Basque nationalism and spanish state

Basque Nationalism and the Spanish State The Basque Series andrẫ lecours Basque Nationalism and the Spanish State University of Nevada PressRenoLas Vegas The Basque Series Copyright â 2007 by University Library of Congress of Nevada Press Cataloging-in Publication Data All rights reserved Lecours, Andrộ, 1972 Manufactured in the United States Basque nationalism and the Spanish state / of America Andre Lecours The paper used in this book is a recycled p cm (The Basque series) stock made from 50 percent post-consumer Includes bibliographical references waste materials and meets the requirements and index of American National Standard for Infor- isbn 978-0-87417-722-0 (hardcover : mation SciencesPermanence of Paper alk paper) for Printed Library Materials, NationalismSpainPaớs Vasco ansi/niso z39.48-1992 (r2002) Binding Paớs Vasco (Spain)Politics and govern- materials were selected for strength ment SpainPolitics and government and durability I Title dp302.b55l43 2007 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 09 08 07 320.540946'6dc22 2007004973 For Natasha, Elizabeth, and Charles Contents List of Figures and Tables ix Preface: xi Acknowledgments Introduction xiii Chapter One The Early Spanish State 25 Chapter Two The Centralizing State 40 Chapter Three The Authoritarian State 62 Chapter Four The Democratic State 83 Chapter Five Basque Paradiplomacy 114 Chapter Six The Management of Basque Nationalism in Spain 135 Chapter Seven Basque Nationalism in Comparative Perspective 157 Conclusion 177 Notes 181 Bibliography 213 Index 231 Figures and Tables fig u r e s 4.1 Attitudes of the Basques Toward eta 4.2 View of the Problem of Violence in the Last Year (2005) 6.1 View of Ibarretxes Proposal in Light of New Circumstances 7.1 National Identities of the Basques 7.2 Preferences for Alternative State Forms ta b l e s 3.1 Results from Referendum on the Basque Statute of Autonomy, 1933 3.2 Electoral Results in the Basque Country, 1931 3.3 Electoral Results in the Basque Country, 1933 3.4 Electoral Results in the Basque Country, 1936 4.1 Results from Referendum on the Basque Statute of Autonomy, 1979 4.2 Basque Election Results in the Contemporary Democratic Period 4.3 Spanish Election Results in the Basque Country in the Contemporary Democratic period ix 110 112 150 168 172 67 67 68 68 92 96 100 224 Bibliography La stratộgie des entitộs fộdộrộes de la Belgique. ẫtudes internationales 30 (1999): 701727 Mata Lúpez, Josộ Manuel El nacionalismo vasco radical: Discurso, organizaciún y expresiones Bilbao: Universidad del Paớs Vasco, 1993 Ma Valles, Josep, and Montserrat Cuchillo Fox Decentralisation in Spain: A Review. 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founding of the pnv by, 52; influence on paradiplomacy of, 12122; legacy of, 5760; and mysterious origins of the Basques, 5556; opposition to capitalism of, 54; and symbol for Basque nationalism, 161 asymmetrical federalism, 147 Atlantic Arc, 11718, 201n14 Atocha train station bombings, 108; effect of, on the permanent cease-fire, 109110 Atutxa, Juan Marớa, 107 authoritarian state, 6282 as a cause of political violence, 82 and Franco dictatorship, 6975 influence of: democratic state on, 8398; on Basque nationalism, 8182 and Second Spanish Republic, 6368 autonomous communities, 86; and judiciary appointed by Spanish government, 145 autonomy, Basque preference for, 172 See also Statute of Autonomy Aznar, Prime Minister Josộ Marớa, 94, 105, 107, 205n24; and constitution of 1978, 144; on origin of Islamic terrorism, 205n30 Baden-Wỹrttemberg, 118 Barcelona Declaration, 101 Basque bourgeoisie, 3435 Basque Country: normalization of politics in, 10911; political divisions within, 16568; social divisions in, 210n48 Basque diaspora, 12829; Basque Centers in, 12829 Basque elites, 50, 187n97, 189n51; reaction of, to centralization, 81 Basque Government, 12534; and Basque communities abroad, 12829; and Basque Network of European Information, 125; creation of, 8990; and European affairs, 12526; and extraEuropean bilateral relations, 12628; and General Secretariat on Foreign Action, 124, 125; importance of foreign affairs for, 125; in exile, 7275; and Interdepartmental Commission for Foreign Action, 12425; paradiplomacy of, 12134; and transborder cooperation with the Basque Country of France, 12930 231 232 Running Head Basque language academy, 130 Basque nationalism, 6062, 8182; Carlist origins of, 62; comparative perspective on, 15776; compared to four other Western nationalist movements, 15776; and conflict between nationalists and non-nationalists, 16667; and cultural assimilation, 141; dual identities within, 16768; ethnic aspects of, 163; impact of decentralization on, 93; influence of authoritarian state on, 8182; macroprocess and microbehavior in, 6061; management of, by Spain, 135156; overview of the literature on, 46; and paradiplomacy, 11821; and promotion of Basque Network of European Information, 125; radicalization of, 8182; and religious fundamentalism, 160; similarities of, with Quebecois nationalism, 16061; Spanish state and, 14147; strategies for management of, by Spain, 13641; and structures of the democratic state, 9299 Basque Network of European Information, 125 Basque Office for European Affairs, 12334 Basque paradiplomacy, 12134; aid for development, 12728; and Basque Centers, 12829; and Basque communities abroad, 12829; Basque Statute of Autonomy, 123; comparative perspective on, 13033; conflictual nature of, 123 24; European affairs, 12526; extra-European bilateral relations, 12628; failed attempts to advance the cause, 122; four main axes of, 12530; Gaztemundu, 128; General Secretariat on Foreign Action, 124; government-in-exile, 12223; identity, 131; interbask, 124; Latin America, 12628; pnvs involvement in, 123; representation in Brussels, 124; Sabino Arana Goiri, 12122; transborder cooperation, 12930; two periods of, 123 Basque people: blood type of, 28; identities of, 168; language of, 2729; peculiarities of, 2729; persecution of, under Franco, 7273; and whaling, 28 Basque provinces: creation of, 2931 Basque Statute of Autonomy 1931, 6668; electoral results in Basque Country (June 28, 1931), 67; pnv electoral results, 6667; position on issue of foreign affairs, 123; referendum results (November 5, 1933), 67 1979, 8992; high abstention rate in referendum, 89; referendum results on, 92 Batasuna, 57; eta and, 5758; judiciary decision to outlaw, 145; Ibarretxe plan, 151 See also hb (Herri Batasuna) ĂBasta Ya! 150 Bergara reunification assembly, 64 Bilateral Cooperation Commission, 12627 bilateral relations: with Latin America, 12628 Bizkaitarra, 56 bng (Bloque Nacionalista Galego), 1012 bourgeoisie, 3435; role of, in Catalan nationalism, 189n50 Burgos trial, 80 caciquismo, 45 Cỏdiz constitution, 4344; decree of 1811, 43 Campiún, Arturo, 51, 53 Canada: biculturalism and bilingualism in, 140; Charter of Rights and Freedoms, 137; social protection as nationalist management strategy, 137 See also Quebec Carlism, 4660; Catholicism and, 48; demise of the constitutional monarchy, 49; industrialization, 48; Liberals, 48; religion, 4950; urban-rural divide, 192n37 Carlist Wars, 192n38; First Carlist War, 4850; Second Carlist War, 4950 Carrero Blanco, Luis: assassination of, 80 Catalan nationalism, 5860, 15758, 164, 165, 166; Aranas legacy and, 5859; attitude toward secession, 172; role of the Index bourgeoisie, 189n50; tolerance for division, 167 Catalan Statute of Autonomy, 153 Cataluủa: paradiplomacy of, 12324, 131; secession movement in, 193n79 Catholic Church, 4950; influence on Quebecois nationalism, 160; Carlism and the Church, 48; and traditional Catholic idea of Spain, 45 cc (Coaliciún Canaria), 100 cdc (Convergốncia Democrỏtica de Cataluủa), 59 cease-fire: of 1998, 1025; artificiality of, 105; impact of its end on Basque nationalist politics, 1059; reasons for, 1024; revoked, 104 permanent, 10911, 135, 16266 centralization, 4061; assimilation of cultures through, 15859; in eighteenth century, 4142; Jacobin influence, 4244; Navarres attitude toward, 4748; in nineteenth century, 4041; resistance to, 3536; and role of foralism, 36; and role of Liberals, 4344; in seventeenth century, 4142; War of Succession (170013), 36 See also federalism Charest, Jean, 132 CiU (Convergốncia i Uniú), 5960, 131, 166 civic nationalism, definition of, 162 Clarity Act, 205n23 cnv (Comuniún Nacionalista Vasca), 64; absorption by pnv, 64; Sabino Arana Goiri, 57 collective nobility, 3335 Comisiún Bilateral de Cooperaciún See Bilateral Cooperation Commission Comisiún Interdepartamental de Acciún Exterior See Interdepartmental Commission for Foreign Action communication technologies: role of, in substate nationalism, 17374 conciertos econúmicos, 50, 90 consociationalism, 13839; Spanish democracys avoidance of, 145 233 constitutional patriotism, 14244, 15455, 205n26 Constitution of 1869, 49 Constitution of 1978, 15556; and patriotism, 14244; political compromise, 9294 cor (Committee of Regions), 118, 176 Corsican movement, 207n3 cross-border cooperation See transborder cooperation decentralization: impact of, on Basque nationalism, 93 De Gaulle, General Charles, 7273 de la Sota, Ramún, 56 democratic state, 83113; Basque nationalism and structures of, 9299; political forces under, 99105 democratic transition: distinction between nationalities and regions in, 8788; Estado de las Autonomớas resulting in, 86; upon Francos death, 84; politics of, 86; referendum on, 8889; role of King Juan Carlos, in, 8485; Spains, 8492 Dớa de la Hispanidad, El, 142 diaspora See Basque diaspora Duplessis, Maurice, 160 ea (Eusko Alkartasuna), 95; expulsion of, from government, 101; taking over pnvs supporters, 95; within an Aranist framework, 58 education: Fernando de los Rớos and, 65; under Second Spanish Republic, 6566 ee (Euskadiko Ezkerra), 8889; relationship to eta-pm, 85 Egunkaria, closing of, 107, 145 eh (Euskal Herritarok), 101 Ekin (nationalist group), 75, 77, 78 elections, 6768, 9597, 100; of 1931, 67; of 1933, 68; of 1936, 68; of 1986, 95; Basque, of 19802005, 96; first postdictatorship, 85; Spanish, of 19772004, 100 234 Index elites See Basque elites empowerment: of minority groups, 13839, 146; through territorial autonomy, 139 English language: projection of, 174 erc (Esquerra Republicana de Catalunya), 10910, 166, 193n79 Estado de las Autonomớas, 83; as stimulus to nationalist politics, 8384, 86, 8992 eta (Euskadi ta Askatasuna), 12; antiAmericanism of, 77; and democratic Spanish state, 8889, 98; and Ekin, 75; as enemy of Spain, 143; and Eusko Gaztedi, 75; first assembly of (1962), 75; fourth assembly of (1965), 77; and Frederico Krutwigs Vasconia, 7680; and Ibarretxe plan, 14849; objectives of, 7576; as prisoners, 145; relationship of, with the Catholic Church, 77; Sabino Arana Goiris influence on, 7576; second assembly of (1963), 79; secularism in, 7677; stress of, on language and culture, 76; tendencies within, 7780; under Francos dictatorship, 7580; as viewed by Basques, 97, 110, 199n56; views of, on violence, 5758, 171, 209n46 See also violence eta, first split See eta-Berri eta-Berri, 78 eta-m (eta militar), 80; transition to democracy, 85 eta-pm (eta politico-militar), 80; transition to democracy, 85; disbanded, 85 eta-v, 78 eta-vi, 78 ethnic-civic polarity: discussion of, 16263 ethnic nationalism: and conflict, 17879; definition of, 162; role of language in, 164 ethno-symbolism, 183n28 Etxebarrieta, Txabi, 79 eu (European Union), 113, 11718 Euregio Meuse-Rhin, 118, 201n15 Eurobarometer, 210n50 Euskadi as seven provinces: concept of, 58 Euskal-Etxeak See Basque diaspora, Basque Centers Euskaltzaindia See Basque language academy Euskara, 2729; Manuel de Larramendi and, 28 Eusko Gaztedi, 75 See also Gaztemundu Eusko Jaurlaritza See Basque Government Euskobarúmetro, 168 Evans, Peter, 178 federalism, 4061, 204n19, 212n15; asymmetrical, 147; preference for, among Basques, 172 See also Spanish state, as centralizing force Ferdinand VII, 44; death of, 48 First Carlist War See under Carlist Wars Flanders: paradiplomacy of, 13233 Flemish nationalism, 161, 16264, 17071; and Belgian confederation, 170; ethnic aspects of, 164; language question in, 170; origin of, 187n4 Fondo de Compensaciún Interterritorial, 86 foralism, 3639, 141 Four Motors of Europe, 11718, 119, 201n14 France: Basque Country in, 12930; eta taking refuge in, 129; Napoleonic, 42 43; transborder cooperation of, 12930; Jacobin, 42 Franco, Francisco, 6263; centralist legacy of, 85; death of, 84; dictatorship of, 6975; and Gernika, 72; pnv struggles under, 7275; politics in the Basque Country under, 7072; problem of cultural distinctiveness, 71; question of national unity, 7172; torture under, 72 French-Canadian nationalism See Quebecois nationalism fueros, 26, 3135, 40, 8182, 189n51; abolition of, 49, 50; absolutism, 191n30; bilateral relationship with the state, 141; centralization, 36; collective nobility, 3335; constitutionalism, 47; Ibarretxe Index plan, 147; origins of Basque nationalism, 3739; Sabino Arana Goiri, 54; Salvador de Madariaga on, 190n67; symbols for Basque nationalism, 161; Traditionalists, 47 gal (Grupos Antiterroristas de Liberaciún), 98 Gara, 104 Gaztemundu, 128 See also Eusko Gaztedi General Secretariat on Foreign Action, 124 Gernika, 7072; bombing of (April 26, 1937), 70; Josộ Antonio Aguirre, 71 globalization, 1011, 17376; economic, 175; political integration, 17576 Gonzỏles Catarain, Marớa Dolores, 9798 Good Friday Agreement, 102, 138 Groulx, Lionel, 160 guerilla war: as political strategy, 7880 Guernica See Gernika; Picasso, Pablo Habermas, Jỹrgen, 15455 Habermasian theory, 142 hb (Herri Batasuna), 8889, 96, 166; electoral strength during the 1980s, 96; monolithic identities, 168; outlawing of, 107; political alignment of, 58; renamed as Euskal Herritarok, 101 historical institutionalism, 124, 177 homosexual rights, 160 Ibarretxe, Juan Josộ, 94 Ibarretxe plan, 38, 94, 1078, 14754; actualizing self-determination, 16970; co-sovereignty, 148; etas permanent cease-fire, 148; globalizations effect on, 174; judicial system, 14849; obstacles to, 14951; radical nationalist support for, 14950; referendum on, 15152; results of 2005 Basque elections, 1089 Iberian Peninsula: territorial structuring in, 2731 235 identity construction, 41 (see also Spanish identity) issues, 131; and consociational democracy, 138; and Spanish national identity, 14244 politics, 11434 independence, 16973; preference for among Basques, 172 institutionalism, 1319; historical, 1419, 2122; new, 1314; rational choice, 14; sociological, 14 Insurrecciún en Euskadi, 79 interbask, 124 Interdepartmental Commission for Foreign Action, 12425 Internet, 174 Irujo, Manuel, 88 iu (Izquierda Unida), 99; multinational Spain, 144 Jacobinism: influence of, on centralization of Spanish state, 4244 Jaungoika eta Lagi-Zara, 54 Juan Carlos, King, 8485 judiciary: decentralization of Spanish, 14849; and language question, 206n39; of Spain, 145 kas alternative, 8588 Kingdom of Navarre See Navarre Krutwig, Frederico, 7680; attitude of, toward violence, 78; influence of, on eta, 7879 language, 14243; bilingualism in Canada, 140; Euskara, 2729; Flemish nationalism, 170; global projection of English, 174; judges exemption from others, 206n39; Manuel de Larramendi, 28; recuperation under eta, 76; Spanish constitutional recognition of others, 87; Valencian, 205n32 La Patria, 5657 236 Index Larramendi, Manuel de, 28 League of Nations, 122 League of Oppressed Nations, 122 Liberalism, 4144 Liberals, 4347 Liberal-secular view of Spain, 45 Liga de Vascos Espaủolistas, 57 loapa (Ley Orgỏnica de Armonizaciún del Proceso Autonúmico), 9394 majority-minority conflict, 13940 maketos, 53 Manzanas, Melitún: assassination of, 79, 80 Marxism, 78 Masstricht Treaty, 12526 Matiners War, 192n38 Migdal, Joel, 178 Miủún, Miguel Herrero de, 144 minority groups, 13839 Mitchell, Timothy, 178 mobilization See political-territorial mobilization Moors, 2731; lack of authority of, over Basques, 29 multilingualism: threatening Spanish unity, 14243 multinationalism: and shared identities, 168; in Spain, 13556 nationalism: ethnic and civic aspects of, 16265; and paradiplomacy, 11821 theories of, 613; consociational, 9; cultural, 9; diffusion, 15859; economic, 10; elite-centered, 1112; instrumental, 11; macrostructural, 12; modernist, 712; perennial, 79; primordial, 79 See also Basque nationalism; Spanish nationalism nationalist management strategies, 13641; social policy as a common bond, 137 nationalist: negative connotations of the term, 14142 National Liberation Movement, 102 nationhood: concept of, 42 Navarre, 4748, 188n19 non-Basque nationalists: terminology usage, 181n2 Northern Ireland, 102, 135, 207n3; and Good Friday Agreement, 138 Oak of Gernika, 72 Pact of Ajuria-Enea, 96 Pact of Lizarra, 102 paradiplomacy, 11434; Basque Statute of Autonomy, 123; Cataluủa, 124; eu, 11718; globalization, 117; growth of, 11718; interbask, role of, 124; international role of regional governments, 11518; nationalism and, 11821; parallelism and subordination, 116; Russian republics, 117; types of, 11819 See also Basque paradiplomacy patriotism: constitutional, 14344; vs nationalism, 14344 pce (Partido Comunista de Espaủa), 85; decentralization of, 86 pctv (Partido Comunista de las Tierras Vascas), 200n76 permanent cease-fire See cease-fire Picasso, Pablo: Guernica, 71 plq (Parti Libộral du Quộbec), 1617, 166; paradiplomacy of, 132 pnv (Partido Nacionalista Vasco), 5258, 166; advantageous position in Basque politics, 9495; attitude toward independence, 16970; defense of eta, 97; founding of, 52; Ibarretxe plan, 14950, 152; interest in Quebec, 207n53; rejection of violence, 79; strategies under Francos dictatorship, 7475; voting pattern in Basque elections, 101; within an Aranist framework, 58 political-territorial mobilization, 12021 pp (Partido Popular), 86, 142; constitutional patriotism, 155; Ibarretxe plan, opposition to, 150; opposition to eta, 1067 Index pq (Parti Quộbộcois), 1617, 166; attitude toward sovereignty, 16970; paradiplomacy of, 13132 Primo de Rivera, General Miguel, 6367; dictatorship of, 122; forbids nationalist activity, 64; nationalist sentiments strengthened under, 65; Second Spanish Republic, 6367, 122 psoe (Partido Socialista Obrero Espaủol), 85, 99; constitution of 1978, 144; decentralization, 86 Pujol, Jordi, 59, 131 Pyrộnộes Atlantique, 129 Quebec, 14041; government of, 160; paradiplomacy of, 117, 13132 See also Canada Quebecois nationalism, 15762, 16567; decentralization of social programs, 170; ethnic aspects of, 164; influence of the Catholic Church on, 160; integration of immigrants, 165; legitimacy of sovereignty, 167; similarities with Basque nationalism, 16061 Quiet Revolution, 131, 161 Real Academia de la Historia, 142 recognition: for Basque and Catalan nationalists, 146; as a political strategy, 14041; self-determination and, 14647 Reconquista (Reconquest), 2531 referendum: on self-determination, illegality of, 181n1; on sovereignty, 16970 regional governments: Basque government in exile, 117; as international actors, 11518 religion: influence of, on the Flemish Movement, 161; influence of, on Quebecois nationalism, 160 religious fundamentalism, 160, 164 revie (La Red Vasca de Informaciún Europea), 125 Rhụne-Alpes, 118 237 Scott, James C., 178 Scottish nationalism, 161, 164, 171; tolerance for division, 167 secessionism Basque, 5760, 14647, 169 Catalan, 193n79; nationalist attitude toward, 172 option, 141, 14647 Second Carlist War See under Carlist Wars Second Republic, 122 Second Spanish Republic, 6367, 122; seeking support of Catalan nationalists, 6566 Secretarớa General de Acciún Exterior See General Secretariat on Foreign Action self-determination, 140 Sinn Fộin, 122 snp (Scottish National Party), 160, 166 Socialists: in the Basque-governing coalition, 101; management of Basque nationalism, 153; opposition to the Ibarretxe plan, 150 sovereignty: Ibarretxe plan emphasis on, 169; Quebecs referendums on, 16970 Spain: fundamental nature of, 87; as a multinational state, 8492; nation-building in, 4446; territorial autonomy of early modern, 3135; traditional-Catholic idea of, 45; visions of, 94 Spanish Civil War, 62 Spanish constitution, 8690; federal principles of, 86; jurisdiction over international affairs, 12324; positions of nationalist parties toward, 8990; recognition of other languages, 87 Spanish identity, 14142; and Spanishness, 15456 Spanish nationalism, 14145, 181n2 influence of 19th-century Liberals on, 15456 varieties of: military-authoritarian of, 45 Spanish state, 2539; as centralizing force, 4061; First Republic proclaimed, 49; management of substate nationalism by, 238 Index 15254; methodology of, in studying Basque nationalism, 1922 Spruyt, Hendrik, 17778 Statute of Autonomy, 9092; creation of the Basque Country as a political community, 91; Navarres decision to adopt its own, 91; protector of centralist status quo, 147; provisions of, 9092; referendum of 1979, 9091 Statute of Guernica See Basque Statute of Autonomy; Statute of Autonomy Suỏrez, Adolfo, 8485; attitude toward regional autonomy, 85; government of, 8485 substate nationalism, 124; as a modern phenomenon, 15862; demonization of, 143; globalization, 17376; management of, 15254 territorial autonomy: of minority groups, 13940 Thatcher, Margaret, 141 Traditionalists: fueros and, 47; in Spain, 43, 4652 transborder cooperation, 12930 Trudeau, Pierre, 137 ucd (Uniún del Centro Democrỏtico), 85 Union des Nationalitộs, Third Congress of the, 122 Union Nationale party, 160 United Kingdom: as nation of nations, 141 Uriarte, Edurne, 15556 Valencian pp, 205n32 Vatican, 122 See also Catholic Church vb (Vlaams Belang), 160; xenophobia of, 164 violence, 7599; attitude of the Basque people toward, 10910; between 1975 80, 9799; escalation of, 85; etas first targets, 79; instrumental use of, 78; as a political strategy, 7880; Spanish government and eta, 98 See also Atocha train station bombings Wallace, William, 161 Wallonia, 171 War of Independence (Spain), 43 welfare state, 137 Woodrow Wilson doctrine, 122 world congress: of Basque communities, 12829; Basque, in Paris, 74 Yoyes. See Gonzỏles Catarain, Marớa Dolores Zalbide, Josộ Luis, 79 Zapatero, Prime Minister Josộ Luis Rodrớguez, 144, 153 Zumbeltz, K de See Zalbide, Josộ Luis .. .Basque Nationalism and the Spanish State The Basque Series andrÉ lecours Basque Nationalism and the Spanish State University of Nevada Press Reno Las Vegas The Basque Series Copyright... reserved Lecours, André, 1972– Manufactured in the United States Basque nationalism and the Spanish state / of America Andre Lecours The paper used in this book is a recycled p cm — (The Basque series)... between state and substate nationalism from my work in the Research Group on Plurinational Societies led by Alain-G Gagnon at Université du Québec Montréal xiii Basque Nationalism and the Spanish State