Stand up speak out the practice and ethics of public speaking 1479330406

Stand up, Speak out: The Practice and Ethics of Public Speaking Stand up, Speak out: The Practice and Ethics of Public Speaking [Author removed at request of original publisher] University of Minnesota Libraries Publishing edition, 2016 This edition adapted from a work originally produced in 2011 by a publisher who has requested that it not receive attribution Minneapolis, MN Stand up, Speak out: The Practice and Ethics of Public Speaking by [Author removed at request of original publisher] is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted Contents Publisher Information vii Chapter 1: Why Public Speaking Matters Today 1.1 Why Is Public Speaking Important? 1.2 The Process of Public Speaking 1.3 Chapter Exercises 17 Chapter 2: Ethics Matters: Understanding the Ethics of Public Speaking 2.1 The Ethics Pyramid 2.2 Ethics in Public Speaking 2.3 Free Speech 2.4 Chapter Exercises 19 24 34 38 Chapter 3: Speaking Confidently 3.1 What Is Communication Apprehension? 3.2 All Anxiety Is Not the Same: Sources of Communication Apprehension 3.3 Reducing Communication Apprehension 3.4 Coping with the Unexpected 3.5 Chapter Exercises 42 47 51 58 60 Chapter 4: The Importance of Listening 4.1 Listening vs Hearing 4.2 Listening Styles 4.3 Why Listening Is Difficult 4.4 Stages of Listening 4.5 Listening Critically 4.6 Chapter Exercises 63 66 70 76 80 87 Chapter 5: Audience Analysis 5.1 Why Conduct an Audience Analysis 5.2 Three Types of Audience Analysis 5.3 Conducting Audience Analysis 5.4 Using Your Audience Analysis 5.5 Chapter Exercises 91 98 106 110 113 iv Chapter 6: Finding a Purpose and Selecting a Topic 6.1 General Purposes of Speaking 6.2 Selecting a Topic 6.3 What If You Draw a Blank? 6.4 Specific Purposes 6.5 Conclusion 6.6 Chapter Exercises 116 130 135 141 146 147 Chapter 7: Researching Your Speech 7.1 What Is Research? 7.2 Developing a Research Strategy 7.3 Citing Sources 7.4 Chapter Exercises 152 157 170 182 Chapter 8: Supporting Ideas and Building Arguments 8.1 Using Research as Support 8.2 Exploring Types of Support 8.3 Using Support and Creating Arguments 8.4 Chapter Exercises 186 192 203 212 Chapter 9: Introductions Matter: How to Begin a Speech Effectively 9.1 The Importance of an Introduction 9.2 The Attention-Getter: The First Step of an Introduction 9.3 Putting It Together: Steps to Complete Your Introduction 9.4 Analyzing an Introduction 9.5 Chapter Exercises 215 220 228 237 241 Chapter 10: Creating the Body of a Speech 10.1 Determining Your Main Ideas 10.2 Using Common Organizing Patterns 10.3 Keeping Your Speech Moving 10.4 Analyzing a Speech Body 10.5 Chapter Exercises 248 256 263 269 273 Chapter 11: Concluding with Power 11.1 Why Conclusions Matter 11.2 Steps of a Conclusion 11.3 Analyzing a Conclusion 11.4 Chapter Exercises 277 280 287 291 Chapter 12: Outlining 12.1 Why Outline? 12.2 Types of Outlines 12.3 Using Outlining for Success 12.4 Chapter Exercises 294 299 310 314 Chapter 13: The Importance of Language 13.1 Oral versus Written Language 319 v 13.2 Using Language Effectively 13.3 Six Elements of Language 13.4 Chapter Exercises 324 333 338 Chapter 14: Delivering the Speech 14.1 Four Methods of Delivery 14.2 Speaking Contexts That Affect Delivery 14.3 Using Notes Effectively 14.4 Practicing for Successful Speech Delivery 14.5 Chapter Exercises 342 346 350 354 365 Chapter 15: Presentation Aids: Design and Usage 15.1 Functions of Presentation Aids 15.2 Types of Presentation Aids 15.3 Media to Use for Presentation Aids 15.4 Tips for Preparing Presentation Aids 15.5 Chapter Exercises 369 377 393 400 405 Chapter 16: Informative Speaking 16.1 Informative Speaking Goals 16.2 Types of Informative Speeches 16.3 Chapter Exercises 410 417 426 Chapter 17: Persuasive Speaking 17.1 Persuasion: An Overview 17.2 Types of Persuasive Speeches 17.3 Organizing Persuasive Speeches 17.4 Chapter Exercises 429 438 443 450 Chapter 18: Speaking to Entertain 18.1 Understanding Entertaining Speeches 18.2 Special-Occasion Speeches 18.3 Keynote Speaking 18.4 Chapter Exercises 453 457 466 472 Appendix: Your First Speech Appendix: The Public Speaking Pyramid Appendix: Foundations of Public Speaking Appendix: Speech Preparation Appendix: Speech Practice Appendix: Conclusion 475 476 480 484 487 vi Publisher Information Stand up, Speak out: The Practice and Ethics of Public Speaking is adapted from a work produced and distributed under a Creative Commons license (CC BYNC-SA) in 2011 by a publisher who has requested that they and the original author not receive attribution This adapted edition is produced by the University of Minnesota Libraries Publishing through the eLearning Support Initiative This adaptation has reformatted the original text, and replaced some images and figures to make the resulting whole more shareable This adaptation has not significantly altered or updated the original 2011 text This work is made available under the terms of a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike license vii Chapter 1: Why Public Speaking Matters Today Public Speaking in the Twenty-First Century Nadine Dereza – ‘Insider Secrets of Public Speaking’ – CC BY-NC-ND 2.0 Public speaking is the process of designing and delivering a message to an audience Effective public speaking involves understanding your audience and speaking goals, choosing elements for the speech that will engage your audience with your topic, and delivering your message skillfully Good public speakers understand that they must plan, organize, and revise their material in order to develop an effective speech This book will help you understand the basics of effective public speaking and guide you through the process of creating your own presentations We’ll begin by discussing the ways in which public speaking is relevant to you and can benefit you in your career, education, and personal life In a world where people are bombarded with messages through television, social media, and the Internet, one of the first questions you may ask is, “Do people still give speeches?” Well, type the words “public speaking” into Amazon.com or Barnesandnoble.com, and you will find more than two thousand books with the words “public speaking” in the title Most of these and other books related to public speaking are not college textbooks In fact, many books written about public speaking are intended for very specific audiences: A Handbook of Public Speaking for Scientists and Engineers (by Peter Kenny), Excuse Me! Let Me Speak!: A Young Person’s Guide to Public Speaking (by Michelle J Dyett-Welcome), Professionally Speaking: Public Speaking for Health Professionals (by Frank De Piano and Arnold Melnick), and Speaking Effectively: A Guide for Air Force Speakers (by John A Kline) Although these different books address specific issues related to nurses, engineers, or air force officers, the content is basically the same If you search for “public speaking” in an online academic database, you’ll find numerous articles on public speaking in business magazines (e.g., BusinessWeek, Nonprofit World) and academic journals (e.g., Harvard Business Review, Journal of Business Communication) There is so much information available about pub- lic speaking because it continues to be relevant even with the growth of technological means of communication As author and speaker Scott Berkun writes in his blog, “For all our tech, we’re still very fond of the most low tech thing there is: a monologue” (Berkun, 2009) People continue to spend millions of dollars every year to listen to professional speakers For example, attendees of the 2010 TED (Technology, Entertainment, Design) conference, which invites speakers from around the world to share their ideas in short, eighteen-minute presentations, paid six thousand dollars per person to listen to fifty speeches over a four-day period Technology can also help public speakers reach audiences that were not possible to reach in the past Millions of people heard about and then watched Randy Pausch’s “Last Lecture” online In this captivating speech, Randy Pausch, a Carnegie Mellon University professor who retired at age forty-six after developing inoperable tumors, delivered his last lecture to the students, faculty, and staff This inspiring speech was turned into a DVD and a bestselling book that was eventually published in more than thirty-five languages (Carnegie Mellon University, 2011) We realize that you may not be invited to TED to give the speech of your life or create a speech so inspirational that it touches the lives of millions via YouTube; however, all of us will find ourselves in situations where we will be asked to give a speech, make a presentation, or just deliver a few words In this chapter, we will first address why public speaking is important, and then we will discuss models that illustrate the process of public speaking itself References Berkun, S (2009, March 4) Does public speaking matter in 2009? [Web log message] Retrieved from http://www.scottberkun.com/blog Carnegie Mellon University (n.d.) Randy Pausch’s last lecture Retrieved June 6, 2011, from http://www.cmu.edu/ randyslecture 1.1 Why Is Public Speaking Important? Learning Objectives Explore three types of public speaking in everyday life: informative, persuasive, and entertaining Understand the benefits of taking a course in public speaking Explain the benefits people get from engaging in public speaking Christian Pierret – Leader – CC BY 2.0 In today’s world, we are constantly bombarded with messages both good and bad No matter where you live, where you work or go to school, or what kinds of media you use, you are probably exposed to hundreds if not thousands, of advertising messages every day Researcher Norman W Edmund estimates that by 2020 the amount of knowledge in the world will double every seventy-three days (Edmund, 2005) Because we live in a world where we are overwhelmed with content, communicating information in a way that is accessible to others is more important today than ever before To help us further understand why public speaking is important, we will first examine public speaking in everyday life We will then discuss how public speaking can benefit you personally 473 • STAND UP, SPEAK OUT: THE PRACTICE AND ETHICS OF PUBLIC SPEAKING Sarah, a representative to a state legislature, has been forced to explain her reasoning behind voting for a new law While she realizes the law isn’t perfect, she really believes that the benefits of the law truly outweigh the problems Sarah is going to deliver what type of goodwill speech? a speech of public relations b speech of justification c speech of apology d speech of trusting e speech of competence “That guy was an inept expert” is an example of which type of humorous language? a pleonasm b malapropism c oxymoron d eulogy e simile When presidents finish their presidency, they are often hired by a speakers bureau to speak for various groups What type of motivational speeches would ex-presidents most likely give? a hero b survivor c religious d success e inspirational Answer Key e a b c a Appendix: Your First Speech Learning Objectives Understand the basic foundations of public speaking (speech purpose, topic selection, and audience analysis) Prepare a speech using appropriate research, solid organization, and supporting evidence Practice a speech using effective verbal and nonverbal delivery strategies Stand up and speak out! Beth Jusino – celebration – CC BY-NC 2.0 Appendix: The Public Speaking Pyramid Ancient Egyptians believed that the shape of a pyramid was very important and sacred because the triangular shape would help guide the deceased’s body toward the stars into the afterlife While this belief has long since disappeared, the idea of a structure guiding people in a specific direction toward greatness has remained Figure 19.1 Public Speaking Pyramid In this brief appendix, we hope to start you on the path toward effective public speaking To help us understand the basic process of public speaking, we have chosen to use a pyramid-based model of public speaking The rest of this chapter is going to briefly explain the basic public speaking process We hope that this chapter will provide a simple overview of public speaking to help you develop your first speech Each of the concepts explored in this chapter is fully developed elsewhere in Stand Up, Speak Out, so don’t assume that this one chapter covers everything you need to know 475 Appendix: Foundations of Public Speaking Every speech has to start somewhere, and one of the most common questions we hear from students in a public speaking course is, “Where I start?” Well, your public speaking teacher will definitely give you some specific guidelines for all the speeches in your class, but all speeches start with the same basic foundation: speech purpose, topic selection, and audience analysis Speech Purpose The very first question you’ll want to ask yourself is this: what is the basic purpose of the speech you’re about to give? As far back as the ancient Greeks, scholars of public speaking have realized that there are three basic or general purposes people can have for giving public speeches: to inform, to persuade, and to entertain To Inform The first general purpose people can have for public speaking is to inform When we use the word “inform” in this context, we are specifically talking about giving other people information that they not currently possess Maybe you’ve been asked to tell the class about yourself or an important event in your life For example, one of our coauthors had a student who had been smuggled out of a totalitarian country as a small child with her family and fled to the United States, seeking asylum When she told the class about how this event changed her life, she wasn’t trying to make the class or believe anything, she was just informing the class about how this event changed her life Another common type of informative speech is the “how-to” or demonstration speech Maybe you’ll be asked to demonstrate something to the class In this case, you’ll want to think about an interesting skill that you have that others don’t generally possess Some demonstration speeches we’ve seen in the past have included how to decorate a cake, how to swing a golf club, how to manipulate a puppet, and many other interesting and creative speeches To Persuade The second general purpose that public speakers can have is to persuade When you persuade another person, you are attempting to get that person to change her or his thought process or behavior In the first case, you’re trying to get someone to change her or his opinion or belief to what you, as the speaker, want that person to think or believe after the speech For example, maybe you belong to a specific religious group that doesn’t always get the greatest press In your speech, you could try to tell your classmates where that negative press is coming from and all the good that your religious sect does in the world The goal of this speech isn’t to convert people, it’s just to get people to think about your group in a more positive fashion or change their thought process The second type of persuasive speech, the more common of the two, is to get someone to change her or his behavior In this case, your goal at the end of the speech is to see your audience members actually something When we want an audience to something at the end of the speech, we call this a “call to action” because we are actually asking our audience members to act on what we’ve said during the speech For example, maybe you’re an advocate for open-source (or free) software packages So you give a speech persuading your classmates to switch from Microsoft Office to OpenOffice (http://www.openoffice.org) In your speech, you could show how the cost of 476 477 • STAND UP, SPEAK OUT: THE PRACTICE AND ETHICS OF PUBLIC SPEAKING Microsoft Office is constantly rising and that OpenOffice offers the exact same functionality for free In this case, the goal of your speech is to have your classmates stop using Microsoft Office and start using OpenOffice—you want them to act To Entertain The third general purpose people can have for public speaking is to entertain Some speeches are specifically designed to be more lighthearted and entertaining for audience members Quite often these speeches fall into the category of “after-dinner speeches,” or speeches that contain a serious message but are delivered in a lively, amusing manner that will keep people alert after they’ve finished eating a big meal For this reason, most speeches that fall into the “to entertain” category are either informative or persuasive, but we categorize them separately because of reliance on humor Effective speeches in this category are often seen as the intersection of public speaking and stand-up comedy The speeches themselves must follow all the guidelines of effective public speaking, but the speeches must be able to captivate an audience through interesting and funny anecdotes and stories Some common entertaining speech topics include everything from crazy e-mails people have written to trying to understand our funny family members Not all entertaining speeches include large doses of humor Some of the most memorable speakers in the professional speaking world fall into the entertaining category because of their amazing and heart-wrenching stories The more serious speakers in this category are individuals who have experienced great loss or overcome enormous hurdles to succeed in life and who share their stories in a compelling style of speaking Audience members find these speakers “entertaining” because the speakers’ stories captivate and inspire In the professional world of speaking, the most commonly sought after form of speaker is the one who entertains an audience while having a serious message but delivering that message in a humorous or entertaining manner Topic Selection Once you have a general purpose for speaking (to inform, to persuade, or to entertain), you can start to develop the overarching topic for your speech Clearly, some possible speech topics will not be appropriate for a given general purpose For example, if you’ve been asked to give an informative speech, decrying the ills of social policy in the United States would not be an appropriate topic because it’s innately persuasive In a public speaking class, your teacher will generally give you some parameters for your speech Some common parameters or constraints seen in public speaking classes are general purpose and time limit You may be asked to give a two- to three-minute informative speech In this case, you know that whatever you choose to talk about should give your listeners information they not already possess, but it also needs to be a topic that can be covered in just two to three minutes While two to three minutes may seem like a long time to fill with information, those minutes will quickly disappear when you are in front of your audience There are many informative topics that would not be appropriate because you couldn’t possibly cover them adequately in a short speech For example, you couldn’t tell us how to properly maintain a car engine in two to three minutes (even if you spoke really, really fast) You could, on the other hand, explain the purpose of a carburetor In addition to thinking about the constraints of the speaking situation, you should also make sure that your topic is appropriate—both for you as the speaker and for your audience One of the biggest mistakes novice public speakers make is picking their favorite hobby as a speech topic You may love your collection of beat-up golf balls scavenged from the nearby public golf course, but your audience is probably not going to find your golf ball collection interesting For this reason, when selecting possible topics, we always recommend finding a topic that has crossover APPENDIX: FOUNDATIONS OF PUBLIC SPEAKING • 478 appeal for both yourself and your audience To this, when you are considering a given topic, think about who is in your audience and ask yourself if your audience would find this topic useful and interesting Audience Analysis To find out whether an audience will find a speech useful and interesting, we go through a process called audience analysis Just as the title implies, the goal of audience analysis is to literally analyze who is in your audience The following are some common questions to ask yourself: • • • • • • Who are my audience members? What characteristics my audience members have? What opinions and beliefs they have? What they already know? What would they be interested in knowing more about? What they need? These are some basic questions to ask yourself Let’s look at each of them quickly Who Are My Audience Members? The first question asks you to think generally about the people who will be in your audience For example, are the people sitting in your audience forced to be there or they have a choice? Are the people in your audience there to specifically learn about your topic, or could your topic be one of a few that are being spoken about on that day? What Characteristics Do My Audience Members Have? The second question you want to ask yourself relates to the demographic makeup of your audience members What is the general age of your audience? Do they possess any specific cultural attributes (e.g., ethnicity, race, or sexual orientation)? Is the group made up of older or younger people? Is the group made up of females, males, or a fairly equal balance of both? The basic goal of this question is to make sure that we are sensitive to all the different people within our audience As ethical speakers, we want to make sure that we not offend people by insensitive topic selection For example, don’t assume that a group of college students are all politically liberal, that a group of women are all interested in cooking, or that a group of elderly people all have grandchildren At the same time, don’t assume that all topic choices will be equally effective for all audiences What Opinions and Beliefs Do They Have? In addition to knowing the basic makeup of your audience, you’ll also want to have a general idea of what opinions they hold and beliefs they have While speakers are often placed in the situation where their audience disagrees with the speaker’s message, it is in your best interest to avoid this if possible For example, if you’re going to be speaking in front of a predominantly Jewish audience, speaking about the virtues of family Christmas celebrations is not the best topic What Do They Already Know? The fourth question to ask yourself involves the current state of knowledge for your audience members A common 479 • STAND UP, SPEAK OUT: THE PRACTICE AND ETHICS OF PUBLIC SPEAKING mistake that even some professional speakers make is to either underestimate or overestimate their audience’s knowledge When we underestimate an audience’s knowledge, we bore them by providing basic information that they already know When we overestimate an audience’s knowledge, the audience members don’t know what we’re talking about because they don’t possess the fundamental information needed to understand the advanced information What Would They Be Interested in Knowing More About? As previously mentioned, speakers need to think about their audiences and what their audiences may find interesting An easy way of determining this is to ask potential audience members, “Hey, what you think about collecting golf balls?” If you receive blank stares and skeptical looks, then you’ll realize that this topic may not be appropriate for your intended audience If by chance people respond to your question by asking you to tell them more about your golf ball collection, then you’ll know that your topic is potentially interesting for them What Do They Need? The final question to ask yourself about your audience involves asking yourself about your audience’s needs When you determine specific needs your audience may have, you conduct a needs assessment A needs assessment helps you to determine what information will benefit your audience in a real way Maybe your audience needs to hear an informative speech on effective e-mail writing in the workplace, or they need to be persuaded to use hand sanitizing gel to prevent the spread of the flu virus during the winter In both cases, you are seeing that there is a real need that your speech can help fill Appendix: Speech Preparation Once you’ve finished putting in place the foundational building blocks of the effective public speaking pyramid, it’s time to start building the second tier The second tier of the pyramid is focused on the part of the preparation of your speech At this point, speakers really get to delve into the creation of the speech itself This level of the pyramid contains three major building blocks: research, organization, and support Research Leo Hidalgo – Research – CC BY-NC 2.0 If you want to give a successful and effective speech, you’re going to need to research your topic Even if you are considered an expert on the topic, you’re going to need some research to organize your thoughts for the speech Research is the process of investigating a range of sources to determine relevant facts, theories, examples, quotations, and arguments The goal of research is to help you, as the speaker, to become very familiar with a specific topic area We recommend that you start your research by conducting a general review of your topic You may find an article in a popular-press magazine like Vogue, Sports Illustrated, Ebony, or The Advocate You could also consult newspapers or news websites for information The goal at this step is to find general information that can help point you in the right direction When we read a range of general sources, we’ll start to see names of commonly cited people across articles Often, the people who are cited across a range of articles are the “thought leaders” on a specific topic, or the people who are advocating and advancing how people think about a topic 480 481 • STAND UP, SPEAK OUT: THE PRACTICE AND ETHICS OF PUBLIC SPEAKING Once you’ve identified who these thought leaders are, we can start searching for what they’ve written and said directly At this level, we’re going from looking at sources that provide a general overview to sources that are more specific and specialized You’ll often find that these sources are academic journals and books One of the biggest mistakes novice public speakers can make, though, is to spend so much time reading and finding sources that they don’t spend enough time on the next stage of speech preparation We recommend that you set a time limit for how long you will spend researching so that you can be sure to leave enough time to finish preparing your speech You can have the greatest research on earth, but if you don’t organize it well, that research won’t result in a successful speech Organization The next step in speech preparation is determining the basic structure of your speech Effective speeches all contain a basic structure: introduction, body, and conclusion Introduction The introduction is where you set up the main idea of your speech and get your audience members interested An effective introduction section of a speech should first capture your audience’s attention The attention getter might be an interesting quotation from one of your sources or a story that leads into the topic of your speech The goal is to pique your audience’s interest and make them anticipate hearing what else you have to say In addition to capturing your audience’s attention, the introduction should also contain the basic idea or thesis of your speech If this component is missing, your audience is likely to become confused, and chances are that some of them will “tune out” and stop paying attention The clearer and more direct you can be with the statement of your thesis, the easier it will be for your audience members to understand your speech Body The bulk of your speech occurs in what we call “the body” of the speech The body of the speech is generally segmented into a series of main points that a speaker wants to make For a speech that is less than ten minutes long, we generally recommend no more than two or three main points We recommend this because when a speaker only has two or three main points, the likelihood that an audience member will recall those points at the conclusion of the speech increases If you are like most people, you have sat through speeches in which the speaker rambled on without having any clear organization When speakers lack clear organization with two or three main points, the audience gets lost just trying to figure out what the speaker is talking about in the first place To help you think about your body section of your speech, ask yourself this question, “If I could only say three sentences, what would those sentences be?” When you are able to clearly determine what the three most important sentences are, you’ve figured out what the three main points of your speech should also be Once you have your two or three main topic areas, you then need to spend time developing those areas into segments that work individually but are even more meaningful when combined together The result will form the body of your speech Conclusion After you’ve finished talking about the two or three main points in your speech, it’s time to conclude the speech At the beginning of the speech’s conclusion, you should start by clearly restating the basic idea of your speech (thesis) APPENDIX: SPEECH PREPARATION • 482 We restate the thesis at this point to put everything back into perspective and show how the three main points were used to help us understand the original thesis For persuasive speeches, we also use the conclusion of the speech to make a direct call for people change their thought processes or behaviors (call to action) We save this until the very end to make sure the audience knows exactly what we, the speaker, want them to now that we’re concluding the speech For informative speeches, you may want to refer back to the device you used to gain your audience’s attention at the beginning of the speech When we conclude back where we started, we show the audience how everything is connected within our speech Now that we’ve walked through the basic organization of a speech, here’s a simple way to outline the speech: Introduction a Attention getter b Thesis statement Body of speech a Main point b Main point c Main point 3 Conclusion a Restate thesis statement b Conclusionary device i Call to action ii Refer back to attention getter Support You may think that once you’ve developed your basic outline of the speech, the hard part is over, but you’re not done yet An outline of your speech is like the steel frame of a building under construction If the frame isn’t structurally sound, the building will collapse, but no one really wants to live in an open steel structure For this reason, once you’ve finished creating the basic structure of your speech, it’s time to start putting the rest of the speech together, or build walls, floors, and ceilings to create a completed building For each of the two or three main points you’ve picked in your speech, you need to now determine how you are going to elaborate on those areas and make them fully understandable To help us make completed main points, we rely on a range of supporting materials that we discovered during the research phase Supporting materials help us define, describe, explain, and illustrate the main points we selected when deciding on the speech’s organization For example, often there are new terms that need to be defined in order for the audience to understand the bulk of our speech You could use one of the sources you found during the research stage to define the term in question Maybe another source will then help to illustrate that concept In essence, at this level we’re using the research to support the different sections of our speech and make them more understandable for our audiences Every main point that you have in your speech should have support For informative speeches, you need to provide expert testimony for why something is true or false For example, if you’re giving a speech on harmfulness of volcanic gas, you need to have evidence from noted researchers explaining how volcanic gas is harmful For persuasive speeches, the quality of our support becomes even more important as we try to create arguments for why audience 483 • STAND UP, SPEAK OUT: THE PRACTICE AND ETHICS OF PUBLIC SPEAKING members should change their thought processes or behaviors At this level, we use our supporting materials as evidence in favor of the arguments we are making If you’re giving a speech on why people should chew gum after meals, you need to have expert testimony (from dentists or the American Dental Association) explaining the benefits of chewing gum In persuasive speeches, the quality of your sources becomes very important Clearly the American Dental Association is more respected than Joe Bob who lives down the street from me When people listen to evidence presented during a speech, Joe Bob won’t be very persuasive, but the American Dental Association will lend more credibility to your argument Appendix: Speech Practice Brenda – practice – CC BY-NC-ND 2.0 Once you’ve finished creating the physical structure of the speech, including all the sources you will use to support your main points, it’s time to work on delivering your speech The old maxim that “practice makes perfect” is as valid as ever in this case We are not downplaying the importance of speech preparation at all However, you could have the best speech outline in the world with the most amazing support, but if your delivery is bad, all your hard work will be lost on your audience members In this section, we’re going to briefly talk about the two fundamental aspects related to practicing your speech: verbal and nonverbal delivery Verbal Delivery Verbal delivery is the way we actually deliver the words within the speech You may, or may not, have noticed that up to this point in this chapter we have not used the phrases “writing your speech” or “speech writing.” One of the biggest mistakes new public speakers make is writing out their entire speech and then trying to read the speech back to an audience You may wonder to yourself, “Well, doesn’t the president of the United States read his speeches?” And you’re right; the president generally does read his speeches But he also had years of speaking experience under his belt before he learned to use a TelePrompTer While reading a speech can be appropriate in some circumstances, in public speaking courses, the goal is usually to 484 485 • STAND UP, SPEAK OUT: THE PRACTICE AND ETHICS OF PUBLIC SPEAKING engage in what is called extemporaneous speaking Extemporaneous speaking involves speaking in a natural, conversational tone and relying on notes rather than a prepared script People who need to read speeches typically so for one of two reasons: (1) the content of their speech is so specific and filled with technical terminology that misspeaking could cause problems, or (2) the slightest misspoken word could be held against the speaker politically or legally Most of us will not be in either one of those two speaking contexts, so having the stuffiness and formalness of a written speech isn’t necessary and can actually be detrimental So how does one develop an extemporaneous speaking style? Practice! You’ve already created your outline, now you have to become comfortable speaking from a set of notes If you put too much information on your notes, you’ll spend more time reading your notes and less time connecting with your audience Notes should help you remember specific quotations, sources, and details, but they shouldn’t contain the entire manuscript of your speech Learning how to work with your notes and phrase your speech in a comfortable manner takes practice It’s important to realize that practice does not consist of running through your speech silently in your mind Instead, you need to stand up and rehearse delivering your speech out loud To get used to speaking in front of people and to get constructive feedback, and we recommend that you ask a few friends to serve as your practice audience Nonverbal Delivery In addition to thinking about how we are going to deliver the content of the speech, we also need to think about how we’re going to nonverbally deliver our speech While there are many aspects of nonverbal delivery we could discuss here, we’re going to focus on only three of them: eye contact, gestures, and movement Eye Contact One of the most important nonverbal behaviors we can exhibit while speaking in public is gaining and maintaining eye contact When we look at audience members directly, it helps them to focus their attention and listen more intently to what you are saying On the flip side, when a speaker fails to look at audience members, it’s easy for the audience to become distracted and stop listening When practicing your speech, think about the moments in the speech when it will be most comfortable for you to look at people in your audience If you have a long quotation, you’ll probably need to read that quotation However, when you then explain how that quotation relates to your speech, that’s a great point to look up from your notes and look someone straight in the eye and talk to them directly When you’re engaging in eye contact, just tell yourself that you’re talking to that person specifically Gestures A second major area of nonverbal communication for new public speakers involves gesturing Gesturing is the physical manipulation of arms and hands to add emphasis to a speech Gestures should be meaningful while speaking You want to avoid being at either of the extremes: too much or too little If you gesture too much, you may look like you’re flailing your arms around for no purpose, which can become very distracting for an audience At the same time, if you don’t gesture at all, you’ll look stiff and disengaged One of our friends once watched a professor (who was obviously used to speaking from behind a lectern) give a short speech while standing on a stage nervously gripping the hems of his suit coat with both hands Knowing how to use your hands effectively will enhance your delivery and increase the impact of your message If you’re a new speaker, we cannot recommend highly enough the necessity of seeing how you look while practicing your speech, either by videotaping yourself or by practicing in front of a full-length mirror People are often apprehensive about watching video tapes of themselves speaking, but the best way to really see how you look while speaking is—well, literally to see how you look while speaking Think of it this way: If you have a distracting man- APPENDIX: SPEECH PRACTICE • 486 nerism that you weren’t conscious of, wouldn’t you rather become aware of it before your speech so that you can practice making an effort to change that behavior? Movement The last major aspect of nonverbal communication we want to discuss here relates to how we move while speaking As with gesturing, new speakers tend to go to one of two extremes while speaking: no movement or too much movement On the one end of the spectrum, you have speakers who stand perfectly still and not move at all These speakers may also find comfort standing behind a lectern, which limits their ability to move in a comfortable manner At the other end of the spectrum are speakers who never stop moving Some even start to pace back and forth while speaking One of our coauthors had a student who walked in a circle around the lectern while speaking, making the audience slightly dizzy—and concerned that the student would trip and hurt herself in the process When it comes to movement, standing still and incessant pacing are both inappropriate for public speaking So how then should one move during a speech? Well, there are a range of different thoughts on this subject We recommend that you plan out when you’re going to move while speaking One common way is to purposefully move when you are making the transition from one major point of your speech to the next You might also take a step toward the audience at the moment when you are intensifying a point, or take a step back when saying something like, “Let’s back up and think about this for a moment.” However, we don’t recommend moving when discussing important, complex ideas during your speech because the movement could be distracting and prevent audience members from fully understanding your message Overall, you should practice movement so that it becomes comfortable for you and second nature Appendix: Conclusion In this appendix, we have introduced you to the basics of effective public speaking We discussed building an appropriate foundation for your public speech, preparing your speech, and practicing your speech All the concepts discussed in this appendix will be more fully discussed in the other chapters in this book We hope this introduction will give you a boost as you start your journey toward effective public speaking 487