Handbook of pollution prevention practices

Handbook of Pollution Prevention Practices Nicholasf! Cheremisinoff N&P Consultants, Limited Harpers Ferry, West Virginia MARCEL MARCEL DEKKER, INC 111 a% DBKKER NEW YORK l RASEI ISBN: o-8247-0542-4 This book is printed on acid-free paper Headquarters Marcel Dekkcr, Inc 270 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 100I6 tel: 12-696-9000; fax: 12-685-4540 Eastern Hemisphere Distribution Marcel Dekker AG Hutgasse 4, Postfach 12, W-400 Bascl, Switzerland tel: 41-61-261-8482; fax: 41-61-261-8896 World Wide Web http://www.dekker com The publisher offers discounts on this book when ordered in bulk quantities For more information, write to Special Sales/Professional Marketing at the headquarters address above Copyright 2001 by Marcel Dekker, Inc All Rights Reserved Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted m any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher Current printing (last digit): 10987654321 PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERKA PREFACE Pollution Prevention, rather than concentratingon the treatmentand disposalof wastes, focuseson the elimination or reduction of undesired byproducts within the production process itself In the long run, pollution prevention through waste minimization and cleaner production is more cost-effective and environmentally sound than traditional pollution control methods Pollution prevention techniques apply to any manufacturing process and range from relatively easy operational changesand good housekeepingpracticesto more extensivechangessuch as making substitutions for toxic substances,the implementation of clean technology, and the installation of state-of-the-artrecovery equipment Pollution prevention can improve plant efficiency, enhance the quality and quantity of natural resources for production, and make it possible to invest more financial resources in economic development In the United States,pollution prevention (P2) practices have resuhed in many millions of dollars in operational cost savings These savings have Iargely been achieved through incremental savings associated with both direct and indirect benefits Someof the benefits that translate into direct savingsinclude reducedO&M costsassociatedwith eiimination of end-of-pipe pollution controls, cost savingsfrom elimination of transport and off-site disposal of wastes,elimination of large capital investments into pollution control technologies, reduced permit fees for pollution controls and discharges,and raw materials and energy savings Someof the indirect savings associatedwith P2 programs include improved productivity of workforces and operations, improvementin product quality, reduction in health risks associated with manufacturing operations and exposure to toxic and hazardous materials, reduced manpower requirements for recordkeeping and permitting, reduced laboratory, analytical, and monitoring services for emissions, and increased consumer confidence in the company, its products, and its services But perhaps among the greatestsavings category associatedwith P2 programs is that related to future liabilities By eliminating or reducing pollution at the source, a company avoids potential liabilities such as off-site disposal to future Superfund sites where liability is always tied to the waste generator This handbookhas been compiled and written as a concise reference source of ideas and approachesto P2 practices.The reader will find useful tablesand matrixes that provide industry-specific suggestions, ideas, and proven technologies and practices Step-wiseproceduresare provided for determining the economic viability of P2 projects and for implementing in-plant assessmentsor P2 audits that can identify cost savings as well as pollution reduction measures Many industry examples and case studies are based on first-hand experiences and audits I have conductedin various international consulting assignments,as well as on a review of the technical, government, and trade literature , 111 iv PREFACE The volume is organized into nine chapters Chapter provides an overview of the principles of waste minimization and pollution prevention and introduces terminology used throughout the book Chapter provides an overview of the properties and environmental fate of priority pollutants (i.e., those pollutants recognized as contributors to global pollution problems), as well as descriptions of standardpollution control equipment Although the goal of pollution prevention is ideally to eliminate pollution, and hence costly control, treatment, and disposal methods, the reality is that end-of-pipe treatment technologies still comprise the majority of techniques needed to manage industry discharges and emissions In addition, many P2 projects will make use of or incorporate theseequipmentchoices and technologies into better solutions for pollution management Thus, it is important to understand the equipment options that are available to us Chapter deals with project fmancing Sometimesinvestmentprojectsin P2 are among the first to be postponedin times of budget shortfalls in companies.This has been due in large part to the inadequatesupport and defensive posture taken by corporations toward environmental projects on an economic basis Typically, when a production division requestsmoney, all the necessarydocumentation, facts, and figures are ready for presentation The production project is justified by showing how the project will increase revenues and how the added revenue will not only recover costs, but substantially increase earnings for the company or company’s operating division as well A P2 project justification requires this sameemphasis To be competitive and to get “management buy-in,” an understanding of the financial system or project financing and “bankability” of a project is essential Financial tools demonstratethe importance of the P2 investment on a life cycle or total cost basis, in terms of revenues, expenses, and profits In this chapter, the principles and practices of cost accounting are discussedand applied to industry examples Chapter covers the audit, or thepollution prevention in-phti assessment.This chapter provides a stepwiseapproachto conducting a P2 audit aimed at identifying waste and pollution reduction, and value-added cost savings that can be captured through energy efficiency, raw materialssavings, productivity gains, product quality improvements, and other incentives The chapter emphasizesa simple spreadsheet approachto performing material balancesthat are neededto assessbenefits derived from a P2 opportunity, as identified through a team approach Chapters through focus attention on specific industry practices The reader will find concise industry profiles that describethe manufacturing technologies,the sources of pollution from within unit processes, and the environmental fates associated with the major pollutants from each process Using these industry profiles, discussions focus on current and recommended P2 practices for each industry covered In many cases, industry-specific P2 action lists are provided PREFACE V Sectors covered include the chemical process industry, the petroleum refining industry, the iron and steel and allied metals refining industries, and a variety of other industry sectors, including pulp and paper, tanneries, food processing, and electronics Chapter provides in-depth casestudies that will give the reader ideas on practical approachesto industry-specific problems Chapter is a summary - pulling together many of the important conceptslaid out in the volume and providing final guidanceon developing and implementing P2 practices within your own company General rules and practical tips are provided in this final chapter Specific references are cited for further readings throughout the book In addition, an extensivelist of abbreviationshas been provided at the beginning of the volume The reader will need to refer to this section often during the reading of chapters Many of the industry profiles and general P2 practices as applied to specific industries were obtained by reviewing publications of the World Bank Organization, the USEPA, the World Health Organization, interviews conductedat industrial sites, and someof my own consulting assignments.It is hoped that many readerswill find this volume useful, and I welcome direct commentsor suggestions for improving the next edition, A special thanks is extendedto Marcel Dekker, Inc., for the fine production of this volume Nicholas P Cheremisinoff, Ph.D This Page Intentionally Left Blank CONTENTS Preface iii Abbreviations xi Chapter Principles of Pollution Prevention and Waste Minimization Introduction WasteAvoidance and Utilization Energy Efficiency The Regulatory Driving Force EMS and IS0 14000 20 Closing Remarks 28 References 28 Chapter Managing Hazardous Chemicals Introduction 30 Airborne Particulate Matter 30 Arsenic 38 Cadmium 40 Lead 42 Mercury 44 Nitrogen Oxides 46 Ground-Level Ozone 54 Sulfur Oxides 63 Pollution Control Equipment 67 References 109 Chapter The Economics of Pollution Prevention Introduction 110 Total Cost and Cost Accounting 111 Establishing Baseline Costs 115 Revenues,Expensesand Cash 120 Interest and Discount Rates 126 Income Taxes 127 Application of Total Cost Assessment 129 The Life Cycle Analysis 137 Final Comments 146 References 149 Chapter The Pollution Prevention Audit vii Vlll CONTENTS Introduction 151 Overview of Pollution Prevention 152 Methodology for P2 Audits 169 References 199 Chapter Pollution Prevention Practices in the Chemical Process Industries Introduction 201 PetrochemicalsManufacturing 202 Chlor-Alkali Plants 11 Agro-Industry Chemicals 13 Coke Manufacturing 230 Dye Manufacturing 236 PharmaceuticalsManufacturing 241 P2 Case Studies 245 Clean Technologies Substitute Assessments25 References 267 Chapter Pollution Prevention Practices in the Petroleum Refining Industry Introduction 269 Industry Description and Practices 270 Material Balance Information 292 Pollution Prevention Practices and Opportunities 298 Closing Remarks 13 Chapter Pollution Prevention Practices in the Metallurgical Industries Introduction 14 Iron and Steel Manufacturing 315 Lead and Zinc Smelting 336 Nickel Ore Processingand Refining 341 Aluminum Manufacturing 344 Copper Smelting 349 Chapter Miscellaneous Industry Practices and Case Studies Introduction 353 Pulp and Paper Industry 353 Sugar Manufacturing 358 Tanning and Leather Finishing 360 Breweries 363 Cement Manufacturing 366 Vegetable Oil 369 CONTENTS Wood Preserving 371 Electronics Manufacturing 373 Electroplating 378 Foundries 382 Fruit and Vegetable Processing 385 Glass Manufacturing 386 Meat Processingand Rendering 389 Printing Industry 391 Textiles 394 Coal Mining and Production 399 Case Studies 402 Chapter Epilogue Introduction 17 The Audit 417 Developing a Track Record 420 Developing Corporate Philosophy 420 Final Remarks 422 Index 423 ix MISCELLANEOUS INDUSTRY PRACTICES AND CASE STUDIES 415 the waste minimization project an evaluation was performed to identify opportunities to reduce the volume of wastewater streams with high biological oxygen demand (BOD) Using a chemical oxygen demand (COD) analyzer it was determined that the wash water from cattle stomach cleaning operations had a high COD content and was a good candidate for reduction- A decision was made to construct a “birdcage” on which cattle stomachscould be stretched during washing, This device facilitated handling by exposing more stomach area for cleaning, and it reduced water use In addition, screens were added to the wash drums to recover organic solids from the final two wash steps As a result of the project the facility reduced COD levels in its wastewater by tons of oxygen/year and reduced fresh water consumption significantly Implementation of a water conservation program and good housekeeping practices conserves raw water supplies - Cleanup of the slaughtering lines involved extensive use of water to hose solids into sewers leading to the wastewater treatment plant Many hoses were not equipped with shutoff nozzles and were left running when not in use These practices resulted in excessive water use and high operating costs During the waste minimization project an evaluation was performed to identify opportunities to reduce the volume of wastewater streams with high biological oxygen demand (BOD) Using a chemical oxygen demand (COD) analyzer it was determined that the wastewater generated from cleanup of slaughter lines had a high COD content and was a good candidate for reduction To accomplish this a training program for supervisors and workers was implemented to emphasize the importance of water conservation and good operating practices, In addition, dry cleanup procedures using squeegeesand clean as you work methods were introduced Finally a program was undertaken to ensure timely repair of leaking nozzles and replacementof missing nozzles, As a result of the project the facility reduced water usageby 316 800 m3/year All of the P2 activities conducted at the enterprise can be described as low cost investments The principle investment made was in a spectrophotometer, that served as the key analytical instrument for water quality testing, Table 21 provides a pollution prevention matrix, which summarizes the reductions of wastewaters and the savings that were achieved based on dollars In total, $13,411 was invested, for which $4,400 was spent on the spectrophotometer alone The collective results were 84 ton/yr reductions in BOD, 373,009 tons/yr reduction in raw water consumption, and a yearly dollar savings of $149,200 This casestudy illustrates how one instrument investment can be applied in a versatile way to capture a number of pollution reductions and dollar savings The collective financial benefits derived and pollution reductions achieved from the I?? activities performed at the meat processing plant are significant They help to During 416 HANDBOOK OF POLLUTION PREVENTION PRACTICES illustrate that by applying pollution prevention practices to a number of small scale problems, sizable savings and emissions reductions can be achieved over time, and with almost immediate payback periods Table 21 Pollution Prevention Matrix for WastewaterReductions Pollution Prevention Reductions in Inves Savings Measure $ Reduction of BOD in wastewatersby recycling waste products to farmers Recovery of organic solids and reduction in water consumption with low cost process modification Implementation of a water conservation program and good housekeepingpractices conservesraw water supplies Changesin operating practices and employee training help to reduce BOD and solid waste Totals Payback Period (months 11,600