applied process design for chemical and petrochemical plants, volume 3

Uploaded by: Ebooks Chemical Engineering https://www.facebook.com/pages/Ebooks-Chemical-Engineering/238197077030 For More Books, softwares & tutorials Related to Chemical Engineering Join Us @facebook: https://www.facebook.com/pages/Ebooks-ChemicalEngineering/238197077030 @facebook: https://www.facebook.com/AllAboutChemcalEngineering @facebook: https://www.facebook.com/groups/10436265147/ ADMIN: I.W 66131_Ludwig_FM 5/30/2001 4:04 PM Page i APPLIED PROCESS D E S I G N FOR CHEMICAL AND PETROCHEMICAL PLANTS Volume 3, Third Edition 66131_Ludwig_FM 5/30/2001 4:04 PM Page ii Volume 1: Volume 2: Distillation Packed Towers Volume 3: 10 11 12 13 14 Process Planning, Scheduling, Flowsheet Design Fluid Flow Pumping of Liquids Mechanical Separations Mixing of Liquids Ejectors Process Safety and Pressure-Relieving Devices Appendix of Conversion Factors Heat Transfer Refrigeration Systems Compression Equipment (Including Fans) Reciprocating Compression Surge Drums Mechanical Drivers ii 66131_Ludwig_FM 5/30/2001 4:04 PM Page iii APPLIED PROCESS D E S I G N FOR CHEMICAL AND PETROCHEMICAL PLANTS Volume 3, Third Edition Ernest E Ludwig Retired Consulting Engineer Baton Rouge, Louisiana Boston Oxford Auckland Johannesburg Melbourne New Delhi 66131_Ludwig_FM 5/30/2001 4:04 PM Page iv 66131_Ludwig_FM 5/30/2001 4:04 PM Page v Contents Foreword to the Second Edition ix Preface to the Third Edition xi 10 Heat Transfer Bundle, 116; Horizontal Tube Bundle, 119; Stepwise Use of Devore Charts, 121; Subcooling, 122; Film Temperature Estimation for Condensing, 123; Condenser Design Procedure, 123; Example 10-10 Total Condenser, 124; RODbaffled® (ShellSide) Exchangers, 129; Condensation Inside Tubes, 129; Example 10-11 Desuperheating and Condensing Propylene in Shell, 134; Example 1012 Steam Heated Feed Preheater—Steam in Shell, 138; Example 10-13 Gas Cooling and Partial Condensing in Tubes, 139; Condensing Vapors in Presence of Noncondensable Gases, 143; Example 10-14 Chlorine-Air Condenser, Noncondensables, Vertical Condenser, 144; Example 10-15 Condensing in Presence of Noncondensables, Colburn-Hougen Method, 148; Multizone Heat Exchange, 154; Fluids in Annulus of Tube-in-Pipe or Double Pipe Exchanger, Forced Convection, 154; Approximation of Scraped Wall Heat Transfer, 154; Heat Transfer in Jacketed, Agitated Vessels/Kettles, 156; Example 10-16 Heating Oil Using High Temperature Heat Transfer Fluid, 157; Pressure Drop, 160; Falling Film Liquid Flow in Tubes, 160; Vaporization and Boiling, 161; Vaporization in Horizontal Shell; Natural Circulation, 164; Vaporization in Horizontal Shell; Natural Circulation, 165; Pool and Nucleate Boiling — General Correlation for Heat Flux and Critical Temperature Difference, 165; Reboiler Heat Balance, 168; Example 10-17 Reboiler Heat Duty after Kern, 169; Kettle Horizontal Reboilers, 169; Nucleate or Alternate Designs Procedure , 173; Kettle Reboiler Horizontal Shells, 174; Horizontal Kettle Reboiler Disengaging Space, 174; Kettel Horizontal Reboilers, Alternate Designs, 174; Example 10-18 Kettle Type Evaporator — Steam in Tubes, 176; Boiling: Nucleate Natural Circulation (Thermosiphon) Inside Vertical Tubes or Outside Horizontal Tubes, 177; Gilmour Method Modified, 178; Suggested Procedure for Vaporization with Sensible Heat Transfer, 181; Procedure for Horizontal Natural Circulation Thermosiphon Reboiler, 182; Kern Method, 182; Vaporization Inside Vertical Tubes; Natural Thermosiphon Action, 182; Fair’s Method, 182; Example 10-19 C3 Splitter Reboiler, 194; Example 10-20 Cyclohexane Column Reboiler, 197; Kern’s Method Stepwise, 198; Other Design Methods, 199; Example 10-21 Vertical Thermosiphon Reboiler, Kern’s Method, 199; Simplified Hajek Method—Vertical Thermosiphon Reboiler, 203; General Guides for Vertical Thermosiphon Reboilers Design, 203; Example 10-22 Hajek’s Method—Vertical Ther- Types of Heat Transfer Equipment Terminology, 1; Details of Exchange Equipment Assembly and Arrangement, 8; Construction Codes, 8; Thermal Rating Standards, 8; Exchanger Shell Types, 8; Tubes, 10; Baffles, 24; Tie Rods, 31; Tubesheets, 32; Tube Joints in Tubesheets, 34 Example 10-1 Determine Outside Heat Transfer Area of Heat Exchanger Bundle, 35; Tubesheet Layouts, 35; Tube Counts in Shells, 35; Exchanger Surface Area, 50; Effective Tube Surface, 51; Effective Tube Length for U-Tube Heat Exchangers, 51; Example 10-2 Use of U-Tube Area Chart, 51; Nozzle Connections to Shell and Heads, 53; Types of Heat Exchange Operations, 53; Thermal Design, 53; Temperature Difference: Two Fluid Transfer, 55; Mean Temperature Difference or Log Mean Temperature Difference, 57; Example 10-3 One Shell Pass, Tube Passes Parallel-Counterflow Exchanger Cross, After Murty, 57; Example 10-4 Performance Examination for Exit Temperature of Fluids, 72; Correction for Multipass Flow through Heat Exchangers, 72; Heat Load or Duty, 74; Example 10-5 Calculation of Weighted MTD, 74; Example 10-6 Heat Duty of a Condenser with Liquid Subcooling, 74; Heat Balance, 74; Transfer Area, 75; Example 10-7 Calculation of LMTD and Correction, 75; Temperature for Fluid Properties Evaluation — Caloric Temperature, 75; Tube Wall Temperature, 76; Fouling of Tube Surface, 78; Overall Heat Transfer Coefficients for Plain or Bare Tubes, 87; Approximate Values for Overall Coefficients, 90; Example 10-8 Calculation of Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient from Individual Components, 90; Film Coefficients with Fluid Inside Tubes, Forced Convection, 94; Film Coefficients with Fluids Outside Tubes, 101; Forced Convection, 101; Shell-Side Equivalent Tube Diameter, 102; Shell-Side Velocities, 107; Design Procedure for Forced Convection Heat Transfer in Exchanger Design, 109; Example 10-9 Convection Heat Transfer Exchanger Design, 112; Spiral Coils in Vessels, 116; Tube-Side Coefficient, 116; Outside Tube Coefficients, 116; Condensation Outside Tube Bundles, 116; Vertical Tube v 66131_Ludwig_FM 5/30/2001 4:04 PM Page vi Example 11-1 Barometric Steam Jet Refrigeration, 299; Absorption Refrigeration, 299; Ammonia System, 299; General Advantages and Features, 301; Capacity, 301; Performance, 301; Example 112 Heat Load Determination for Single-Stage Absorption Equipment, 302; Lithium Bromide Absorption for Chilled Water, 305; Mechanical Refrigeration, 308; Compressors, 309; Condensers, 311; Process Evaporator, 311; Compressors, 311; Purge, 312; Process Performance, 312; Refrigerants, 312; ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 341992, “Number Designation and Safety Classification of Refrigerants”, 312; System Performance Comparison, 319; Hydrocarbon Refrigerants, 321; Example 11-3 Single-Stage Propane Refrigeration System, Using Charts of Mehra, 322; Example 114 Two-Stage Propane Refrigeration System, Using Charts of Mehra, 328; Hydrocarbon Mixtures and Refrigerants, 328; Liquid and Vapor Equilibrium, 333; Example 11-5 Use of Hydrocarbon Mixtures as Refrigerants (Used by Permission of the Carrier Corporation.), 333; Example 11-6 Other Factors in Refrigerant Selection Costs, 350; System Design and Selection, 353; Example 11-7 300-Ton Ammonia Refrigeration System, 353; Receiver, 359; Example 11-8 200-Ton Chloro-Fluor-Refrigerant-12, 361; Economizers, 361; Suction Gas Superheat, 362; Example 11-9 Systems Operating at Different Refrigerant Temperatures, 362; Compound Compression System, 363; Comparison of Effect of System Cycle and Expansion Valves on Required Horsepower, 363; Cascade Systems, 363; Cryogenics, 364; Nomenclature, 365; Subscripts, 366; References, 366; Bibliography, 366 mosiphon Reboiler, 204; Reboiler Piping, 207; Film Boiling, 207; Vertical Tubes, Boiling Outside, Submerged, 207; Horizontal Tubes: Boiling Outside, Submerged, 208; Horizontal Film or Cascade Drip-Coolers—Atmospheric, 208; Design Procedure, 208; Pressure Drop for Plain Tube Exchangers, 210; A Tube Side, 210; B Shell Side, 211; Alternate: Segmental Baffles Pressure Drop, 215; Finned Tube Exchangers, 218; Low Finned Tubes, 16 and 19 Fins/In., 218; Finned Surface Heat Transfer, 219; Economics of Finned Tubes, 220; Tubing Dimensions, Table 10-39, 221; Design for Heat Transfer Coefficients by Forced Convection Using Radial Low-Fin tubes in Heat Exchanger Bundles, 221; Design Procedure for Shell-Side Condensers and Shell-Side Condensation with Gas Cooling of Condensables, Fluid-Fluid Convection Heat Exchange, 224; Design Procedure for Shell-Side Condensers and Shell-Side Condensation with Gas Cooling of Condensables, FluidFluid Convection Heat Exchange, 224; Example 10-23 Boiling with Finned Tubes, 227; Double Pipe Finned Tube Heat Exchangers, 229; Miscellaneous Special Application Heat Transfer Equipment, 234; A Plate and Frame Heat Exchangers, 234; B Spiral Heat Exchangers, 234; C Corrugated Tube Heat Exchangers, 235; D Heat Transfer Flat (or Shaped) Panels, 235; E Direct Steam Injection Heating, 236; F Bayonet Heat Exchangers, 239; G Heat-Loss Tracing for Process Piping, 239; Example 10-24 Determine the Number of Thermonized® Tracers to Maintain a Process Line Temperature, 243; H Heat Loss for Bare Process Pipe, 245; I Heat Loss through Insulation for Process Pipe, 246; Example 10-25 Determine Pipe Insulation Thickness, 248; J Direct-Contact GasLiquid Heat Transfer, 249; Example 10-26 Determine Contact Stages Actually Required for Direct Contact Heat Transfer in Plate-Type Columns, 251; General Application, 259; Advantages— Air-Cooled Heat Exchangers, 260; Disadvantages, 260; Bid Evaluation, 260; Design Considerations (Continuous Service), 263; Mean Temperature Difference, 267; Design Procedure for Approximation, 269; Tube-Side Fluid Temperature Control, 271; Heat Exchanger Design with Computers, 271; Nomenclature, 273; Greek Symbols, 278; Subscripts, 279; References, 279; Bibliography, 285 11 Refrigeration Systems 12 Compression Equipment (Including Fans) General Application Guide, 368; Specification Guides, 369; General Considerations for Any Type of Compressor Flow Conditions, 370; Reciprocating Compression, 371; Mechanical Considerations, 371; Performance Considerations, 380; Specification Sheet, 380; Compressor Performance Characteristics, 410; Example 12-1 Interstage Pressure and Ratios of Compression, 415; Example 12-2 Single-Stage Compression, 430; Example 12-3 Two-Stage Compression, 431; Solution of Compression Problems Using Mollier Diagrams, 433; Horsepower, 433; Example 12-4 Horsepower Calculation Using Mollier Diagram, 433; Cylinder Unloading, 442; Example 12-5 Compressor Unloading, 445; Example 12-6 Effect of Compressibility at High Pressure, 448; Air Compressor Selection, 450; Energy flow, 451; ConstantT system, 454; Polytropic System, 454; Constant-S System, 455; Example 12-7 Use of Figure 12-35 Air 289 Types of Refrigeration Systems, 289; Terminology, 289; Selection of a Refrigeration System for a Given Temperature Level and Heat Load, 289; Steam Jet Refrigeration, 290; Materials of Construction, 291; Performance, 291; Capacity, 293; Operation, 295; Utilities, 295; Specification, 296; vi 368 66131_Ludwig_FM 5/30/2001 4:04 PM Page vii Cylinder, 591; Parallel Multicylinder Arrangement Using Common Surge Drum, 592; Pipe Sizes for Surge Drum Systems2, 12, 593; Example 13-1 Surge Drums and Piping for Double-Acting, Parallel Cylinder, Compressor Installation, 593; Example 13-2 Single Cylinder Compressor, Single Acting, 596; Frequency of Pulsations, 596; Compressor Suction and Discharge Drums, 597; Design Method — Acoustic Low Pass Filters, 597; Example 13-3 Sizing a Pulsation Dampener Using Acoustic Method, 602; Design Method — Modified NACA Method for Design of Suction and Discharge Drums, 608; Example 13-4 Sample Calculation, 609; Pipe Resonance, 611; Mechanical Considerations: Drums/Bottles and Piping, 612; Nomenclature, 613; Greek, 614; Subscripts, 614; References, 614; Bibliography, 614 Chart (©W T Rice), 455; Centrifugal Compressors, 455; Mechanical Considerations, 455; Specifications, 470; Performance Characteristics, 479; Inlet Volume, 480; Centrifugal Compressor Approximate Rating by the “N” Method, 491; Compressor Calculations by the Mollier Diagram Method, 493; Example 12-8 Use of Mollier Diagram, 495; Example 12-9 Comparison of Polytropic Head and Efficiency with Adiabatic Head and Efficiency, 496; Example 12-10 Approximate Compressor Selection, 500; Operating Characteristics, 504; Example 12-11 Changing Characteristics at Constant Speed, 509; Example 12-12 Changing Characteristics at Variable Speed, 510; Expansion Turbines, 512; Axial Compressor, 513; Operating Characteristics, 513; Liquid Ring Compressors, 516; Operating Characteristics, 517; Applications, 518; Rotary Two-Impeller (Lobe) Blowers and Vacuum Pumps, 518; Construction Materials, 519; Performance, 519; Rotary Axial Screw Blower and Vacuum Pumps, 522; Performance, 523; Advantages, 524; Disadvantages, 524; Rotary Sliding Vane Compressor, 526; Performance, 528; Types of Fans, 531; Specifications, 535; Construction, 535; Fan Drivers, 542; Performance, 544; Summary of Fan Selection and Rating, 544; Pressures, 547; Example 12-13 Fan Selection, 547; Operational Characteristics and Performance, 549; Example 12-14 Fan Selection Velocities, 549; Example 12-15 Change Speed of Existing Fan, 559; Example 12-16 Fan Law 1, 560; Example 12-17 Change Pressure of Existing Fan, Fan Law 2, 560; Example 12-18 Rating Conditions on a Different Size Fan (Same Series) to Correspond to Existing Fan, 560; Example 12-19 Changing Pressure at Constant Capacity, 560; Example 12-20 Effect of Change in Inlet Air Temperature, 560; Peripheral Velocity or Tip Speed, 561; Horsepower, 561; Efficiency, 562; Example 12-21 Fan Power and Efficiency, 562; Temperature Rise, 562; Fan Noise, 562; Fan Systems, 563; System Component Resistances, 564; Duct Resistance, 565; Summary of Fan System Calculations, 565; Parallel Operation, 567; Fan Selection, 569; Multirating Tables, 569; Example 12-22 Fan Selection for Hot Air, 571; Example 12-23 Fan Selection Using a Process Gas, 573; Blowers and Exhausters, 573; Nomenclature, 573; Greek Symbols, 577; Subscripts, 577; References, 577; Bibliography, 580 13 Reciprocating Compression Surge Drums 14 Mechanical Drivers Electric Motors, 615; Terminology, 615; Load Characteristics, 616; Basic Motor Types: Synchronous and Induction, 616; Selection of Synchronous Motor Speeds, 619; Duty, 625; Types of Electrical Current, 625; Characteristics, 627; Energy Efficient (EE) Motor Designs, 628; NEMA Design Classifications, 630; Classification According to Size, 630; Hazard Classifications: Fire and Explosion, 631; Electrical Classification for Safety in Plant Layout, 647; Motor Enclosures, 649; Motor Torque, 651; Power Factor for Alternating Current, 652; Motor Selection, 653; Speed Changes, 654; Adjustable Speed Drives, 659, Mechanical Drive Steam Turbines, 659; Standard Size Turbines, 661; Applications, 662; Major Variables Affecting Turbine Selection and Operation, 662; Speed Range, 662; Efficiency Range, 662; Motive Steam, 662; Example 14-3, 663; Selection, 663; Operation and Control, 666; Performance, 671; Specifications, 671; Steam Rates, 672; SingleStage Turbines, 673; Multistage Turbines, 680; Gas and Gas-Diesel Engines, 680; Example 14-1: Full Load Steam Rate, Single-Stage Turbine, 680; Example 14-2: Single-Stage Turbine Partial Load at Rated Speed, 680; Application, 681; Engine Cylinder Indicator Cards, 681; Speed, 682; Turbocharging and Supercharging, 683; Specifications, 683; Combustion Gas Turbine, 683; Nomenclature, 686; References, 687; Bibliography, 690 581 Pulsation Dampener or Surge Drum, 581; Common Design Terminology, 582; Applications, 585; Internal Details, 591; Design Method — Surge Drums (Nonacoustic), 591; Single-Compression vii 615 66131_Ludwig_FM 5/30/2001 4:04 PM Page viii 66131_Ludwig_CH14 676 6/1/01 1:51 PM Page 676 Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants Figure 14-26B Mechanical drive turbine specifications, part 66131_Ludwig_CH14 6/1/01 1:51 PM Page 677 Mechanical Drivers 677 Figure 14-27A Available energy in steam-theoretical steam rates, to 35 lb/kw-hr, for single-stage general-purpose turbine (Used by permission: Westinghouse Electric Corp., Steam Division.) its manufacturer In general, the difference between the rates will be less than 10% Steam rates should be examined and compared for a variety of conditions in order to aid in an economical and efficient turbine selection.43 Theoretical system rate tables have been prepared by Keenan and Keyes,22 or the values may be calculated as indicated Figure 14-27B Available energy in steam-theoretical steam rates, 30 to 70 lb/kw-hr, for single-stage general-purpose turbines (Used by permission: Westinghouse Electric Corp., Steam Division.) Single-Stage Turbines The calculation procedure for single-stage noncondensing general-purpose turbine20 is as follows: Determine theoretical steam rate Determine available energy in steam from Figures 1427A and 14-27B Determine corrected available energy using superheat of steam, Figures 14-27A and 14-27B Determine basic turbine efficiency, Figure 14-28 Determine horsepower losses from Figure 14-29A, 1429B, or 14-29C Full load steam rate at rated speed: hp hp loss 2,545 c dc d 1corrected available energy21efficiency2 hp (14-18) where hp ϭ rated horsepower Total full load steam flow ϭ (hp)(full load steam rate) Figure 14-28 Basic turbine efficiency for single-stage generalpurpose turbine (Used by permission: Westinghouse Electric Corp., Steam Division.) 66131_Ludwig_CH14 678 6/1/01 1:51 PM Page 678 Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants Single-Stage Noncondensing Partial Load at Rated Speed with No Hand Valve.20 The steam rate at any partial load is obtained by using the full-load steam flow and the no-load steam flow A Willans line (straight) is drawn between these points, and then the partial load can be determined at any rate Determine no-load flow factor, Figure 14-30 Determine 106/(full load steam rate) (rpm) Read no-load factor corresponding to the general size of turbine No load flow ϭ (no load factor) (full load flow) Plot full load flow at rated hp and no load flow at zero hp Read steam flow at the required hp load Partial load steam rate, Figure 14-31, ϭ partial load steam flow/partial load hp Single Stage Noncondensing Partial Load at Reduced Speed with No Hand Valve.20 Obtain basic efficiency of turbine at desired speed using Figure 14-28 together with the available energy as determined in Step of the rated conditions Determine corrected available energy in Step Determine the internal steam rate for the steam conditions and reduce speed by Internal steam rate 2,545>1corrected available energy2 1efficiency2 Determine horsepower loss from Figures 14-29A, 1429B, and 14-29C at the reduced turbine speed and exhaust pressure Inlet diameter of inches, 250–600 psig max at 500°F to 750°F maximum Figure 14-29A Horsepower losses, rated hp to 600 (Used by permission: Westinghouse Electric Corp., Steam Division.) Inlet diameter of inches, 250–400 psig max at 500°F to 750°F maximum, or 3-inch, 600 psig maximum at 750°F maximum Figure 14-29B Horsepower losses, rated hp to 870 (Used by permission: Westinghouse Electric Corp., Steam Division.) 66131_Ludwig_CH14 6/1/01 1:51 PM Page 679 Mechanical Drivers 679 Inlet diameter of inches, 250–400 psig max at 500°F to 750°F maximum, or 600 psig maximum at 750°F maximum Figure 14-29C Horsepower losses, rated hp to 1,900 (Used by permission: Westinghouse Electric Corp., Steam Division.) Determine net horsepower available at the reduced speed: Net hp available flow 1lb>hr2 at rated load and rated speed internal steam rate, Step 2 hp loss (14-19) Determine steam rate of the net hp available at the reduced speed and full-load rated flow: full-load rated flow, lb>hr net hp at reduced speed , lb>hr>hp Determine no-load flow factor from Figure 14-30 Calculate 106/ (steam rate at net hp) (reduced rpm) New no-load flow ϭ (full load flow at rated speed) (no-load factor) Plot Willans line, full-load steam flow at new hp and no load flow at zero hp Read desired partial load flow at partial hp Figure 14-31 Steam rate at desired reduced load and speed: steam flow at partial load hp at reduced speed and partial load (14-20) Partial Load at Rated or Reduced Speed with Hand Valve.20 The hand valves are considered to give the turbine additional ratings (as percent of original rating), and these values may be used as rating points following the outline given for rated and also for partial loads Figure 14-30 No-load flow factors for single-stage general-purpose turbine (Used by permission: Westinghouse Electric Corp., Steam Division.) 66131_Ludwig_CH14 680 6/1/01 1:51 PM Page 680 Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants No-load flow factor, Figure 14-30 106 106 ϭ ϭ 9.12 1full load steam rate21rpm2 127.4214,0002 Reading curve, factor ϭ 0.26 (heavy-duty turbine) No load flow ϭ (34,300) (0.26) ϭ 8,930 lb/hr Willans line plot Figure 14-31 at partial load of 900 hp, the steam flow should be 27,000 lb/hr Steam rate at partial load and rated speed ϭ 27,000/900 ϭ 30.0 lb/hr hp Figure 14-31 Willans line plot for partial load steam turbine Example 14-2*: Full Load Steam Rate, Single-Stage Turbine Turbine: rated hp ϭ 1,250 rated speed ϭ 4,000 rpm Steam: 350 psig at 600°F total temperature saturation temperature ϭ 435.6°F Exhaust: 30 psig Turbine: heavy-duty type Theoretical steam rate at 350 psig and 600°F TT, and 30 psig exhaust ϭ 18.31 lb steam/hr/KW (from tables) lb steam/hr/hp ϭ (18.31)(0.746) ϭ 13.68 Available energy (Figure 14-27) ϭ 174 Btu/lb Corrected available energy at 165°F superheat (Figure 14-27) ϭ 163 Btu/lb Basic turbine efficiency (Figure 14-28) ϭ 0.58 Horsepower losses (heavy-duty type) ϭ 21.4 hp Full load steam rate at rated speed: Calculation Procedure for Single-Stage Condensing GeneralPurpose Turbine.20 Calculate as shown for a noncondensing turbine using the proper theoretical steam rate corresponding to the exhaust pressure The hp losses are approximated by using the psig exhaust line of Figure 14-29A, 14-29B, or C The resulting steam rate, when calculated using the procedure outlined, must be multiplied by a correction factor Duty Factor Light Medium Heavy 1.08 1.05 1.00 The results are approximate, but satisfactory for most calculations and studies Using Turbines with Reduction Gears When gear reducers are connected to steam turbines, the steam rates must be increased: At rated horsepower and speed: 2% At constant speed, the loss in percent is inversely proportional to the hp: New steam rate partial load rate c 1 0.02 a rated hp reduced hp bd (14-21) 2,545 1,250 21.4 c d c d 27.4 lb>hr>hp 1163210.582 1,250 Total full-load steam flow ϭ (1,250)(27.4) ϭ 34,300 lb/hr Example 14-3*: Single-Stage Turbine Partial Load at Rated Speed For the turbine in Example 14-2, determine the steam rate when the unit is loaded to only 900 hp but must run at a rated speed of 4,000 rpm Draw a Willans line chart, Figure 14-31 * At reduced speed, loss in percent is directly proportional to speed and inversely proportional to load: New steam rate ϭ 3partial load rate4 c1 ϩ 0.02 a rated hp reduced hp ba reduced rpm rated rpm bd (14-22) Effect of Wet Steam Steam turbines should not be operated with wet steam The manufacturers will not guarantee performance when the moisture is greater than 3% Steam rates calculated for dry saturated steam are increased as follows: The above examples used by permission of Westinghouse Electric Corp., Steam Division 66131_Ludwig_CH14 6/1/01 1:51 PM Page 681 Mechanical Drivers 681 Two percent for each 1% of moisture, up to a maximum of 3% Multistage Turbines See Figures 14-16E— H and 14-20B Multistage steam turbines are used for higher horsepower loads and often higher rotating speeds than the single-stage units Figure 14-32 is a guide in the application range for single-stage and multistage units Gas and Gas-Diesel Engines Gas engines are two- and four-cycle piston-operated internal combustion machines using natural or other gas mixtures for firing, Figures 14-33 These engines are available in horsepowers starting at about 25 hp, Figure 14-34 and reaching up to 10,000 hp and higher Gasoline and butanepropane fueled engines are available in the horsepowers below 200 The gas-diesel engine is primarily adapted to the large horsepower loads and can operate either as a gas engine or as a diesel, usually using the gas for starting and diesel fuel for continuous operation Figure 14-32 Limits of multistage steam turbine application (Used by permission: General Electric Company.) Application Engine drivers are well adapted for reciprocating compressor cylinders, direct connection to power generators, direct or through gear connection to fans, centrifugal compressors, pumps, etc.5, In addition to the engine, facilities are needed for cylinder jacket cooling, exhaust manifold cooling, lube oil cooling and cleaning, air pressure starting, and electrical ignition A variety of arrangements are used for each of these, depending upon the application, type of engine, horsepower, and geographical location of the equipment Foundations must be designed to take the weight loads and overturning moments without transmitting vibration to other equipment and buildings Engine Cylinder Indicator Cards The power indicator cards of typical two- and four-cycle gas engines are compared with an accepted goal for a fuelair cycle The performance depends upon the type and composition of the fuel, Figure 14-35 The four-cycle engine takes two complete piston strokes for exhaust, scavenging, and charging The two-cycle engine exhausts, scavenges, and charges for about 25% of its piston travel before bottom center, and until about 25% after bottom center.21 The two-cycle machine does not have intake and exhaust valves but uses ports Referring to Figure 14-35, the stroke generally represented by CD is the power portion; ABC is the compression In a four-cycle gas-diesel, the fuel is injected along BC, and Figure 14-33 Gas engine driven parallel compression cylinders in process gas plant service Note that the front side of gas engines are on the right with high-pressure compressor cylinders extending horizontally left Also note the suction side pulsation drums on top of compressor cylinders, mid-way (Used by permission: CooperCameron Corporation, Reciprocating Products Division.) the exhaust valves open at D For a two-cycle gas engine, the exhaust ports close at about E on the AB compression stroke The exhaust ports open at F The indicator card is useful in balancing the load per cylinder The area of the card and the pressure-length scale are used to determine the horsepower 66131_Ludwig_CH14 6/1/01 1:51 PM 682 Page 682 Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants Figure 14-34 Ajax model rated 22—165 bhp gas engine for driving remote oil field equipment, 2-cycle, fuel injection Driven load attached to power take-off, item (14) (Used by permission: Bul 2-214 ©Cooper Cameron Corporation Cooper Energy Services, Ajax Superior.) PLAN Indicated hp ϭ , per power cylinder end 33,000 (14-23) where L ϭ length of piston stroke, ft P ϭ mean indicated pressure by measurement of the indicator card P 1area of card, in.2 1pressure scale, lb>in.2 length of card, in A ϭ area of power piston, in.2 N ϭ number of power strokes per minute For two cycle engines, N ϭ engine rpm, for four-cycle engine, N ϭ engine rpm/2 For a multicylinder engine, the total horsepower is the sum of the power of all cylinders Mechanical efficiency ϭ bhp delivered indicated hp (14-24) 66131_Ludwig_CH14 6/1/01 1:51 PM Page 683 Mechanical Drivers Figure 14-35 Theoretical and actual gas engine indicator cards (Used by permission: Newcomb, W K., 24th Conference, Oil and Gas Div ©American Society of Mechanical Engineers.) Speed Normal speeds range from about 200—800 rpm, with lower speeds usually associated with the larger engines For horsepower requirements around 800—1,500 hp, the rated speeds might be 300, 330, 400, and 440 From any given rated speed the engine will satisfactorily drop to 50% speed and rise to about 110—115% overspeed This varies with the engine and its application Turbocharging and Supercharging The power available from the power cylinders can be increased over conventional design by adding additional air per stroke as well as exhaust cooling, etc Specifications Figure 14-36 is a convenient summary sheet for most of the pertinent specifications for a gas engine Supplemental information to the manufacturer at the time of inquiry should include the following: Type of application; equipment to be driven Duty, whether continuous or intermittent Type and make of any direct-connected (to shaft) gears, blowers, etc Give torque requirements Type of fuel Speed control characteristics Combustion Gas Turbine The gas combustion turbine, more commonly called the gas turbine, uses natural or other gas or liquid fuel for combustion and the generation of hot gases for expansion 683 through a power turbine The industrial gas turbine is preferably suitable and economical for applications of 50,000 and higher horsepower, although some designs are applicable for lower hp requirements Compressed air for the combustion is supplied by a centrifugal compressor drive by the power turbine The extra power is available for mechanical drive or other equipment or for power generation, see Figures 14-37A—D.105, 106, 107 A combustion system detail is shown in Figure 14-38A–B and in Molick.25 The gas turbine most often used for industrial plant applications is the simple cycle, single-shaft unit shown103 in Figure 14-38A and 14-38B The compressor is a centrifugal on the common shaft with the turbine itself Sometimes an electric motor (see Figure 14-38A) is set up to drive the air compressor in order to allow the system to get started, because air is needed for the combustion, even though the startup conditions may be on limited scale, and then builds up as the gas fired turbine becomes more operational The load is then connected by direct coupling to the single shaft of the drive arrangement or through a gear train connecting to a process centrifugal compressor or large blower, or other large mechanical equipment Rowley and Skrotzki35 provide an excellent summary of the operation and performance of the gas turbine, see Figure 14-40 The following is copied by permission: “The simplest form of gas-turbine plant, Figure 14-40, consists of an air compressor, a combustion chamber, and a turbine The compressor takes in atmospheric air and raises its pressure In the combustion chamber, fuel burns in the compressed air, raising its temperature and increasing its heat energy This produces a working fluid that can be expanded in the turbine to develop mechanical energy, just as the expansion of steam does in the more familiar steam turbine Part of the gas turbine’s energy output goes to drive the compressor and the remainder is available as useful work The fact that the working fluid is a gas gives the gas turbine its name; there is no connection with the fuel burned, which may be a liquid, gaseous, or possibly solid To know how gas turbines behave requires a clear understanding of the various steps in the cycle Because the only known way to make a heated fluid produce mechanical energy is to allow it to expand from a higher pressure to lower one in an engine or turbine, we must start with a compressor to create the higher pressure It is conceivable that expansion of compressed air in the turbine could generate energy to drive the compressor and the machines could operate without burning fuel in a combustion chamber But both turbine and compressor are less than 100% efficient and hence turbine output cannot match compressor load because of the losses incurred in compression and expansion.” 66131_Ludwig_CH14 684 6/1/01 1:52 PM Page 684 Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants Figure 14-36 Compressor drive specifications—gas engine 66131_Ludwig_CH14 6/1/01 1:52 PM Page 685 Mechanical Drivers 685 Figure 14-37 Gas turbine cycles A, B, C, and D (Used by permission: General Electric Company.) Figure 14-38A Section of gas turbine showing basic features (Used by permission: DresserRand Company.) Several common arrangements have been developed to improve the efficiency and/or to accomplish specific purposes, such as furnishing hot flue gas to boilers or to process gas exchangers in addition to the simultaneous generation of power or driving equipment.35 Figures 14-37A—D illustrate several common arrangements or cycles Figure 14-41 illustrates a couple of power capacity styles of gas turbine generators for providing the required hot gas to drive a power turbine connected to mechanical applications such as power generation, gas compression, cogeneration, oil pumping, and others 66131_Ludwig_CH14 686 6/1/01 1:52 PM Page 686 Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants Figure 14-38B Example of gas turbine operating cycle (Used by permission: General Electric Company.) Figure 14-39 Gas turbine combustion unit (Used by permission: Westinghouse Electric Corporation.) Nomenclature A ac dc E Fp f h1 h2 hp I kv kwh k kva kw L N n PF P ϭ area of power piston, in.2 ϭ alternating current ϭ direct current ϭ volts ϭ power factor; also see PF ϭ active power ϭ frequency,cycles/sec ϭ enthalpy of steam at inlet conditions, Btu/lb ϭ enthalpy of steam at exhaust conditions, Btu/lb ϭ horsepower, or HP ϭ current, amperes; OR, ϭ induction motor ϭ kilovolts ϭ kilowatt hours ϭ radius of gyration, ft ϭ kilovolt-amperes, or KVA ϭ kilowatts ϭ length of piston stroke, ft ϭ number of power strokes per ϭ number of poles for motor ϭ power factor; OR, ϭ Fp ϭ power, or work, watts, or kW (kilowatts), also Figure 14-40 Basic simple gas-turbine consists of three principal pieces of equipment: (1) compressor that raises pressure of atmospheric air and discharges it to (2) combustion chamber or furnace where the burning of fuel raises air temperature before it enters (3) turbine through which the heated gas expands and does work on the turbine blades Major part of turbine output goes to drive compressor; remainder is available power to drive shaft-connected mechanical equipment such as centrifugal compressor or other (Used by permission: Rowley, L N and B G A Skrotzki “Gas Turbines,” Power, p 79, Oct 1946 ©McGraw-Hill, Inc All rights reserved.) P ϭ mean indicated pressure by measurement of the indicator card, lb rpm ϭ revolutions per minute, or RPM R ϭ resistance, ohms; OR, radius of disk S ϭ synchronous motor s ϭ percentage slip Steam rates ϭ lb steam/hr/hp TSR ϭ theoretical steam rate, lb/kwh V ϭ volts or voltage W ϭ watts power; ALSO, P; OR, ϭ weight, lb Wk2 ϭ flywheel effect ␪ ϭ vector diagram angle of current between apparent power and active power References API Specification for Mechanical-Drive Steam Turbines for General Refinery Services (Tentative Standard 615), latest edition American Petroleum Institute, Division of Refining, Washington, DC Basta, N., “Energy-efficient Motors Spark an Old Controversy,” Chem Eng., V 87, p 93, Nov 17, (1980) 66131_Ludwig_CH14 6/1/01 1:52 PM Page 687 Mechanical Drivers 687 Figure 14-41 Performance specifications for one manufacturer’s gas turbine generators that drive the power turbine unit for mechanical and power applications (Used by permission: Bul 6-204B ©Cooper Cameron Corporation, Cooper Rolls Division.) 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