaching, the tacit aspect of academic knowledge is gained from experience and embedded in the individual lecturer’s mental models and skill sets (Guzman & Trivelato, 2011).According the UK’s Higher Education Academy (HEA, 2012), teaching knowledge entails the fol-lowing six dimensions: the core knowledge of subject material, the appropriate appreciation of methods for teaching, the knowledge of how students learn, the ability to utilize the relevant technologies, the understanding of methods for evaluating the effectiveness of teaching, and the knowledge of the impli-cations of quality assurance Tacit academic knowledge promotes the pedagogical practices in higher education (Guzman & Trivelato, 2011)

materi-Non-academic knowledge is the capability members of an organization have developed to draw the distinctions in the process of executing their work by performing the sets of generalizations whose ap-plication depends on the collective understandings and experiences (Tsoukas & Vladimirou, 2001) Non-academic knowledge has either knowledge in the organizational routines (Bontis, Crossan, & Hulland, 2002) or the strategic and technical perspectives (Child & Rodrigues, 1996) In higher education, explicit non-academic knowledge is reflected in an organization’s policies, business plans, databases, directories, and accounting procedures (Coukos-Semmel, 2003) Tacit non-academic knowledge is embedded in groups and teams, and also reflected in the non-academic routines and informal procedures (Nelson & Winter, 1982) or applied in the key business processes (Lam, 1997) Tacit non-academic knowledge is developed over time and accumulated through experience (Lenard-Barton, 1992)

HEIs promote KM as the encouraging data mining perspectives for their professors and researchers (Natek & Zwilling, 2014) Data mining has been recognized as a contemporary tool for building KM systems (Jashapara, 2011) KM approach to data mining process, otherwise associated with business intelligence technology, brings the value to the data mining solutions (Wang & Wang, 2008) This study

is focused on the KM systems in HEIs as part of their educational work (Baker & Yacef, 2009) Using data mining methods for business intelligence promotes the educational contribution to the KM process (Kasemsap, 2015d) In higher education, management know-how is a key contributor to the university’s

success It is reflected in the managers’ decision-making process, managerial style, the rationale of the strategic vision, and the capability acquired by effective performance in the various managerial domains (Simonin, 1999).

In higher education, there is a requirement to design the learning environments that foster the creative thinking in students, particularly in the area of collaborative creativity (West, 2014) The application of individual learning and computer-supported knowledge building are important in global education (Zhao

& Chan, 2014) A community university develops the KM practices to improve students’ educational outcomes and recommends how universities can gain the benefit from KM to reach their educational goals (Hizmetli, 2014)

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS

The classification of the extensive literature in the domains of neuroscience and KM will provide the potential opportunities for future research Neuroscience is the study of the brain and the nervous system Neuroeducation (also known as educational neuroscience) blends the collective specialties of neuroscience, psychology, cognitive science, and education to improve the teaching methods and cur-ricula Neuroeducation allows the placing of important educational issues within a scientific context that compliments the social science basis of educational research and the biological basis of learning and behavior in neuroscience Regarding neuroeducation, understanding how neuroscience can inform the educational strategies and finding out what teachers want and need to know about the ways students learn are the important perspectives toward improving educational performance

Brain-machine interface (BMI) is a computer-based system that acquires brain signals, analyzes them, and translates them into commands that are relayed to an output device to execute a desired action BMI allows an individual to control a computer or other electronic devices using only individual’s brainwaves, with no movement required Learning analytics can gather data, analyze data, generate reports, and en-able the educational interventions in global higher education (Kasemsap, 2016j) Critical thinking is the self-guided and self-disciplined thinking which attempts to reason at the highest level of quality in

an effective manner Critical thinking includes a complex combination of knowledge, skills, and ties, toward encouraging problem-solving and decision-making procedures The relationships among neuroscience, KM, neuroeducation, BMI, learning analytics, and critical thinking in global education will be the important topics for future research directions

abili-CONCLUSION

This chapter highlighted the current trends in higher education, the overview of neuroscience, the tifaceted applications of neuroscience, the overview of KM, the perspectives of KM, the significance of neuroscience in higher education, and the significance of KM in higher education Neuroscience is the study of the nervous system, from the level of individual genes and proteins that control neural activity

mul-to mechanisms that govern complex human behavior Neuroscience encompasses the evolution, ment, cellular and molecular biology, physiology, anatomy and pharmacology of the nervous system,

develop-as well develop-as computational, behavioral, and cognitive neuroscience Neuroscience can play an important role in investigating the effective method of enhancing brain power in higher education Neuroscience

can provide an array of educational ideas toward helping learners create effective learning environments

in higher education Neuroscience can identify a particular perspective for a specific type of learning difficulty

KM plays a crucial role in the knowledge industry Managing knowledge leads HEIs to attain tive advantage, thus obtaining the educational resources and capabilities for achieving the educational objectives KM in higher education has become an integral part of educational systems with the holistic commitment from all faculties, departments, and sessions KM tools can be applied in higher education system to improve the overall educational development HEIs have significant opportunities to apply knowledge practices to support every part of their educational mission Applying KM helps HEIs achieve various benefits (e.g., curriculum enhancement, effective utilization of technological aids for effective course delivery, reduced cost of overall research, technological advancement, enhanced evaluation and administrative activities, and improved adaptability to the teaching and learning process)

competi-Higher the rate of individual knowledge sharing and transfer of individual knowledge transfer, higher the strength of HEIs for achieving better teaching and learning The major impact of KM in higher edu-cation is more likely to affect the teaching-learning and research at both department and at institutional level The achievement of neuroscience and KM is required in HEIs in order to serve school administra-tors and students, increase educational performance, sustain competitiveness, and fulfill expected ac-complishment in higher education Therefore, it is urgent for HEIs to encourage their neuroscience and

KM, develop a strategic plan to regularly check their practical advancements, and immediately respond

to the neuroscience and KM needs of school administrators and students in the HEIs Encouraging roscience and KM has the potential to improve educational performance and reach educational goals in higher education

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