LibraryPirate This is an electronic version of the print textbook Due to electronic rights restrictions, some third party content may be suppressed Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience The publisher reserves the right to remove content from this title at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it For valuable information on pricing, previous editions, changes to current editions, and alternate formats, please visit www.cengage.com/highered to search by ISBN#, author, title, or keyword for materials in your areas of interest Economics Essentials of Sixth Edition N Gregory Mankiw HARVARD UNIVERSITY Essentials of Economics, 6E N Gregory Mankiw Vice President of Editorial, Business: Jack W Calhoun Editor-in-Chief: Joseph Sabatino Executive Editor: Mike Worls Developmental Editor: Jane Tufts Contributing Editors: Jennifer E Thomas and Katie Trotta Editorial Assistant: Allyn Bissmeyer Senior Marketing Manager: John Carey Associate Marketing Manager: Betty Jung Senior Content Project Manager: Colleen A Farmer ALL RIGHTS RESERVED No part of this work covered by the copyright herein may be reproduced, transmitted, stored, or used in any form or by any means graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including but not limited to photocopying, recording, scanning, digitizing, taping, web distribution, information networks, or information storage and retrieval systems, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without the prior written permission of the publisher For product information and technology assistance, contact us at Cengage Learning Customer & Sales Support, 1-800-354-9706 For permission to use material from this text or product, submit all requests online at www.cengage.com/permissions Further permissions questions can be emailed to permissionrequest@cengage.com Media Editor: Sharon Morgan Senior Frontlist Buyer, Manufacturing: Kevin Kluck Senior Marketing Communications Manager: Sarah Greber Production Service: Cadmus Senior Art Director: Michelle Kunkler Cover and Internal Designer: Ke Design Internal Illustrations: Larry Moore ExamView® is a registered trademark of eInstruction Corp Windows is a registered trademark of the Microsoft Corporation used herein under license Macintosh and Power Macintosh are registered trademarks of Apple Computer, Inc used herein under license © 2008 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved Library of Congress Control Number: 2010941873 Cengage Learning WebTutorTM is a trademark of Cengage Learning Cover Image: © Chalmers Bequest, Hackney Art Gallery, UK / Bridgeman Art Library International; © marc fischer / iStockphoto ISBN 13: 978-0-538-45308-0 ISBN 10: 0-538-45308-7 Rights Acquisitions Specialist, Photos: John Hill South-Western Cengage Learning 5191 Natorp Boulevard Mason, OH 45040 USA Cengage Learning products are represented in Canada by Nelson Education, Ltd For your course and learning solutions, visit www.cengage.com Purchase any of our products at your local college store or at our preferred online store www.cengageBrain.com Printed in the United States of America 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 14 13 12 11 To Catherine, Nicholas, and Peter, my other contributions to the next generation N Gregory Mankiw is professor of economics at Harvard University As a student, he studied economics at Princeton University and MIT As a teacher, he has taught macroeconomics, microeconomics, statistics, and principles of economics He even spent one summer long ago as a sailing instructor on Long Beach Island Professor Mankiw is a prolific writer and a regular participant in academic and policy debates His work has been published in scholarly journals, such as the American Economic Review, Journal of Political Economy, and Quarterly Journal of Economics, and in more popular forums, such as The New York Times and The Wall Street Journal He is also author of the best-selling intermediate-level textbook Macroeconomics (Worth Publishers) In addition to his teaching, research, and writing, Professor Mankiw has been a research associate of the National Bureau of Economic Research, an adviser to the Congressional Budget Office and the Federal Reserve Banks of Boston and New York, and a member of the ETS test development committee for the Advanced Placement exam in economics From 2003 to 2005, he served as chairman of the President’s Council of Economic Advisers Professor Mankiw lives in Wellesley, Massachusetts, with his wife, Deborah, three children, Catherine, Nicholas, and Peter, and their border terrier, Tobin iv contents Part I Introduction Part Ten Principles of Economics Thinking Like an Economist 21 Interdependence and the Gains from Trade 49 Part II How Markets Work Part 63 III Markets and Welfare 133 IV The Economics of the Public Sector 10 Externalities 195 11 Public Goods and Common Resources 217 Part VII The Real Economy in the Long Run 345 VIII Money and Prices in the Long Run 433 17 18 19 20 Part Consumers, Producers, and the Efficiency of Markets 135 Application: The Costs of Taxation 155 Application: International Trade 171 Part 305 15 Measuring a Nation’s Income 307 16 Measuring the Cost of Living 329 The Market Forces of Supply and Demand 65 Elasticity and Its Application 89 Supply, Demand, and Government Policies 111 Part VI The Data of Macroeconomics 193 Production and Growth 347 Saving, Investment, and the Financial System 371 The Basic Tools of Finance 393 Unemployment 409 21 The Monetary System 435 22 Money Growth and Inflation 459 Part IX Short-Run Economic Fluctuations 485 23 Aggregate Demand and Aggregate Supply 487 24 The Influence of Monetary and Fiscal Policy on Aggregate Demand 525 V Firm Behavior and the Organization of Industry 233 12 The Costs of Production 235 13 Firms in Competitive Markets 255 14 Monopoly 275 v This page intentionally left blank to the student E “ conomics is a study of mankind in the ordinary business of life.” So wrote Alfred Marshall, the great 19th-century economist, in his textbook, Principles of Economics Although we have learned much about the economy since Marshall’s time, this definition of economics is as true today as it was in 1890, when the first edition of his text was published Why should you, as a student at the beginning of the 21st century, embark on the study of economics? There are three reasons The first reason to study economics is that it will help you understand the world in which you live There are many questions about the economy that might spark your curiosity Why are apartments so hard to find in New York City? Why airlines charge less for a round-trip ticket if the traveler stays over a Saturday night? Why is Johnny Depp paid so much to star in movies? Why are living standards so meager in many African countries? Why some countries have high rates of inflation while others have stable prices? Why are jobs easy to find in some years and hard to find in others? These are just a few of the questions that a course in economics will help you answer The second reason to study economics is that it will make you a more astute participant in the economy As you go about your life, you make many economic decisions While you are a student, you decide how many years to stay in school Once you take a job, you decide how much of your income to spend, how much to save, and how to invest your savings Someday you may find yourself running a small business or a large corporation, and you will decide what prices to charge for your products The insights developed in the coming chapters will give you a new perspective on how best to make these decisions Studying economics will not by itself make you rich, but it will give you some tools that may help in that endeavor The third reason to study economics is that it will give you a better understanding of both the potential and the limits of economic policy Economic questions are always on the minds of policymakers in mayors’ offices, governors’ mansions, and the White House What are the burdens associated with alternative forms of taxation? What are the effects of free trade with other countries? What is the best way to protect the environment? How does a government budget deficit affect the economy? As a voter, you help choose the policies that guide the allocation of society’s resources An understanding of economics will help you carry out that responsibility And who knows: Perhaps someday you will end up as one of those policymakers yourself Thus, the principles of economics can be applied in many of life’s situations Whether the future finds you reading the newspaper, running a business, or sitting in the Oval Office, you will be glad that you studied economics N Gregory Mankiw December 2010 vii HARVARD UNIVERSITY N Gregory Mankiw Mankiw Sixth Edition omics The Art of Instruction, The Power of Engagement, The Spark of Discovery es of The Power of Engagement Self-Study Resources I n t e r a c t i v e Q u i z z i n g , Vi d e o s a n d M o r e ! Economics CourseMate: Engaging, Trackable, Affordable Economics CourseMate brings course concepts to life with interactive learning and study tools that support the printed textbook Economics CourseMate goes beyond the book to deliver what you need! Interactive Learning Tools: Economics CourseMate includes interactive learning tools including: • Quizzes • Flashcards • Videos • Graphing Tutorials • News, Debates, and Data Interactive eBook: In addition to interactive learning tools, Economics CourseMate includes an interactive eBook You can take notes, highlight, search and interact with embedded media specific to your book Use it as a supplement to the printed text, or as a substitute—the choice is up to you with CourseMate To purchase access to CourseMate and these interactive tools, visit www.cengagebrain.com CHAPTER THE MARKET FORCES OF SUPPLY AND DEMAND i 554 GLOSSARY cross-price elasticity of demand a measure of how much the quantity diseconomies of scale the property change in the price of another good, computed as the percentage change in quantity demanded of the first good divided by the percentage change in the price of the second good diversification the reduction of risk achieved by replacing a single risk with a large number of smaller, unrelated risks crowding out a decrease in investment that results from government borrowing crowding-out effect the offset in aggregate demand that results when expansionary fiscal policy raises the interest rate and thereby reduces investment spending currency the paper bills and coins in the hands of the public cyclical unemployment the deviation of unemployment from its natural rate d deadweight loss the fall in total surplus that results from a market distortion, such as a tax demand curve a graph of the relationship between the price of a good and the quantity demanded e economic profit total revenue minus total cost, including both explicit and implicit costs economics the study of how society manages its scarce resources economies of scale the property whereby long-run average total cost falls as the quantity of output increases efficiency the property of society getting the most it can from its scarce resources efficiency wages above-equilibrium wages paid by firms to increase worker productivity efficient markets hypothesis the theory that asset prices reflect all publicly available information about the value of an asset efficient scale the quantity of output that minimizes average total cost exports goods produced domestically and sold abroad externality the uncompensated impact of one person’s actions on the wellbeing of a bystander f federal funds rate the interest rate at which banks make overnight loans to one another Federal Reserve (Fed) the central bank of the United States fiat money money without intrinsic value that is used as money because of government decree finance the field that studies how people make decisions regarding the allocation of resources over time and the handling of risk financial intermediaries financial institutions through which savers can indirectly provide funds to borrowers financial markets financial institutions through which savers can directly provide funds to borrowers financial system the group of institutions in the economy that help to match one person’s saving with another person’s investment demand deposits balances in bank accounts that depositors can access on demand by writing a check elasticity a measure of the responsiveness of quantity demanded or quantity supplied to one of its determinants demand schedule a table that shows the relationship between the price of a good and the quantity demanded equality the property of distributing economic prosperity uniformly among the members of society fiscal policy the setting of the level of government spending and taxation by government policymakers depression a severe recession equilibrium a situation in which the market price has reached the level at which quantity supplied equals quantity demanded Fisher effect the one-for-one adjustment of the nominal interest rate to the inflation rate diminishing marginal product the property whereby the marginal product of an input declines as the quantity of the input increases diminishing returns the property whereby the benefit from an extra unit of an input declines as the quantity of the input increases discount rate the interest rate on the loans that the Fed makes to banks discouraged workers individuals who would like to work but have given up looking for a job equilibrium price the price that balances quantity supplied and quantity demanded equilibrium quantity the quantity supplied and the quantity demanded at the equilibrium price excludability the property of a good whereby a person can be prevented from using it explicit costs input costs that require an outlay of money by the firm firm-specific risk risk that affects only a single company fixed costs costs that not vary with the quantity of output produced fractional-reserve banking a banking system in which banks hold only a fraction of deposits as reserves free rider a person who receives the benefit of a good but avoids paying for it frictional unemployment unemployment that results because it takes time for workers to search for the jobs that best suit their tastes and skills fundamental analysis the study of a future value the amount of money in the future that an amount of money today will yield, given prevailing interest rates g GDP deflator a measure of the price level calculated as the ratio of nominal GDP to real GDP times 100 government purchases spending on goods and services by local, state, and federal governments gross domestic product (GDP) the market value of all final goods and services produced within a country in a given period of time inflation an increase in the overall the percentage change in the price index from the preceding period inflation tax the revenue the government raises by creating money informational efficiency the description of asset prices that rationally reflect all available information internalizing the externality altering incentives so that people take account of the external effects of their actions investment spending on capital equipment, inventories, and structures, including household purchases of new housing j h job search the process by which workers find appropriate jobs given their tastes and skills i labor force the total number of workers, including both the employed and the unemployed human capital the knowledge and skills that workers acquire through education, training, and experience implicit costs input costs that not require an outlay of money by the firm imports goods produced abroad and sold domestically incentive something that induces a person to act income elasticity of demand a measure of how much the quantity demanded of a good responds to a change in consumers’ income, computed as the percentage change in quantity demanded divided by the percentage change in income indexation the automatic correction by law or contract of a dollar amount for the effects of inflation inferior good a good for which, other things equal, an increase in income leads to a decrease in demand l labor-force participation rate the percentage of the adult population that is in the labor force law of demand the claim that, other things equal, the quantity demanded of a good falls when the price of the good rises law of supply the claim that, other things equal, the quantity supplied of a good rises when the price of the good rises law of supply and demand the claim that the price of any good adjusts to bring the quantity supplied and the quantity demanded for that good into balance m GLOSSARY 555 macroeconomics the study of economywide phenomena, including inflation, unemployment, and economic growth marginal changes small incremental adjustments to a plan of action marginal cost the increase in total cost that arises from an extra unit of production marginal product the increase in output that arises from an additional unit of input marginal revenue the change in total revenue from an additional unit sold market a group of buyers and sellers of a particular good or service market economy an economy that allocates resources through the decentralized decisions of many firms and households as they interact in markets for goods and services market failure a situation in which a market left on its own fails to allocate resources efficiently market for loanable funds the market in which those who want to save supply funds and those who want to borrow to invest demand funds market power the ability of a single economic actor (or small group of actors) to have a substantial influence on market prices market risk risk that affects all companies in the stock market medium of exchange an item that buyers give to sellers when they want to purchase goods and services menu costs the costs of changing prices leverage the use of borrowed money to supplement existing funds for purposes of investment microeconomics the study of how households and firms make decisions and how they interact in markets leverage ratio the ratio of assets to bank capital model of aggregate demand and aggregate supply the model that most economists use to explain short-run fluctuations in economic activity around its long-run trend liquidity the ease with which an asset can be converted into the economy’s medium of exchange 556 GLOSSARY monetary neutrality the proposition that changes in the money supply not affect real variables net exports spending on domestically price elasticity of supply a measure of how much the quantity supplied of a good responds to a change in the price of that good, computed as the percentage change in quantity supplied divided by the percentage change in price monetary policy the setting of the money supply by policymakers in the central bank nominal GDP the production of goods and services valued at current prices money the set of assets in an economy that people regularly use to buy goods and services from other people nominal interest rate the interest rate as usually reported without a correction for the effects of inflation money multiplier the amount of money the banking system generates with each dollar of reserves nominal variables variables measured in monetary units private goods goods that are both excludable and rival in consumption money supply the quantity of money available in the economy normal good a good for which, other things equal, an increase in income leads to an increase in demand private saving the income that households have left after paying for taxes and consumption monopoly a firm that is the sole seller of a product without close substitutes normative statements claims that attempt to prescribe how the world should be producer price index a measure of the cost of a basket of goods and services bought by firms multiplier effect the additional shifts in aggregate demand that result when expansionary fiscal policy increases income and thereby increases consumer spending o mutual fund an institution that sells shares to the public and uses the proceeds to buy a portfolio of stocks and bonds opportunity cost whatever must be given up to obtain some item n national saving (saving) the total income in the economy that remains after paying for consumption and government purchases natural monopoly a monopoly that arises because a single firm can supply a good or service to an entire market at a smaller cost than could two or more firms natural rate of output the production of goods and services that an economy achieves in the long run when unemployment is at its normal rate natural rate of unemployment the normal rate of unemployment around which the unemployment rate fluctuates natural resources the inputs into the production of goods and services that are provided by nature, such as land, rivers, and mineral deposits open-market operations the purchase and sale of U.S government bonds by the Fed price floor a legal minimum on the price at which a good can be sold producer surplus the amount a seller is paid for a good minus the seller’s cost of providing it production function the relationship between the quantity of inputs used to make a good and the quantity of output of that good p production possibilities frontier a graph that shows the combinations of output that the economy can possibly produce given the available factors of production and the available production technology physical capital the stock of equipment and structures that are used to produce goods and services productivity the quantity of goods and services produced from each unit of labor input positive statements claims that attempt to describe the world as it is profit total revenue minus total cost present value the amount of money today that would be needed, using prevailing interest rates, to produce a given future amount of money price ceiling a legal maximum on the price at which a good can be sold price discrimination the business practice of selling the same good at different prices to different customers price elasticity of demand a measure of how much the quantity demanded of a good responds to a change in the price of that good, computed as the percentage change in quantity demanded divided by the percentage change in price property rights the ability of an individual to own and exercise control over scarce resources public goods goods that are neither excludable nor rival in consumption public saving the tax revenue that the government has left after paying for its spending q quantity demanded the amount of a good that buyers are willing and able to purchase GLOSSARY quantity equation the equation M × V =P× shoeleather costs the resources wasted value of the economy’s output of goods and services shortage a situation in which quantity demanded is greater than quantity supplied quantity supplied the amount of a good that sellers are willing and able to sell quantity theory of money a theory asserting that the quantity of money available determines the price level and that the growth rate in the quantity of money available determines the inflation rate r stagflation a period of falling output and rising prices stock a claim to partial ownership in a firm store of value an item that people can use to transfer purchasing power from the present to the future strike the organized withdrawal of labor from a firm by a union random walk the path of a variable whose changes are impossible to predict structural unemployment unemployment that results because the number of jobs available in some labor markets is insufficient to provide a job for everyone who wants one rational people people who systematically and purposefully the best they can to achieve their objectives substitutes two goods for which an increase in the price of one leads to an increase in the demand for the other real GDP the production of goods and services valued at constant prices sunk cost a cost that has already been committed and cannot be recovered real interest rate the interest rate corrected for the effects of inflation real variables variables measured in physical units recession a period of declining real incomes and rising unemployment reserve ratio the fraction of deposits that banks hold as reserves reserve requirements regulations on the minimum amount of reserves that banks must hold against deposits reserves deposits that banks have received but have not loaned out risk aversion a dislike of uncertainty rivalry in consumption the property of a good whereby one person’s use diminishes other people’s use s scarcity the limited nature of society’s resources supply curve a graph of the relationship between the price of a good and the quantity supplied supply schedule a table that shows the relationship between the price of a good and the quantity supplied surplus a situation in which quantity supplied is greater than quantity demanded t tariff a tax on goods produced abroad and sold domestically tax incidence the manner in which the burden of a tax is shared among participants in a market technological knowledge society’s understanding of the best ways to produce goods and services theory of liquidity preference Keynes’s theory that the interest rate adjusts to bring money supply and money demand into balance 557 total cost the market value of the inputs a firm uses in production total revenue (for firm) the amount a firm receives for the sale of its output total revenue (in a market) the amount paid by buyers and received by sellers of a good, computed as the price of the good times the quantity sold Tragedy of the Commons a parable that illustrates why common resources are used more than is desirable from the standpoint of society as a whole transaction costs the costs that parties incur in the process of agreeing to and following through on a bargain u unemployment insurance a government program that partially protects workers’ incomes when they become unemployed unemployment rate the percentage of the labor force that is unemployed union a worker association that bargains with employers over wages, benefits, and working conditions unit of account the yardstick people use to post prices and record debts v variable costs costs that vary with the quantity of output produced velocity of money the rate at which money changes hands w welfare economics the study of how the allocation of resources affects economic well-being willingness to pay the maximum amount that a buyer will pay for a good world price the price of a good that prevails in the world market for that good index Note: Page numbers in boldface refer to pages where key terms are defined a Absolute advantage, 54 Absolute value, 91 Accounting, 377–378 Accounting profit, 238 Acemoglu, Daron, 366–367 Adams, Scott, 402–403 Adjustment process, 464–465 Adverse selection, 398 Aggregate demand, 487–488 automatic stabilizers, 545–546 changes in government purchases, 536 changes in money supply, 532–533 changes in taxes, 540–541 crowding-out effect, 539–540 economic fluctuations of, 487–494 effects of shift in, 508–513 fiscal policy and, 525–526, 535–541 Great Depression, 512–513 interest-rate targets in Fed policy, 533–534 long-run growth and inflation, 502 monetary policy and, 525–526, 526–535 multiplier effect, 536, 537–538 recession of 2008–2009, 513–516 shifts in, 512–513 stabilization policy, 541–545 theory of liquidity preference, 527–529 World War II, 512–513 Aggregate demand curve, 493, 494–499 downward slope of, 494–497, 529–531 exchange-rate effect, 496–497 interest-rate effect, 495–496 shifts in, 497–498 wealth effect, 495 Aggregate supply, 487–488 economic fluctuations of, 487–494 effects of shift in, 516–518 fiscal policy and, 541 long-run growth and inflation, 502 oil and the economy, 518–520 stagflation, 517 wage-price spiral, 517 Aggregate-supply curve, 493, 499–508 menu costs, 505 misperceptions theory, 505–506 natural rate of output, 501 shifts in, 501–502 slopes upward in short run, 502–506 558 sticky-price theory, 505 sticky-wage theory, 504–505 vertical in long run, 499–500 Alkire, Caroline, 37 American Stock Exchange, 374 Andrews, Edmund L., 181 Animals as common resources, 228–229 Annuity, 397 Antipoverty programs, fighting poverty is public good, 222 Antitrust laws Clayton Antitrust Act, 295–296 increasing competition with, 295–297 Sherman Antitrust Act, 295–296 Antitrust policy, Obama’s, 296–297 Arbitrage, 291 Argentina economic growth of, 349 GDP, 363 inward-oriented policies of trade, 363 underground economy in, 320–321 Asset valuation, 400–406 AT&T, 296, 298 Australia, underground economy, 320 Austria, hyperinflation in, 468 Automatic stabilizers, 545, 545–546 Automobile industry, safety laws, 7–8 Average cost, 243–245, 298 Average fixed cost, 244, 250 Average fixed cost (AFC) curve, 244, 246 Average revenue (AR), 257, 259, 280–281 Average total cost, 243, 245–250 Average total cost (ATC) curve, 244, 246, 259 Average variable cost, 244, 250 Average variable cost (AVC) curve, 244, 246 b Balaguer, Diane, 334–335 Balance sheet, 444 Balanced budget, 385 Bangladesh economic growth of, 349 GDP and quality of life in, 324 Bank capital, 447, 447–448 Banks See Central bank; European Central Bank as financial intermediaries, 374–375 bank capital, leverage, and financial crisis of 2008–2009, 447–448 Fed lending to, 449–450 money creation with fractional-reserve banking, 444–445 money multiplier, 445–447 money supply and, 443–448 100-percent-reserve banking, 443–444 runs, money supply and, 452 Bar graph, 40, 41 Barboza, David, 59 Barter, 436 Base year, 317 Basket of goods and services, 330–333 Baum, L Frank, 479 Bernanke, Ben, 442, 454–455, 480–481 Blackstone, Brian, 166 Blanchard, Olivier, 514–515 Bolivia hyperinflation in, 473–474 underground economy in, 320–321 Bond, 372, 373 Bond market, 372–373 Botswana, elephants as private good, 229 Brand-name product, 285 Brazil economic growth of, 349 GDP and quality of life in, 324 promoting human capital, 361 Budget deficit, 379, 384–386 Budget surplus, 379, 384–386 Bureau of Economic Analysis, 315 Bureau of Labor Statistics, 330, 410, 418 Bush, George W antitrust policy under, 296–297 appointed Bernanke, 442 government debt under, 388 Business cycle, 16, 488 Buyers marginal, 137 number of, and shifts in demand, 71 taxes on, affect market outcomes, 123–124 variables that influence, 71 willingness to pay, 136 index c Campbell, Doug, 320–321 Canada economic growth of, 349 NAFTA and, 187 trade and distribution of income, 184 Cap and trade, 208–209 Capital aggregate-supply curve shifts arising from changes in, 501 bank, 447, 447–448 cost of, 237–238 human, 353, 354, 360, 361 physical, 353, 353–354 Capital requirement, 448 Carbon emissions, 200–201, 208–209 Carbon tax, 208–209 Cartel OPEC, 519 union as, 425, 426 Carter, Jimmy, 460 Catan, Thomas, 296–297 Catch-up effect, 357, 357–358 Cause and effect, 46–48 Central bank, 441 See also European Central Bank; Federal Reserve (Fed) Centrally planned economies, 10 Chad, economic growth rate of, 348 Chetty, Raj, 421 Chicago School of Economists, 296 Chile, unilateral approach to free trade, 186 China economic growth of, 349 economic growth rate of, 348 game-playing factories, 59 GDP and quality of life in, 324 tariffs on Chinese tires, 181 trade and distribution of income, 185 Chronic joblessness, 417 Circular-flow diagram, 24, 24–26, 309 Classical dichotomy, 465, 465–466 Clayton Antitrust Act, 295–296 Clean Air Act, 37, 207 Clinton, Bill, government debt and, 388 Closed economy, 378 Club goods, 219, 278 Coase, Ronald, 210 Coase theorem, 210, 210–211 Cole, Harold L., 515 Collective bargaining, 425, 424–426 Combs, Sean (Diddy), 8–9 Command-and-control policies, 202, 203 Commodity money, 437 Common resources, 217–218, 218, 218–219, 224–229 animals as, 228–229 as natural monopoly, 278 clean air and water, 226 congested roads, 227–228 elephants, 229 importance of property rights, 229 Comparative advantage, 54–59, 55, 173 Competition, 66–67 international trade increases, 182 markets and, 66–67 monopoly vs., 279–280, 300 perfectly competitive markets, 66 Competitive firm demand shift in short and long run, 269 long-run supply curve, 265 marginal-cost curve, 259–261 market supply with entry and exit, 266–268 market supply with fixed number of, 266 measuring profit in graph, 264–265 profit maximization and, 258–265 revenue of, 256–258 short-run decision to shut down, 261–262 short-run supply curve, 263 sunk costs and, 262–263 supply curve, marginal cost as, 261 supply decision, 259–261 vs monopoly, 279–280 zero profit and, 268–269 Competitive market, 66, 256, 256–258, 265–271 Complements, 70 cross-price elasticity of demand, 98 Compounding, 394 magic of, 396 rule of 70, 396 Congestion common resource and, 227–228 gas tax and, 204 traffic and toll roads, 226–228 Congestion pricing, 226–227 Congressional Budget Office, 31, 209, 413 Constant returns to scale, 249, 355 Consumer price index (CPI), 330, 330–337 Consumer surplus, 136–150, 137 Consumption, 313 aggregate-demand curve shifts due to changes in, 497 as component of GDP, 313, 315 price-level and, aggregate-demand curve downward slope, 495 rivalry in, 218–219 trade expands set of opportunities, 53 Control on prices, 112–121 Coordinate system, 41–44 Coordination problems, 249 Copyright, 275–278 Corrective taxes, 203, 204–207 Correlation, positive and negative, 42 Cost(s), 141, 236–238 average, 243–244 average fixed, 244, 250 average total, 243, 247–248, 250, 266 average variable, 244, 250 different costs produce upward-sloping supply curve, 271 559 economic profit vs accounting profit, 238 economies of scale and, 180–182 explicit, 237, 250 fixed, 242, 242–243, 250 implicit, 237, 250 in short run and long run, 247–249 marginal, 243–244, 244, 244–245, 250 menu, 474, 505 of capital, 237–238 of confusion, costs of inflation and, 476–477 of inconvenience, inflation and, 476–477 of inflation, 472–479 of possible sellers, 141 of production, 235–236 of taxation, 155–156 opportunity, 27, 54, 54–55, 236–237 production and, 239–241 shoeleather, 473, 473–474 social, 198, 289 sunk, 261, 262, 262–263 total revenue, total cost, and profit, 236 total, 236, 239, 250 transaction, 212 types of, 250 variable, 242, 242–243, 250 various measures of, 241–247 welfare, 286–289 willingness to sell and, 141–142 Cost curve See Total-cost curve and their shapes, 244–246 typical, 246–247 Cost of living, 329–336 Cost-benefit analysis, 223, 223–224 Cost-of-living allowance (COLA), 338 Council of Economic Advisers, 31 Cowen, Tyler, 490–491 CPI See Consumer price index Credit cards, money and, 440 Credit crunch, 448 Credit risk, bonds, 373 Cross-price elasticity of demand, 97, 98 Crowding out, 386 Crowding-out effect, 539, 539–540 Currency, 438–441, 439 Current Population Survey, 410 Curves, 42–46 Cyclical unemployment, 410, 413 d Date of maturity, bonds, 373 Davies, Kert, 37 Deadweight loss, 159, 160–163, 287–289 DeBeers, 277 Debt finance, 373–374 Debt, government, 385, 386–388 Default, bonds, 373 Deflation, 307–308, 460, 478 Defoe, Daniel, 352 560 index Demand, 67–73 applications of, 101–106 change in, 79, 81 decrease in, 69 elasticity of See Demand elasticity excess, 78 expectations and, 71 income changes, 70 increase in, 69, 80, 270 individual, 68–69 inelastic, 92 law of, 67 market, 68–69 market forces of supply and, 65 number of buyers and, 71 perfectly elastic, 92 perfectly inelastic, 92 price elasticity of, 93 prices of related goods and, 70 reducing smoking, 71–73 relationship between price and quantity demanded, 67–68 supply and, 77–84, 111–112 tastes and, 70 Demand curve, 42–44, 67–68, 68 demand schedule and, 138 difference between competitive firm and monopoly, 279–280 elasticity of linear, 96 for monopoly, 282 measuring consumer surplus with, 139 price elasticity of demand and, 92–94 shifts in, 69–73 shifts in vs movements along, 72 using to measure consumer surplus, 137–138 variety of, 92–94 Demand deposits, 439 Demand elasticity, 90–98 Demand schedule, 67, 68, 138 Denmark, Laffer curve, 166 Department of Justice, antitrust laws, 295 Department of Labor, 330, 410, 424 Depreciation, 313 Depression, 487 See Great Depression Diamond, Jared, 366 Diminishing marginal product, 241 Diminishing returns, 357, 357–358 Discount coupons, 293 Discount rate, 449 Discount window, 449 Discounting, 294–295, 395 Discouraged workers, 415 Discrimination, price, 290–294 Diseconomies of scale, 248, 248–249 Disposable personal income, 313 Diversification, 398, 398–399 Dividend, 375 Dividend yield, 375 Dominquez, Kathryn, 515 Double coincidence of wants, 436 Dow Jones Industrial Average, 374 Downs, Anthony, 226 Downward slope of aggregate-demand e Earned income tax credit, 121 Earnings per share, 375 Economic fluctuations, 490–494, 508–520 Economic growth aggregate demand and aggregate supply to depict long-run, 502 around world, 348–352 diminishing returns and catch-up effect, 357–358 education and, 359–360 experiences, variety of, 349 free trade and, 363–364 health and nutrition, 360–362 importance of long-run growth, 368 investment from abroad, 358–359 natural resources as limit to, 355–356 population growth and, 364–368 production possibilities frontier and, 27–29 productivity and, 352–356 property rights and political stability, 362–363 public policy and, 356–368 research and development, 364 saving and investment, 356–357 Economic models, 24–29 Economic profit, 238 Economic Report of the President, 31 Economic variables, 337–341 Economic welfare price discrimination and, 291 total surplus and, 145–146 Economic well-being, GDP as measure of, 319–324 Economics, See Welfare economics environmental, 37 of President Obama, 32–33 of unions, 425 reasons for studying, 14–15 supply-side, and Laffer curve, 165–166 ten principles of, 3–4 who studies, 30 Economies of scale, 248, 248–249 as causes of monopoly, 278 lower costs through, 180–182 specialization and, 249 Economy centrally planned, 10 closed, 378 interest rates in U.S., 341 labor-force participation of men and women in U.S., 413–414 market, 10–11 money in U.S., 439–440, 441 oil and shifts in aggregate supply, 518–520 open, 378 U.S deep economic downturn, 16 underground, 163, 320–321 unions good or bad for, 426 using policy to stabilize, 541–546 Education as positive externality, 199, 360 cost of college, 5–6 economic growth and, 359–360 public policy and, 359–360 social optimum and, 200 Efficiency, 5, 145 government intervention and, 12–13 informational, 402 market See Market efficiency monopoly and, 287–289 of equilibrium quantity, 147 of markets, 135–136 production possibilities frontier and, 27 total surplus and, 145–146 Efficiency wages, 426, 426–429 Efficient markets hypothesis, 401, 401–405 Efficient scale, 246, 267 Einstein, Albert, 22 Elasticity, 90 See Demand elasticity along a linear demand curve, 96–97 applications of, 89–106 deadweight loss and, 160–163 income elasticity of demand, 97 of supply, 98–101 real world, 94 tax incidence and, 125–127 Elephants, common resource, 229 Entry/exit into market firm’s long-run decision to, 264 long run market supply with, 266–268 monopoly, 276–279 Environmental Defense, 37 Environmental economics, 37 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 37, 203–204, 205–207 Environmental regulations, 203 Equality, 5, 146 government intervention and, 13 Equilibrium, 77, 77–79 analyzing changes in, 79–84 consumer and producer surplus in market, 146 decrease in supply affects, 81 in money market, 528, 529 increase in demand affects, 80 long-run, 509 markets not in, 78 monetary, 461–462 of supply and demand, 77 without international trade, 172–173 zero-profit, 268–269 Equilibrium interest rate, 529 Equilibrium price, 77 Equilibrium quantity, 77, 147 Equity finance, 373–374 Essay on the Principle of Population as It Affects the Future Improvement of Society, An (Malthus), 364 index European Central Bank, 166 Excess demand, 78 Excess supply, 77–78 Excludability, 218, 218–219 Explicit costs, 237, 250 Exports, 58 See also International trade gains and losses from exporting country, 174–175 Exports, net, 314, 314–315 Externality, 12, 12–13, 151, 195–213, 196, 360 carbon tax, 208–209 Coase theorem, 210–211 command-and-control policies, 202, 203 corrective taxes and subsidies, 203–205 education as, 199 gas tax and, 204–205 internalizing, 199 market inefficiency and, 197–202 negative, 196, 198–199 of country living, 200–201 positive, 196, 199–202 private solutions to, 209–212 public policies toward, 202–209 technology spillovers, 201–202 tradable pollution permits, 205–207 transaction costs, 212 f Factors of production, 24–26, 353 Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938, 117 Fair, Ray, 515 Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC), 452 Federal funds rate, 452, 452–453, 533 Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC), 442, 454–455, 533, 542 Federal Reserve (Fed), 32, 441 exit strategy, 454–455 federal funds rate, 452–453 FOMC, 442 lending to banks, 449–450 organization of, 442 problems in controlling money supply, 451 quantity of reserves, 449–450 reserve ratio, 450–451 role of interest-rate target in, 533–534 stock market and, 534–535 system, 441–443 tools of monetary control, 448–455 Fiat money, 438 FICA (Federal Insurance Contributions Act), 124 Finance, 394 Financial crises key elements of, 377 of 2008–2009, 447–448, 454–455 Financial institutions, 372–376, 516 Financial intermediaries, 374, 374–376 372, 372–374 372 as a natural monopoly, 278–279 in circular-flow diagram, 24–26 in competitive market, 255–256 marginal, 271 market supply with fixed number of, 266 Firm-specific risk, 399, 398–399 Fiscal policy, 525–526, 535, 536–546 Fisher effect, 471, 471–472 Fisher, Irving, 471 Fixed costs, 242, 242–243, 250 Fogel, Robert, 360–362 FOMC See Federal Open Market Committee Food Stamp program, 221–222 Ford Motor Company, 247–248 Ford, Gerald, 15 Ford, Henry, 428–429 Foreclosures, 515–516 Foreign investment, 358–359 Fractional-reserve banking, 444, 444–445 Free rider, 220 Free trade, 171–188, 363–364 Free-rider problem, 220 Free-silver debate, 478–479 Frictional unemployment, 417, 419 Friedman, Milton, 478 Full-employment output, 501 Fundamental analysis, 401 Future value, 394 g G20 group of economies, 542 Gabon, economic growth rate of, 348 Gains from trade comparative advantage, 54–59 deadweight losses and, 159–160 of exporting country, 174–175 of importing country, 175–177 production possibilities, 50–52 specialization, 52–54 Gasoline prices, incentive effects of, 8–9 Gasoline tax as corrective tax, 204–205 road congestion and, 204 GDP See Gross domestic product GDP deflator, 317, 317–318, 336–337 General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), 187 General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money, The (Keynes), 519, 527, 543–544 Generic products, 285 Germany average income in, 347 economic growth of, 349 561 GDP and quality of life in, 324 hyperinflation in, 468 inflation in, 15 tax rate and labor taxes, 166 Gilbert, Daniel, 491 Glaeser, Edward L., 200–201 Gold standard, 437 Good(s), final, 70, 311 club, 219, 278 complements, 70 CPI basket of, 330–333, 333–334 currently produced, GDP includes, 311 different kinds of, 218–219 excludability of, 218–219 inferior, 70, 97 intermediate, 311 international trade increases variety of, 180 markets for, 24–26 normal, 70, 97 private, 218, 218–219 public, 217–218, 218, 218–219, 220–224 related, 70 rivalry in consumption, 218–219 substitutes, 70 tangible, 311 types of, 219 Goolsbee, Austan, Goulder, Lawrence, 37 Government debt, 385 crowding out, 386 history of U.S., 386–388 Graphs, 40–48 cause and effect, 46–48 curves in, 42–44 measuring profit in, 264–265 of single variable, 40–41 of two variables, 41–42 slope of, 44–46 Great Britain caloric consumption and height of population, 360 unilateral approach to free trade, 186 Great Depression bank runs during, 452 modern parallels to, 514–515 shift in aggregate demand, 512–513 Great Moderation, 404–405 Green economists, 37 Greenhouse, Steven, 120 Greenpeace, 37 Greenspan, Alan, 406 Gross domestic product (GDP), 307–308, 310, 359 See Nominal GDP; Real GDP beyond, 322–323 components of, 312–315 consumption, 313 economy’s income and expenditure, 308 exclusions from, 319–324 GDP deflator, 317–318 government purchases, 314 inadequate measure of economic health, 322 investment, 313–314 measure of economic well-being, 319 562 index Gross domestic product (continued) measurement of, 310–312 net exports, 314–315 per capital, 315 quality of life and, 324 real growth in U.S since 1900, 512 underground economy and, 320–321 Gross national product (GNP), 313, 359 “Guns and butter” tradeoff, h Health economic growth and, 360–362 efficiency wages and, 427 GDP as inadequate measure of economic health, 322–323 Health insurance, 397–398 “Healthy Living in Hard Times” (Ruhm), 491 Hershey, Robert D., Jr., 334–335 Holmes, Oliver Wendell, Jr., 155 Hong Kong, trade and distribution of income, 185 Hoover, Herbert, 329 Households decisions faced by, in circular-flow diagram, 24–26 Housing in basket of goods of CPI, 332 recession of 2008–2009 and, 513–516 rent control, 115–116 Human capital, 353, 354, 360 economic growth and, 356–368 education as investment in, 359–360 health and nutrition as investment in, 360–362 per worker, 354 promoting, 361 Human life, value of, 223–224 Human organs, market for, 149–150 Hume, David, 465–466 Hungary, hyperinflation in, 468 Hyperinflation, 460 i in Bolivia, 473–474 in Zimbabwe, 470 money and prices during, 468 Income, 307–313 97 gains and losses of importing country, 175–177 Incentives, 7, 7–9 incentive pay, investment, 384 savings, 382–383 unemployed and, 420–421 equilibrium, 529 federal funds rate, 452, 452–453, 533 in long run and short run, 530 in U.S economy, 341 nominal, 339–341, 340, 471, 527 real, 339–341, 340, 471, 527 subprime borrowers, 513–516 supply and demand for loanable funds, 380–382 theory of liquidity preference, 527 India average income in, 347 economic growth of, 349 GDP and quality of life in, 324 Individual demand, 68–69 Individual vs market supply, 73–74 Indonesia average income in, 347 economic growth of, 349 GDP and quality of life in, 324 Industrial organization, 236 Industrial policy, 201–202 Inelastic demand, 90, 92 Inelastic supply, 98 Inferior good, 70, 97 Inflation, 15, 318, 330, 517 arbitrary redistributions of wealth, 477–478 brief look at adjustment process, 464–465 classical dichotomy and monetary neutrality, 465–466 confusion and inconvenience, 476–477 correcting economic variables for effect of, 337–341 costs of, 472–479 effects of a monetary injection, 463–464 effects of on box office receipts, 339 fall in purchasing power, 472–473 Fisher effect, 471–472 inflation tax, 468–470 inflation-induced tax distortions, 475–476 level of prices and value of money, 461 measures of, 337 measuring a nation’s income, 307–308 menu costs, 474 money growth and, 459–460 money supply and, 15 money supply, money demand, and monetary equilibrium, 461–462 raises tax burden on saving, 476 relative-price variability and misallocation of resources, 474–475 shoeleather costs, 473–474 short-run-trade-off between unemployment and, 16 special cost of unexpected, 477–478 theory of, 460–472 velocity and quantity equation, 466–468 Inflation fallacy, 472–473 Inflation rate, 318, 330, 332 Identity, 312, 378–379 Implicit costs, 237, 250 Import quotas, 35, 179 Imports, 58 See also International trade Intangible services, GDP includes, 311 Interest rate(s) calculating of, 331 nominal interest rate and, 472 Inflation tax, 468–470, 469 Inflationary threats, 480–481 Inflation-induced tax distortions, 475 Informational efficiency, 402 Input prices and supply, 74–76 An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (Smith), 11, 57, 249 Insolvency, 448 Insurance, 397–398, 420–422 Interest-rate effect, 526 aggregate-demand curve, 495–496 Intermediate good, 311 Internalizing the externality, 199 International Monetary Fund, 514–515 International trade, 171–188 Intrinsic value, 437 Intuit, 295 Inventory, GDP and, 314 Investment, 313, 313–314, 371–372, 379–384, 495–498, 536 Invisible hand, 11–13, 32, 149, 321 Inward-oriented policies, 363 j Jacoby, Jeff, 82 Japan average income in, 347 economic growth of, 349 GDP and quality of life in, 324 inflation rate, 460 trade and distribution of income, 184 underground economy in, 320–321 Job search, 418, 418–422 Jobless benefits, recession and, 420–421 Jobs argument for trade restrictions, 182–183 chronic joblessness, 417 number, 418 Jolly, David, 322–323 Junk bonds, 373 k Kahn, Mathew, 200–201 Kennedy, John F., tax cuts under, 544–545 Kennedy, Robert, 319–323 Kenya, elephant poaching, 229 Keynes, John Maynard, 32–33, 519, 527, 543–544 Keynesians in White House, 544–545 Kremer, Michael, 368 Krugman, Paul, 184–185 Kuwait, source of crude oil, 518–520 index l Labor aggregate-supply curve shifts arising from changes in, 501 alternative measures of underutilization, 415 jobs argument for trade restrictions, 182–183 taxes on, 162–163 Labor demand, minimum wage and, 119 Labor force, 411 Labor market, 118, 412 Labor tax, 162–163, 166 Laffer curve, 165–166 Laffer, Arthur, 165, 166 Laissez faire, 148 Landsburg, Steven E., 183 Law of demand, 67 Law of supply and demand, 79 Law of supply, 73 Lender of last resort, 442 Leslie, Philip, 294–295 Leverage, 447, 447–448 Leverage ratio, 447 Linear demand curve, elasticity and total revenue along, 96–97 Liquidity, 437 theory of liquidity preference, 527–529 trap, 534 Loanable funds market for, 380–388 supply and demand for, 380–382 Long run aggregate-supply curve, 499–502 costs in, 247–249 decision to exit or enter a market, 264 equilibrium, 509 interest rates in, 530 market supply with entry and exit, 266–268 rent control, 115–116 shift in demand, 269 supply curve might slope upward, 269–271 Long-run growth Inflation and, 502 importance of, 368 Long-term unemployment, rise of, 417 Losses See Deadweight loss of exporting country, 174–175 of importing country, 175–177 Luxuries income elasticity of demand and, 97 price elasticity of demand and, 90 Luxury tax, 127 m Mackereleconomics, 438–439 Macroeconomics, 29, 308 analyzing fluctuations of, 509 quantities fluctuate together, 490–491 Malawi, elephants as private good, 229 Market-clearing price, 77 McTeer, Robert D., Jr., 14–15 Medicare, 124 Marginal benefits, Marginal buyer, 137 Marginal change, Marginal cost, 6, 243–246, 244, 250, 298 Marginal cost (MC) curve, 244–246, 259–261 Marginal firm, 271 Marginal product, 240, 241 Marginal propensity to consume (MPC), 537 Marginal revenue (MR), 258, 259 Medium of exchange, 375, 437 Menu costs, 474, 505 Mexico 563 tax, 162 curve for monopoly, 282 for competitive firm, 257 monopoly, 280, 281 Marginal seller, 143 Marginal tax rate, 162 Market(s), 66 See Competitive market bond, 372–373 competition and, 66–67 definition of, 90–91 efficiency of, 135–136 financial, 372, 372–374 firm’s long-run decision to exit or enter, 264 for goods and services, 24–26 for insurance, 397–398 for loanable funds, 380, 380–388 for the factors of production, 24–26 perfectly competitive, 66 stock, 373–374 Market demand, 68–69 Market economy, 10, 10–11 Market efficiency, 145–151 Market equilibrium, evaluating, 146–149 Market failure, 12, 12–13, 150–151, 299 See also Externality government budget deficits and surpluses, 384–386 investment incentives, 384 savings incentives, 382–383 supply and demand for loanable funds, 380–382 Market forces of supply and demand, 65 Market inefficiency, externalities and, 197–202 Market irrationality, 406 Market outcomes price ceilings and, 112–113 price floors and, 116–117 taxes on buyers and, 123–124 taxes on sellers and, 121–123 Market power, 13, 151, 256, 277 Market risk, 399 Market supply as sum of individual supplies, 75 vs individual supply, 73–74 with entry and exit, long run, 266–268 with fixed number of firms, short run, 266 Market value, GDP is, 310–312 Market-based policies, 202, 203–207 economic growth of, 349 GDP and quality of life in, 324 living standards in, 13 middle-income country, 350–351 NAFTA and, 187 underground economy in, 320–321 Microeconomics, 29, 308 Microsoft Corporation, 275–276, 295–296 Middle East, source of crude oil, 518–520 Midpoint method, 91–92 Minimum wage, 117–119, 424 Minimum wage laws, 120–121, 422–424 Model of aggregate demand and aggregate supply, 493, 493–520 Monetary control, Fed’s tools of, 448–455 Monetary equilibrium, 461–462 Monetary injection, 463–464, 532 Monetary neutrality, 465–466, 466 Fischer effect, 471 revisited, 511 Monetary policy, 442 aggregate demand and, 526–535 effects of monetary injection, 463–464 expansionary, 534 free-silver debate, 478–479 influence of on aggregate demand, 525–526 role of interest-rate targets in Fed policy, 533–534 stabilization policy arguments, 541–545 zero lower bound, 534 Monetary system, 435–436 banks and the money supply, 443–448 Federal Reserve system, 441–443, 448–455 meaning of money, 436–441 Money, 436 commodity, 437 creation with fractional-reserve banking, 444–445 credit cards and, 440 during hyperinflations, 468 fiat, 438 functions of, 437 future value, 394 in U.S economy, 439–440 kinds of, 437–438 measuring time value of, 394–396 present value, 394–396 quantity theory of, 460, 463 value of, 461 velocity of, 466–468 Money demand, 461–462 theory of liquidity preference, 529 Money growth, inflation and, 459–460 Money market, equilibrium in, 528 Money multiplier, 445–447, 446 564 index Money supply, 442, 461–462 of 2008–2009, 447–448 bank runs and, 452 banks and, 443–448 changes in, 532–533 creation with fractional-reserve banking, 444–445 discount rate, 449 Fed’s tools of monetary control, 448–455 Great Depression, 512–513 inflation and, 15 monetary neutrality, 466 money multiplier, 445–447 open-market operations, 449 problems in controlling, 451 reserve requirements, 450–451 theory of liquidity preference, 527–528 Monopoly, 67, 275–276, 276, 276–279 antitrust laws, 295–297 deadweight loss and, 287–289 drugs vs generic drugs, 285–286 economies of scale as, 278 government-created, 277–278 inefficiency of, 288–289 natural, 219, 278–279 prevalence of, 299–300 price discrimination, 290–294 production and pricing decisions, 279–286 profit maximization, 282–284 profit of, 284–285 public ownership, 299, public policy toward, 294–299 regulation, 297–298 resources, 276, 277 revenue of, 280–282 social cost, 289 supply curve and, 284 vs competition, 279–280, 300 welfare cost of, 286–289 National Highway Traffic Safety 515 National Institutes of Health, 221, 364 National Labor Relations Act of 1935, 515 National Labor Relations Board (NLRB), 425 National saving, 378 National Science Foundation, 221, 364 Nationals, 313 National-security argument for trade restrictions, 184–185 Natural disasters, price and, 82–83 Natural monopoly, 219, 278, 278–279 Natural rate of output, 501 Natural rate of unemployment, 410, 412 Natural resources, 353, 354 aggregate-supply curve shifts arising from changes in, 501 limit to growth, 355–356 per worker, 354 population growth stretching of, 364–365 Negative correlation 42 Negative externality, 196, 198–199, 208 Net exports, 314, 315, 496–498 Net national product (NNP), 313 New York Stock Exchange, 374 Newton, Isaac, 22 Nigeria average income in, 347 GDP and quality of life in, 324 living standards in, 13 Nominal GDP, 316, 467 numerical example of real vs., 316–317 real GDP vs., 315–319 velocity and the quantity equation, 466 Moral hazard, insurance, 398 Morris, Eric A., 226 Mortgage defaults, 515–516 Mortgage-backed securities, 513 Multiplier effect, 536–538 Municipal bonds, 373 Murray, Sara, 417, 420–421 Muskie, Edmund, 207 Mutual funds, 375, 375–376 Myth of the Great Depression, The (Potts), 491 Nominal interest rate, 339–341, 340, 527 n o Nader, Ralph, NAFTA See North American Free Trade Agreement Nagel, Stefan, 491 Namibia, elephants as private good, 229 NASDAQ (National Association of Securities Dealers Automated Quotation system), 374 National defense, 221 Fisher effect, 471 in U.S economy, 341 inflation rate and, 472 Nominal variables, 465 Normal good, 70, 97 Normative statements, 30–31, 31 North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), 187 Nutrition, health and, 360–362 Obama, Barack, 16, 181, 208–209, 442, 516 antitrust policy, 296–297 Observation, 22–23 Oceans, common resources, 228 Ohanian, Lee E., 515 Oil industry economy and shifts in aggregate supply, 518–520 OPEC and price of oil, 103–105 price ceilings and lines at gas pump, 114–115 Omitted variable, 46–47 100-percent-reserve banking, 443–444 OPEC See Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries Open economies, 378 Open-market operations, 443, 449, 534 Opportunity cost, 6, 27, 54, 54–55, 236–238 Optimum, social, 198, 200 Ordered pair, 41 Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) application of supply, demand, and elasticity, 103–105 failure to keep price of oil high, 103–105 increase in price of crude oil, 114–115 oil and economy, 518–520 Organs (human), market for, 149–150 Origin, of graph, 41 Output, 530 effect, 281 efficient level of, 287 full-employment, 501 levels of, 283 natural rate of, 501 potential, 501 unemployment rises as output falls, 491–492 Outsourcing, 183, 184–185 Outward-oriented policies, 363 p Pakistan economic growth of, 349 GDP and quality of life in, 324 Parker, Jonathan A., 490–491 Patent, expiration of, 286 Patent laws, 277–278 Patent protection, 201–202 Paying interest on reserves, 451 Payroll tax, burden of, 124–125 Peltzman, Sam, Perfect price discrimination, 291–292 Perfectly competitive markets, 66, 256 Perfectly elastic demand, 92 Perfectly elastic supply, 99 Perfectly inelastic demand, 92 Perfectly inelastic supply, 99 Perpetuity, bonds, 373 Personal income, 313 Peru, underground economy in, 320–321 Physical capital, 353–354 Pie chart, 40 Pigou, Arthur, 203 Pigovian taxes, 203 Poland, hyperinflation in, 468 Political failure, 299 Pollution as negative externality, 226 cap and trade, 208–209 index clean air and water as common resource, 226 corrective taxes and, 203–204 Price elasticity of demand, 90, 90–97 98–101 , 116–117 203–204 gas tax, 205 objections to economic analysis of, 207–209 regulation and, 203 social optimum and, 198 tradable pollution permits, 205–207 Price level, 495–497, 530 Price maker, 275 Price of trade, 56 Price takers, 66, 174, 256, 275 Pricing Population breakdown in 2009, 411 Population growth, economic growth and, 364–368 “Population Growth and Technological Change: One Million B.C to 1990” (Kremer), 368 Portfolio, mutual funds, 375 Positive correlation, 42 Positive externalities, 196, 199–202 Positive statements, 30–31, 31 Potential output, 501 Potts, David, 491 Poverty, fighting, as public good, 221–222 Present value, 394–396 Price(s), 375 See Consumer Price Index allocation of resources and, 84 control on, 112–121, 119–121 during hyperinflations, 468 equilibrium, 77 higher price raises producer surplus, 144–145 input prices and supply, 74–76 level of, 461 lower price raises consumer surplus, 138–139 market-clearing, 77 natural disasters and, 82–83 of related goods and demand, 70 quantity demanded and, 67–68 quantity supplied and, 73, 74 relative-price variability, 474–475 shortages and, 78 surplus and, 77–78 when supply and demand shifts, 83 willingness to pay, 136–137 world, 173 Price-earnings ratio, 375 Price-gouging, 83 Price ceiling, 112 binding constraint, 112 lines at gas pump, 114–115 market outcomes and, 112–113 not binding, 112 rent control, 115–116 Price discrimination, 290, 290–294 analytics of, 291–293 economic welfare and, 291 examples of, 293–294 moral of story, 291 parable about pricing, 290–291 rational strategy for a profit-maximizing monopolist, 291 willingness to pay and, 291 Price effect, 281 Public goods, 217–218, 218, 218–224, 278, 364 Public policy, 13 See also Antitrust laws; Fiscal policy; Monetary policy diminishing returns and catch-up effect, 357–358 economic growth and, 356–368 education and, 359–360 free trade and, 363–364 health and nutrition, 360–362 investment from abroad, 358–359 job search and, 419–420 population growth and, 364–368 property rights and political stability, 362–363 research and development, 364 saving and investment, 356–357 toward externalities, 202–209 average-cost, 298 congestion, 226–227 dynamics of pricing tickets, 294–295 marginal-cost, 298 value, 226–227 Pricing decisions, monopoly and, 279–286 Principal, bonds, 373 Principles of Political Economy and Taxation (Ricardo), 57 Private goods, 218, 218–219 Private saving, 379 Procter & Gamble Co., 298 Producer price index, 333 Producer surplus, 141, 150 Product, brand-name, 285 Production cost of, 235–236 factors of, 24–26, 353 growth and, 347–348 process, 277 resources, limited quantities of, 269–271 within country, GDP measures value of, 311 within specific interval of time, GDP measures value of, 311 Production and costs, 239–241 Production function, 239, 239–241, 355 illustration, 358 to total-cost curve, 241 total cost and, 239 Production possibilities frontier, 26, 26–29, 50–52 Productivity, 14, 353 determinants of, 352–356 health and nutrition affects, 360–362 human capital per worker, 354 importance of, 352–353 living standards and, 14, 353 natural resources per worker, 354 physical capital per workers, 353–354 production function, 355 technological knowledge, 354–355 Profit, 236 accounting, 238 as area between price and average total cost, 266 economic, 238 measuring in graph for competitive firm, 264–265 of monopoly, 284–285 Profit maximization, 258–265, 282–284 Property rights, 11 economic growth and, 362–363 importance of, 229 technology and, 202 565 Public policy toward monopolies, 294–299 Public saving, 379 Purchasing power, inflation and, 472–473 q Quality change in, and CPI, 335 efficiency wages and, 427 theory of efficiency wages and worker quality, 427 Quantity equilibrium, 77 of reserves, Fed influences, 449–450 when supply and demand shifts, 83 Quantity demanded, 67 change in, 80–81 relationship between price and, 67–68 Quantity discounts, example of price discrimination, 294 Quantity equation, 466–468, 467 Quantity supplied, 73 Quantity theory of money, 460, 463 Quotas, import, 35, 179 r Random walk, 402 index funds and, 403–405 Rational people, Reagan, Ronald, 34, 460 government debt and, 388 tax cuts under, 165 Real GDP, 317 economic fluctuations and, 488–494 growth in U.S since 1900, 512 numerical example of nominal vs., 316–317 of various countries, 324 over recent history, 318–319 vs nominal GDP, 315–319 566 index Real interest rate, 339–341, 340, 527 Robinson Crusoe, (Defoe), 352 Fisher effect, 471 in U.S economy, 341 Real variables, 465 Recession, 388, 487 cultural and social effect of, 490–491 jobless benefits and, 420–421 of 2008–2009, 513–516 real GDP and, 318 Reefer Madness: Sex, Drugs and Cheap Labor in the American Black Market (Schlosser), 321 Regulation of externalities, 203 public policy toward monopolies, 297–298 Reis, Ricardo, 566 Relative-price variability and misallocation of resources, 474–475 Rent control, 35 evaluating price controls, 120–121 in short run and long run, 115–116 price ceiling, 115–116 Rent subsidies, 120–121 Research and development, 364 basic, as public good, 221 grants, 364 Reserve ratio, 444, 450–451 Reserve requirement, 444, 450, 450–451 Reserves, 444, 449–451 Resources common, 217–218, 218, 218–219, 224–229, 278 limited quantities of production, 269–271 monopoly, 276, 277 natural, 353, 354, 501 prices and allocation of, 84 relative-price variability and misallocation of, 474–475 scarcity of, Retail sales, measuring a nation’s income, 308 Retained earnings, 313 Revenue See Total revenue average, 257 marginal, 258 of competitive firm, 256–258 of monopoly, 280–282 tax, 157 total, 236 Reverse causality, 47–48 Rhodes, Cecil, 277 Ricardo, David, 57 Rickard, Lisa, 296 Right-to-work laws, 425 Risk and return, trade-off between, 399–400 firm-specific, 399 managing, 396–400 market, 399 Risk aversion, 396, 396–397 Rivalry in consumption, 218, 218–219 Road congestion, gasoline tax and, 204 Singapore economic growth rate of, 348 pursued outward-oriented policies, 363 trade and distribution of income, 185 Roosevelt, Franklin D., 515 Ruhm, Christopher J., 491 Rule of 70, 396 Russia GDP and quality of life in, 324 inflation rate, 460 Ruth, Babe, 329 s Slope, 44–46 Smith, Adam, 11, 12, 32–33, 57, 149, 249, 321 Smith, M Patricia, 120 Smoking, reducing, 71–73 Social cost, 198 monopoly’s profit, 289 Social optimum education and, 200 pollution and, 198 Sachs, Jeffrey, 366 Sarkozy, Nicolas, 322 Saudi Arabia, source of crude oil, 518–520 Saving, 371–372, 378 and investment in national income accounts, 377–380 as supply for loanable funds, 382–383 defined, 379–380 economic growth and, 356–357 inflation raises tax burden on, 476 national, 378 private, 379 public, 379 Savings incentives, 382–383 Scarcity, Scatterplot, 41 Scheck, Justin, 438 Schlosser, Eric, 321 Schumpeter, Joseph, 33 Scientific method, 22–23 Seasonal adjustment, 312 Sectoral shifts, 419 Securitization, 513 Senegal, economic growth rate of, 348 Shadow economy, 320–321 Shapiro, Matthew, 515 Shaw, George Bernard, 34, 350 Sherman Antitrust Act, 295–296 Shoeleather costs, 473, 473–474 Short run aggregate-supply curve slopes upward in 502–506 costs in, 247–249 increase in demand, 270 interest rates in, 530 market supply with fixed number of firms, 266 rent control, 115–116 shift in demand, 269 Shortage, 78 lines at gas pump, 114–115 price ceilings and, 113 Short-run economic fluctuations, 489, 492–494 Siegel, Jeremy, 404–405 Sierra Club, 210 Social sanctions, private solution to externalities, 210 Social Security, 124 indexation of benefits under, 338–339 tax, 162 Society decisions faced by, 3–4 faces short-run trade-off between inflation and unemployment, 16 South Korea caloric consumption and height of population, 360 economic growth rate of, 348 GDP to investment, 358 pursued outward-oriented policies, 363 trade and distribution of income, 185 unilateral approach to free trade, 186 Soviet Union, collapse of communism in, 10 Specialization driving force of, 54–59 economies of scale and, 249 trade and, 52–54 Specific technological knowledge, 221 Specter, Arlen, 298 Speculative bubble, 406 Stabilization automatic stabilizers, 545–546 policy arguments, 541–545 Stagflation, 517 Stagnation, 517 Standard & Poor’s 500 Index, 374, 405 Standard of living determinants of, 13–14 relationship between productivity and, 14 Standard Oil, Sherman Antitrust Act and, 296 Statistical discrepancy, 312, 313 Stein, Charles, 148 Sticky-price theory, aggregate-supply curve and, 505 Sticky-wage theory, aggregate-supply curve and, 504–505 Stigler, George, 299 Stiglitz, Joseph E., 322–323 Still Stuck in Traffic Coping With Peak-Hour Traffic Congestion (Downs), 226 Stock, 373 cartoonist’s guide to picking, 402–403 index diversification of firm-specific risk, 398–399 fundamental analysis, 401 market irrationality, 406 random walks and index funds, 403–405 Stock index, 374 Stock market, 373–374, 534–535 Stockman, David, 165 Store of value, 375, 437 Strike, 425 Structural unemployment, 418, 422–424 Stumbling on Happiness (Gilbert), 491 Subprime borrowers, 513 Subsidies market-based policy, 203–205 rent, 120–121 wage, 120–121 Substitutes, 70 cross-price elasticity of demand, 98 price elasticity of demand and, 90 Substitution bias, 333 Summers, Lawrence H., 32–33, 421 Sunk cost, 261, 262, 262–263 Supply, 73–76 See See Aggregate supply; Money supply applications of, 101–106 change in, 80–81 computing price elasticity of, 98–99 decrease in, 74, 81 elasticity of, 98–101 excess, 77–78 increase in, 74, 102 individual, 73–74 inelastic, 98 input prices and, 74–76 law of, 73 market vs individual, 73–74 number of sellers and, 76 perfectly elastic, 99 perfectly inelastic, 99 price elasticity of, 98, 100, 101 relationship between price and quantity supplied, 73 technology and, 76 Supply and demand, 65, 77–84, 111–112 Supply curve, 73 in competitive market, 265–271 monopoly and, 284 price elasticity of supply, 99–101 shifts in, 74–76 shifts in vs movements along, 79–80 supply schedule and, 74, 142 using to measure producer surplus, 142–143 variety of, 99–101 Supply schedule, 73 supply curve and, 74, 142 Supply-side economics and Laffer curve, 165–166 Surplus, 77 See also Consumer surplus; Producer surplus; Total surplus price floors and, 117 Sweden 320–321 Synergies, 296–297 t Taiwan economic growth rate of, 348 pursued outward-oriented policies, 363 trade and distribution of income, 185 Tangible goods, GDP includes, 311 Tanzania, elephant poaching, 229 Tariffs, 35, 177 compared to import quotas, 179 deadweight loss and, 178 effects of in international trade, 177–179 on Chinese tires, 181 Tax burden divided, 126 Tax cuts under Kennedy, 544–545 Tax incidence, 121, 125–127 Tax revenue, 157 deadweight loss and, 163–166 Tax treatment, bonds, 373 Taxation, costs of, 155–156 Taxes, 121–127 carbon, 208–209 changes in, 540–541 corrective, 203 cuts under Reagan, 165 deadweight loss of taxation, 156–160, 163–166 gas, 204–205 incidence, 121 inflation, 468–470 Laffer curve and supply-side economics, 165–166 luxury, 127 new research on taxation, 166 on buyers, market outcomes and, 123–124 on labor, 162–163 on sellers, market outcomes and, 121–123 payroll, 124–125 Pigovian, 203 Technological knowledge, 353, 354, 354–355 aggregate-supply curve shifts arising from changes in, 501–502 specific, 221 Technological progress, population growth promoting of, 367–368 Technology shifts in supply curve and, 76 spillovers, 201–202 Teenage labor market, minimum wage and, 118–119 Temporary Assistance for Needy Families program, 221 Term, bonds, 373 567 Textile market, 172–188 Thailand, underground economy in, 320–321 Theory, 22–23 Theory of efficiency wages, 426–429 Theory of inflation, 460–472 Theory of liquidity preference, 527, 527–529 Ticket scalping, 148–149 Time horizon, price elasticity of demand, 91 Time value of money, measuring, 394–396 Time-series graph, 40, 41 Toll roads, 226–227 Total cost, 236, 250 average, 243, 250 production function and, 239 Total revenue, 94, 95, 236 along a linear demand curve, 96–97 for competitive firm, 257 monopoly, 280, 281 price elasticity of demand and, 94–96 Total surplus, 145–146, 148 Total-cost curve, 241, 243 from production function to, 241 production function and, 240 Tradable permits, 37 Tradable pollution permits, market-based policy, 205–207 Trade See also Free trade; Gains from trade; International trade agreements and World Trade Organization, 186–187 barriers, 35 benefits of, 10 comparative advantage and, 55–56 deadweight losses and gains from, 159–160 equilibrium without international, 172–173 interdependence and gains from, 49–50 price of, 56 specialization and, 52–54 Trade deficit, measuring a nation’s income, 308 Trade restrictions arguments for, 182–187 infant-industry argument for, 185–186 jobs argument for, 182–183 national-security argument, 184–185 protection-as-a-bargaining-chip argument, 186 tariffs, 35 unfair-competition argument for, 186 Trade skirmishes, 181 Trade-offs, 4–5 between inflation and unemployment, 16 between risk and return, 399–400 policy decisions and, 31 production possibilities frontier and, 27–28 Traffic, congested roads as public goods or common resources, 227–228 Tragedy of the Commons, 224, 224–225 Transaction costs, 212 Transfer payments, 314 568 index Transportation real GDP growth since 1900, 512 in basket of goods of CPI, 332 incentive pay for bus drivers, Truman, Harry, 31 Trustbusters, 296–297 Turnover, efficiency wages and, 427 u Uganda, elephant poaching, 229 Underground economy, 163, 320–321 Unemployment, 409–410 chronic joblessness, 417 cyclical, 410, 413 efficiency wages and, 426–429 frictional, 417 how long without work, 416 identifying, 410–418 incentives and, 420–421 job search and, 418–422 measuring a nation’s income, 308 measuring of, 410–413 minimum-wage laws and, 422–424 natural rate of, 410, 412 rise of long-term, 417 rises as output falls, 491–492 short-run trade-off between inflation and, 16 structural, 418 Unemployment insurance, 420, 420–422 Unemployment rate, 411 measures, 414–415 since 1960, 413 Unfair-competition argument for trade restrictions, 186 Union, 424 as type of cartel, 426 collective bargaining and, 424–426 economics of, 425 good or bad for economy, 426 type of cartel, 425 Unit elasticity, 92 Unit of account, 437 United Kingdom advanced economy, 350 economic growth of, 349 underground economy in, 320–321 United States average income in, 347 cap and trade, 208–209 carbon tax, 208–209 economic growth of, 349 GDP and quality of life in, 324 GDP to investment, 358 government debt, history of, 386–388 inflation in, 15 inflation rate, 460 international trade with, 58 labor taxes, 166 living standards in, 13–14 NAFTA and, 187 various laws to manage use of fish and other wildlife, 228 United States economy financial institutions in, 372–376 interest rates in, 341 labor-force participation of men and women in, 413–414 measures of money stock for, 441 money in, 439–440 Unpaid internships, 120 Unsafe at Any Speed (Nader), Urbanization, carbon emissions and, 200–201 U.S Chamber Institute for Legal Reform, 296 U.S Department of Commerce, 315 U.S Supreme Court, antitrust laws, 296 U-shaped average total cost, 245–246 Utility concept of, 397 function, 397 v Value pricing, 226–227 Values, differences among economists in, 34–35 Variable costs, 242, 242–243, 250 average, 244, 250 Variable tolling, 226–227 Variables graphs of single, 40–41 graphs of two, 41–42 nominal, 465 omitted, 46–47 real, 465 that influence buyers, 71 that influence sellers, 76 Varian, Hal R., 294–295 Vascellaro, Jessica E., 37 Velocity of money, 466, 466–468 Venezuela, inflation rate, 460 Verizon Communications Inc., 298 Vissing-Jorgenson, Annette, 490–491 w Wage subsidies, 120–121 Wage-price spiral, 517 Wages efficiency, 426, 426–429 $5-a-day, 428–429 free trade and, 184–185 minimum, 117–119 sticky-wage theory, 504–505 theory of efficiency, 426–429 Wagner Act, 425 Water distribution as natural monopoly, 278 Wealth, arbitrary redistributions of, 477–478 Wealth effect, 495, 526 Wealth of Nations, The (Smith), 12 Welfare effects of free trade, 174 effects of tariffs, 178 in monopolized market, 289 system, 221–222 tax affects, 158 Welfare cost of monopoly, 286–289 Welfare economics, 136–141, 157–159, 197 Willingness to pay, 136, 136–137 price discrimination and, 291 Willingness to sell, cost and, 141–142 Wonderful Wizard of Oz, The (Baum), 478–479 Worker discouraged, 415 effort, 428 health, 427 human capital per, 354 natural resources, 354 physical capital per, 353–354 quality, 427 turnover, 427 World, economic growth around, 348–352 World price, 173 World Trade Organization (WTO), 181, 186–187 World War II, shift in aggregate demand, 512–513 x y X-coordinate, 41 Y-coordinate, 41 z Zero lower bound, 534 Zero profit, 268–269 Zimbabwe elephants as private good, 229 hyperinflation in, 470 inflation rate, 460 underground economy in, 320–321