Principles of water treatment

Principles of Water Treatment Principles of Water Treatment Kerry J Howe, Ph.D., P.E., BCEE Associate Professor of Civil Engineering University of New Mexico David W Hand, Ph.D., BCEEM Professor of Civil and Environmental Engineering Michigan Technological University John C Crittenden, Ph.D., P.E., BCEE, NAE Hightower Chair and Georgia Research Alliance Eminent Scholar Director of the Brook Byers Institute for Sustainable Systems Georgia Institute of Technology R Rhodes Trussell, Ph.D., P.E., BCEE, NAE Principal Trussell Technologies, Inc George Tchobanoglous, Ph.D., P.E., NAE Professor Emeritus of Civil and Environmental Engineering University of California at Davis John Wiley & Sons, Inc Cover Design: Michael Rutkowski Cover Photographs: Main photograph courtesy of George Tchobanoglous; top photographs courtesy of MWH file photographs Cover photo is the Vineyard Surface Water Treatment Plant, owned by the Sacramento County Water Agency This book is printed on acid-free paper Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc All rights reserved Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey Published simultaneously in Canada No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750-8400, fax (978) 646-8600, or on the web at www.copyright.com Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, (201) 748-6011, fax (201) 748-6008, or online at www.wiley.com/go/permissions Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: Information contained in this work has been obtained by John Wiley and Sons (Wiley), MWH, and the authors from sources believed to be reliable However, neither Wiley, nor MWH, nor the authors guarantee or warranty the accuracy or completeness of any information published herein, and neither Wiley, nor MWH, nor the authors shall be responsible for any errors, omissions, or damages arising out of the use of this information Wiley, MWH, and the authors also specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives or written sales materials Neither the publisher, nor MWH, nor the authors shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages This work is published with the understanding and intention to supply information but is not an attempt to render engineering or other professional services If such services are required, the assistance of an appropriate professional should be sought The fact that an organization or website is referred to in this work as a citation and/or a potential source of further information does not mean that Wiley, MWH, or the authors endorses the information the organization or website may provide or recommendations it may make Further, readers should be aware that internet websites listed in this work may have changed or disappeared between when this work was written and when it is read Neither the publisher, nor MWH, nor the authors shall be liable for damages arising herefrom For general information about our other products and services, please contact our Customer Care Department within the United States at (800) 762-2974, outside the United States at (317) 572-3993 or fax (317) 572-4002 Wiley publishes in a variety of print and electronic formats and by print-on-demand Some material included with standard print versions of this book may not be included in e-books or in print-on-demand If this book refers to media such as a CD or DVD that is not included in the version you purchased, you may download this material at http://booksupport.wiley.com For more information about Wiley products, visit www.wiley.com Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data: Principles of water treatment / Kerry J Howe, David W Hand, John C Crittenden, R Rhodes Trussell, George Tchobanoglous pages cm Includes index ISBN 978-0-470-40538-3 (hardback); ISBN 978-1-118-30167-8 (ebk); ISBN 978-1-118-30168-5 (ebk); ISBN 978-1-118-30967-4 (ebk); ISBN 978-1-118-30969-8 (ebk); ISBN 978-1-118-30970-4 (ebk) Water–Purification I Howe, Kerry J II Hand, David W III Crittenden, John C (John Charles), 1949IV Trussell, R Rhodes V Tchobanoglous, George TD430.W3752 2012 628.1 62—dc23 2012017207 Printed in the United States of America 10 About the Authors Dr Kerry J Howe is an associate professor in the Department of Civil Engineering at the University of New Mexico His career in water treatment spans both consulting and academia He has a B.S degree in civil and environmental engineering from the University of Wisconsin-Madison, an M.S degree in environmental health engineering from the University of Texas at Austin, and a Ph.D degree in environmental engineering from the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign After a stint at CH2M-Hill, he worked for over 10 years at MWH, Inc., where he was involved in the planning, design, and construction of water and wastewater treatment facilities up to 380 ML/d (100 mgd) in capacity He has experience with conventional surface water treatment and other treatment technologies such as membrane treatment, ozonation, and packed-tower aeration At the University of New Mexico, his teaching and research focuses on membrane processes and desalination, physicochemical treatment processes, water quality, sustainability, and engineering design Dr Howe is a registered professional engineer in Wisconsin and New Mexico and a Board Certified Environmental Engineer by the American Academy of Environmental Engineers Dr David W Hand is a professor of civil and environmental engineering at the Michigan Technological University He received his B.S degree in engineering at Michigan Technological University, an M.S degree in civil engineering at Michigan Technological University, and a Ph.D in engineering from Michigan Technological University His teaching and research focuses on water and wastewater treatment engineering with emphasis on physicochemical treatment processes He has authored and co-authored over 130 technical publications including six textbooks, two patents, and eight copyrighted software programs He received the ASCE Rudolf Hering Medal, an outstanding teaching award and publication award from the Association of Environmental Engineering and Science Professors, and a publication award from American Water Works Association He is v vi About the Authors a Board Certified Environmental Engineering Member of the American Academy of Environmental Engineers Dr John C Crittenden is a professor in the School of Civil and Environmental Engineering at the Georgia Institute of Technology and the director of the Brook Byers Institute for Sustainable Systems In this position, he leads the creation of an integrated initiative in Sustainable Urban Systems He is a Georgia Research Alliance (GRA) Eminent Scholar in Sustainable Systems and occupies the Hightower Chair for Sustainable Technologies Dr Crittenden is an accomplished expert in sustainability, pollution prevention, physicochemical treatment processes, nanotechnology, air and water treatment, mass transfer, numerical methods, and modeling of air, wastewater, and water treatment processes He has received multiple awards for his research in the treatment and removal of hazardous materials from drinking water and groundwater He has four copyrighted software products and three patents in the areas of pollution prevention, stripping, ion exchange, advanced oxidation/catalysis, adsorption and groundwater transport The American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE) Centennial Celebration Committee named Dr Crittenden as one of the top 100 Chemical Engineers of the Modern Era at their 100th annual meeting in 2008 He is a member of the National Academy of Engineering Dr R Rhodes Trussell is a registered Civil and Corrosion Engineer in the State of California with 40 years of water treatment experience He has a B.S., M.S., and Ph.D in environmental engineering from the University of California at Berkeley He founded Trussell Technologies, Inc., a consulting firm specializing in the application of science to engineering, after working for 33 years for MWH, Inc He has authored more than 200 publications, including several chapters in all three editions of MWH’s Water Treatment: Principles and Design Dr Trussell has served as Chair of the EPA Science Advisory Board’s Committee on Drinking Water, serves on the Membership Committee for the National Academy of Engineering, and as Chair of the Water Science and Technology Board for the National Academies For the International Water Association, Dr Trussell serves as a member of the Scientific and Technical Council, the Editorial Board, and on the Program Committee In 2010, Dr Trussell was awarded the prestigious A.P Black Award from the American Water Works Association Dr George Tchobanoglous is a professor emeritus of environmental engineering in the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering at the University of California at Davis He received a B.S degree in civil engineering from the University of the Pacific, an M.S degree in sanitary engineering from the University of California at Berkeley, and a Ph.D in environmental engineering from Stanford University His principal research interests are in the areas of wastewater treatment, wastewater filtration, UV disinfection, wastewater reclamation and reuse, solid waste management, and wastewater management for small systems He has authored or coauthored over 500 technical publications, including About the Authors 22 textbooks and reference works Professor Tchobanoglous serves nationally and internationally as a consultant to both governmental agencies and private concerns An active member of numerous professional societies, he is a past president of the Association of Environmental Engineering and Science Professors He is a registered civil engineer in California and a member of the National Academy of Engineering vii 640 Index Concentration gradient: and Fick’s first law, 105–106 operating diagrams for, 126–131 Concentration polarization (CP), 348–353 Concentration polarization mass transfer coefficient, 350–351 Concentration units, 48–51, 445–447 Conditioning, sludge, 609 Conductance, equivalent, 110–111 Confined aquifers, 12 Conservative constituents, reactor analysis with, 76 Contact filtration, 245 Contactors: adsorption, 373–375 for air stripping/aeration, 438–442 disinfection, 531 fixed-bed, see Fixed-bed contactors flooded, 438, 440 gas-phase, 438, 439 ion exchange in, 390 with low dispersion, 567–571 operating diagrams in analysis of, 129–130 over–under baffled, 570–571 pipeline, 568 serpentine basin, 568–569 suspended-media, 374 Contaminants: acute vs chronic effects of, 20–21 and process selection, 26–30 updating regulations on, 18–20 Contaminant Candidate List (CCL), 19 Continuous-flow reactors, 74–76 See also Plug flow reactors Continuously stirred tank reactors (CSTR), 75 Control volume, 67–68 Conventional filtration, 245 Conventional oxidation, 477–478 Conventional sedimentation, 194 Conventional treatment, 172 Corona discharge method, 539–541 Cost, process selection and, 34 Countercurrent packed tower, 449–452 Countercurrent regeneration, 418 Counterion, equilibrium concentration of, 395–399 CP (concentration polarization), 348–353 Critical settling velocity, 202–203 Cross-flow filtration, 297–298 Cross-sectional area, of packed tower, 461–464 CR ratio (sludge produced to coagulant added), 597 Cryptosporidium parvum, 304, 530 Crystal imperfections, surface charge and, 143 CSTR (continuously stirred tank reactors), 75 Ct value: and disinfectant dose, 530 and disinfection effectiveness, 564–565 and Rennecker–Marinas ˜ model, 561 Cumulative exit age distribution (F curve), 91–95 CUR, see Carbon usage rate CW (chemical wash) cycle, 299–300 D DAF (dissolved air flotation) thickening, 606 Darcy’s law, 256, 305–306 DBPs (disinfection by-products), 159, 572–575 D/DBP (Disinfectants/ Disinfection Byproducts) Rule, 573, 575 Dead-end filtration, 298 Decay, 70, 498–500, 539 Decelerating rate disinfection data, 557 Demand, 530, 538–539 Dense materials, mass transfer through, 340 Density: of sludge, 592–594 and temperature of air, 627–628 Density currents, 228–229 Deposit, specific, 259–260 Deprotonation, 150–151 Depth filtration, 235, 246–247 Depth of packing, see Packed tower, height of Design guides, process selection based on, 41 Desorption, 437 See also Air stripping Destabilization, 148, 150 Destruction of target compound: electrical efficiency per order of, 511–512 fraction of, 491–492 and NOM/target compound type, 513–518 time for, 493–494 Destruction rate: bench-scale tests of, 494 estimation of, 493–494 for hydrogen peroxide/UV light process, 513–518 for ozonation, 490, 493–494 Dewatering, 608–610 DFM (dispersed-flow model), 566 Dichloramine, 533–535 Differential elements, 68, 456–457 Diffuser walls, 174 Diffusion: in filtration model, 249–250 molecular, 104–106 and osmotic pressure, 335–336 solution–diffusion model, 340 Diffusion coefficients: gas-phase, 112–115 liquid-phase, 107–112 for organic compounds, 112–115 Dimensionless form of Henry’s law, 446 Direct filtration, 172, 245 Direct integrity monitoring, 300–301 Direct ozonation pathway, 490–491 Discrete (Type I) particle settling, 196–205 in ideal rectangular sedimentation basins, 201–205 other types vs., 194, 195 principles of, 196–201 Index Disinfectants/Disinfection Byproducts (D/DBP) Rule, 573, 575 Disinfecting agents: addition of, 531 characteristics of, 527–528 dose of, 530 use of, 526–527 Disinfection, 525–579 with chlorine, 532–537 with chlorine dioxide, 538 in contactors with low dispersion, 567–571 dispersion and volume required for, 96–97 kinetics of, 555–567 observed data, 556–557 with ozone, 538–542 residual maintenance of, 575–576 sustainability and energy consumption of processes, 576–578 system design, 527, 530–531 with ultraviolet light, 543–555 Disinfection by-products (DBPs), 159, 572–575 Disinfection contactors, 531 Disinfection contact time, 566 Dispersed-flow model (DFM), 566 Dispersion: contactors with low, 567–571 designing disinfection contactors for specific, 568–569 importance of, 566–567 Taylor’s equation, 568 in UV reactors, 551 and volume required for disinfection, 96–97 Disposal: of leachate, 614, 616 of liquid streams, 602, 604 of semisolid residuals, 614–616 Dissolved air flotation (DAF) thickening, 606 Dissolved organic carbon (DOC), 427–429 Dissolved organic mater (DOM), 311 Dissolved solids, packed-tower performance and, 470–471 Dissolved substances, UV disinfection and, 548–549 Distribution system, maintenance of disinfection in, 575–576 DLVO theory, 147–148 DOC (dissolved organic carbon), 427–429 DOM (dissolved organic mater), 311 Dose: of disinfecting agents, 530 of hydrogen peroxide, 511 of powdered activated carbon, 127–131, 425, 427 for suspended-media reactors, 423–425, 427 UV, 548, 551–554 Dose-response curves, UV light, 551–554 Drag coefficient, 197–199 Drag force, 197 Driving force, 128–129 Drying: of ambient air, 541 sludge lagoons for, 606–608 Drying beds, 608–609 Dual-media filters, 271 Dynamic filters, 304 E EBCT (empty-bed contact time), 401 Eckert diagram, 460, 461 E curve (exit age distribution), 91–95 EDL (electrical double layer), 144–146, 148 EE/O (electrical efficiency per order of target compound destruction), 511–512 Effective size (ES), 237, 239 Effluent concentration: for CMFRs and PFRs, 86–88 for packed tower, 459 from real reactor, 102–103 from Sim-PSS model, 514–517 Effluent launders, 215, 228–230 Effluent turbidity, 247, 285, 286 Electrical double layer (EDL), 144–146, 148 641 Electrical efficiency per order of target compound destruction (EE/O), 511–512 Electrical properties, of particles in water, 142–146 Electrolytes, 110–112, 141, 158 Electroneutrality, 399–400 Electronic resources, 635 Electrophiles, 479 Electrophoresis, 146 Elevation, atmospheric pressure and, 628–629 Elution curves, see Regeneration curves Empirical reaction rate expressions, 62 Empty-bed contact time (EBCT), 401 Energy: Gibbs, 336 of molecular attraction, 113 recovery of, from concentrate stream, 334 Energy consumption: for adsorption/ion exchange processes, 429–430 for advanced oxidation processes, 518–519 for air stripping, 472 for disinfection processes, 576–577 for flocculation/coagulation, 187 in LCAs of water treatment facilities, 36–39 for membrane filtration, 319–321 and process selection, 36–39 for rapid granular filtration, 273–274 for sedimentation, 230–231 specific, 37–38 Energy units, 622 Engineering experience, process selection based on, 41 Enhanced coagulation, 159–160 Enhanced Coagulation Guidance Manual (U.S EPA), 159 Enmeshment destabilization, 150 Enteric diseases, 7–9 Environmental constraints, on residuals, 590 642 Index Environmental engineers, Environmental engineering, 47–132 See also individual topics chemical equilibrium, 51–60 chemical kinetics, 60–63 chemical reactions in water treatment, 63–66 concentration units, 48–51 mass balance analysis, 66–73 mass transfer, 103–131 reactors, 73–103 EPA, see U.S Environmental Protection Agency (U.S EPA) Equilibrium, 51–60 adsorption in, 377–382 equilibrium constants, 57–60 gas–liquid, 443–449 ion exchange in, 395–399 stoichiometry, 53–55 and temperature, 60 Equilibrium concentration: and activity, 55–57 of adsorbate, 377–382 from equilibrium constants, 59–60 of presaturant and counterion, 395–399 Equilibrium constants, 57–60 concentration from, 59–60 for hydrogen peroxide, 497 temperature dependence of, 60 Equilibrium line, 127, 452 Equivalent conductance, 110–111 Equivalents/volume (eqv/L), 49–50 Equivalent weight, 50 Ergun equation, 257 ES (effective size), 237, 239 Exchange capacity, 390–391 Exchange front, 418 Exhaustion, point of, 384 Exit age distribution (E curve), 91–95 F F curve (cumulative exit age distribution), 91–95 Fecal-to-oral route, Feed-and-bleed strategy, 295–296 Feed channel spacer, 351–352 Feed pumps, reverse osmosis, 361, 362 Ferric chloride, 153, 156–157, 186 Ferric hydroxide, 151–152 Ferric sulfate, 153, 156–157 Fick’s first law, 105–106 Film model, 117–118 Filter cake, 304, 310 Filter media (rapid granular filtration), 236–239 determination of optimum size for, 260–264 dual-media/multimedia filters, 271, 272 liquid waste from, 599–601 removal efficiency and diameter of, 253–255 and stratification, 271 Filter press, 610–613 Filter run, 242 Filter-to-waste line, 241, 600 Filter waste wash water, 599–601 Filtration, see specific types, e.g.: Membrane filtration Filtration rate, rapid granular, 244 Filtration stage: of membrane filtration, 296 of rapid granular filtration, 242–243, 273 Fines, removal of, 272–273 First-order reactions, 61 Fixed-bed contactors, 400–423 adsorption in, 373, 374 backwashing of, 415 capacity of, 403–405 dose for suspended-media vs., 424–425 full-scale design criteria, 418–423 kinetics of adsorption in, 383–384 parallel and series operation, 415–417 particle and bed porosity of, 403 process design for, 405–415 process parameters for, 401–403 and regeneration of ion exchange columns, 417–418 Flocculant aids, 159 Flocculant particles (floc), 140, 150 Flocculant (Type II) particle settling: analysis of, 206 benefits of, 205–206 other types vs., 194–195 Flocculation, 165–186 defined, 140 facility design issues, 141–142 in horizontal paddle wheel flocculators, 181–186 macro, see Macroflocculation (orthokinetic flocculation) mechanical, 170–174 micro, see Microflocculation (perikinetic flocculation) mixing for, 162–163 principles of, 165–170 process, 141 and stability of particles in water, 142–148 sustainability and energy consumption of, 186–187 in vertical turbine flocculators, 174–181 Flocculation chamber, 178–179 Flooded contactors, 438, 440 Flotation thickening, 606 Flow: diffusion in presence of, 106 dispersed-flow model, 566 Forchheimer, 256–257 in lagoons and basins, 601 laminar, 199, 249–250, 256, 305 mass, 70, 106, 248 in membrane filters, 305–309 for rapid granular filter, 241–242 segregated-flow model, 566 transition, 199 under-, 586 to the underdrain, 208–210 Flow rate: air, 453–455 and collision frequency, 167–168 overflow, 202 and settling zone design, 214–215 units for, 622–623 Index Flow reactors, 80–103 hydraulic characteristics, 80–84, 88–95 hydraulic performance, 95–101 ideal, 80–103 reactions in, 84–88, 101–103 real, 95–103 tracer tests for, 88–95 Flow regimes, 256 Fluidized (term), 266 Flux: and collision frequency, 168 intraparticle, 384–385 limiting flux rate, 209 mass, 70, 106 membrane, 306–307 solids flux analysis, 207–209 solute, 341–343, 350 specific, 308–309 through membranes, 340 water, 341–343 Forces: in discrete particle settling, 196–197 drag, 197 driving, 128–129 van der Waals, 146–147 Force units, 622 Forchheimer flow, 256–257 Fouling, 309–315 biological, 358 mechanisms, 310 of membrane filters, 296, 297 membrane fouling index, 312–315 by natural organic matter, 311 from oxidation of soluble metals, 358 by particulate matter, 353–354 resistance-in-series model of, 311–312 of reverse osmosis membranes, 353–354, 358–359 reversibility of, 310–311 Fraction of target destruction, 491–492 Free chlorine: chemistry of, 532–533 disinfection with, 527–529 Freezing, of sludge, 609 Freundlich isotherm, 130, 379–382 Froude number, 214–215 Functional groups, ionization of, 143–144 Fundamental filtration model, 246–255 attachment efficiency in, 252–255 formulation of, 247–249 transport mechanisms of particles in, 249–252 Fundamental mass balance equation, 68–69 G GAC (granular activated carbon), 374, 425 Gases, properties of selected, 627–629 Gaseous chlorine, 532, 537, 577 Gaseous waste, sources of, 588 Gas–liquid contacting systems, 438–442 Gas–liquid equilibrium, 443–449 Henry’s law, 445–449 Raoult’s law, 443–445 Gas loading rate, 462 Gas-phase contactors, 438, 439 Gas-phase diffusion coefficients, 112–115 Gas pressure, in packed tower, 460–465 Gas transfer devices, 471 Gel-type resins, 387 Generation reaction, 70 Germicidal range, 544, 545 Giardia lamblia, 304, 530 Gibbs energy, 336 Gilliland correlation, 124 Gnielinski correlation, 125–126 Government constraints, for residuals management, 590 Granular activated carbon (GAC), 374, 425 Granular media filters, liquid waste from, 599–601 Gravity belt filters, 610–613 Gravity dewatering, 608–609 Gravity number, 251 Groundwater, 9–12 Gullet, 241 643 H H2 O2 /O3 process, see Hydrogen peroxide/ozone process H2 O2 /UV process, see Hydrogen peroxide/UV light process Half-life, of target compounds, 480–482 Haloacetic acids (HAAs), 485, 573, 574 Hamaker constant, 250 Hardness, 10 Hayduk–Laudie correlation, 108–109 Hazardous waste, 615, 616 Head: available, 241, 243 limiting, 243 Head loss, 255–258, 260 Head number, 176, 177 Health, public, 5–9 Heat treatment, sludge, 609–610 Height, of packed tower, 455–459, 468–470 Height of transfer unit (HTU), 457 Helmholtz layer, 144, 145 Henry’s constant: factors influencing, 448–449 sources of, 447–448 units for, 445–447 Henry’s law, 119–120, 445–449 Heterodisperse particles, 168 High-rate horizontal flow basins, 214–215 High-rate sedimentation, 602, 603 High-rate settling, 227–228 Hindered (Type III) particle settling, 206–211 and area required for solids thickening, 209–211 limiting flux rate for, 209 other types vs., 195 in solids flux analysis, 207–209 Hollow-fiber membranes, 286–287, 352 Hollow-fine-fiber membrane elements, 329–330 Homogenous structure, membrane, 291 Horizontal-flow velocity, settling zone design and, 214–215 644 Index Horizontal paddle wheel flocculators: design of, 181–186 flocculation practice with, 171–173 HTU (height of transfer unit), 457 Hydraulics: backwash, 266–273 of flow in membrane filters, 305–309 of UV reactors, 550–551 Hydraulically reversible fouling, 311 Hydraulic characteristics: of ideal flow reactors, 80–84 of real flow reactors, 95–101 tracer tests for measuring, 88–95 Hydraulic flocculation, 170–173 Hydraulic reliability, 31–32 Hydraulic residence time, 81–82, 84–85 Hydrogen peroxide: ratio of ozone to, 495 selection of dosage, 511 simultaneous addition of ozone and, 499 in water with ozone, 499–500 Hydrogen peroxide/ozone (H2 O2 /O3 ) process, 494–505 disadvantages of, 500–501 elementary reactions, 488, 489 hydrogen peroxide to ozone ratio, 495 modeling of, 495–500 reaction mechanism, 494–495 reactor sizing for, 501–505 Hydrogen peroxide/UV light (H2 O2 /UV) process, 506–518 data vs model output for, 511–513 effect of NOM and compound type, 513–518 elementary reactions, 488–489, 506–510 reactor performance, 510 Hydrophilic particles, 142 Hydrophobic bonding, 376 Hydrophobicity, 142, 289 Hydroxyl radical: in advanced oxidation processes, 479 AOP performance and concentration of, 479–482 in ozonation, 487–492 from ozone and NOM, 487, 490–492 from ozone and OH− , 487, 488 production by UV light, 507 pseudo-steady-state concentration, 509 scavenging of, 482–484 I Ideal adsorbed solution theory (IAST), 382 Ideality, coefficient of, 569 Ideal reactors (flow), 80–103 hydraulic characteristics of, 80–84 reactions in, 84–88 types of, 73–76 IDSE (initial distribution system evaluation), 573 Immersed membranes, 294–296 Impeller, vertical turbine flocculator, 174–178 Inactivation, 526 and Ct value, 561 disinfectant dose for, 530 UV dose-response curve for, 553–554 by UV light, 546 and validation testing of UV reactors, 554–555 Indirect integrity monitoring, 301 Indirect ozonation pathway, 490–491 Industrial contamination, 11 Initial demand, 530 Initial distribution system evaluation (IDSE), 573 Inlet zone, 212–213 In-line filtration, 245 Inorganic metallic coagulants, 150–157 complexation and deprotonation of, 150–151 effect of water quality on, 156–157 prehydrolyzed metal salts as, 155 solubility of, 151–152 stoichiometry of, 152–155 Inorganic particles, 139 Inorganic salts, precipitation of, 354–358 Inside-out filtration, 287–288 Integrity monitoring, membrane filter, 300–301 Intensity, UV, 551–552 Interception, in fundamental filtration model, 251–252 Interface: mass transfer at, 115–126 in two-film model, 119–120 Internal structure, of membrane filters, 289, 291–292 International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC), 372 Intraparticle flux, 384–385 Ion adsorption, 143 Ion exchange (IX): binary, 395–396 in equilibrium, 395–399 exchange capacity, 390–391 fixed-bed contactors for, 400–423 kinetics of, 399–400 multicomponent, 396–399 selectivity of, 392–394 suspended-media reactors for, 423–429 sustainability and energy consumption, 429–430 Ion exchange brines, 604 Ion exchange columns: design of, 418–423 determining number required, 418–419 overall cycle time, 420 pressure drop for, 419 regeneration cycle time, 421–423 regeneration of, 390, 417–418 regeneration requirements, 420–421 rinse water requirements, 421 Ion exchange contactors, 390 See also Fixed-bed contactors Ion exchange resins: classification of, 387–390 Index exchange capacity of, 390–391 magnetic, 427–429 selectivity of, 392–394 structure of, 386–387 Ionic strength, 56 and Henry’s constant, 448 and selectivity of exchange resins, 393–394 Ionization, of functional groups, 143–144 Iron See also specific compounds, e.g.: Ferric chloride fouling from oxidation of, 358 in groundwater, 9, 10 recovery of, 613 residuals management for, 595–599 Iron salts, 150–151 Irreversible fouling, 311 Irreversible reactions, 52 Isomorphous replacement, 143 Isotherms, 377 Freundlich, 130, 379–382 Langmuir, 377–379 IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry), 372 IX, see Ion exchange J Jar testing, coagulant evaluation with, 160–162 K Ka (acid dissociation constant), 64 Kinetics, 60–63 of adsorption, 382–386 of disinfection, 555–567 of ion exchange, 399–400 KL a (overall mass transfer rate constant), 456–457 L Lag coefficient, 561 Lagoons, 601, 606–608 Lakes, 15–16 Lake turnover, 16 Lamella plate clarifiers, 220–222 Laminar flow: Darcy’s law for, 256, 305 terminal settling velocity in, 199 transport efficiency by diffusion in, 249–250 Lamp power, 513 Land application, of residuals, 614–616 Landfilling, 614–616 Langmuir isotherm, 377–379 Large molecules, diffusion coefficients for, 107–108 Launders, 215, 228–230 LCAs, see Life-cycle assessments Leachate, disposal of, 614, 616 Leakage, 417–418 Length-to-width ratio, settling zone, 215 Length units, 623 Life-cycle assessments (LCAs): components of, 35–36 of membrane filtration, 319 of water treatment facilities, 36–39 Lime [Ca(OH)2 ], 153, 604 Lime softening, 335, 363 Limiting flux rate, 209 Limiting head, 243 Limiting salt, 355–358 Linear form of reactor equation, 78–79 Liquids, see Gas–liquid equilibrium Liquid oxygen (LOX), 541–542 Liquid-phase diffusion coefficients, 107–112 for electrolytes, 110–112 for large molecules/particles, 107–108 for small neutral molecules, 108–110 Liquid-phase mass balance around a differential element, 456–457 Liquid waste: disposal of, 602, 604 from granular media filters, 599–601 residuals management for, 599–604 from sludge-processing operations, 601–604 from thickening/dewatering process, 588 from treatment process, 587 List of Inorganic Persistent and Bioaccumulative Toxic 645 Substances and Their Soluble Threshold Limit Concentration (U.S EPA), 616 Local mass transfer coefficients, 120 Locational running annual average (LRAA), 573 Log molar concentration, 50 Log removal value (LRV), 30–31, 303, 559 Long Term Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule (LT2ESWTR), 530 Long-wave UV (UV-A), 543 Looping, 576 Low-pressure high-intensity UV lamps, 544–546 Low-pressure low-intensity UV lamps, 544–546 LOX (liquid oxygen), 541–542 LRAA (locational running annual average), 573 LRV, see Log removal value LT2ESWTR (Long Term Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule), 530 Lumen, 287 M McCabe–Thiele diagrams, see Operating diagrams Macroflocculation (orthokinetic flocculation): collision frequency for, 166–168, 170 defined, 141, 165 and destabilization, 148 Macroreticular resins, 387 Magnetic ion exchange (MIEX) resin, 427–429 Manganese, 9, 10, 358 Manufacturer design programs, reverse osmosis, 359–360 Mass: of coagulation sludge, 597–598 stochiometric calculation of, 54–55 Mass balance analysis, 66–73 accumulation term, 69 for batch reactors, 559 control volumes and system boundaries, 67–68 646 Index Mass balance analysis (continued) for countercurrent packed tower, 449–452 determination of suspended-media dose with, 423–424 fundamental equation, 68–69 input and output terms, 69–70 liquid-phase mass balance around a differential element, 456–457 for ozonation in reactors, 492–494 reaction terms, 71 for separation process, 71–73 Mass concentration, 48, 49 Mass flow, 70, 106, 248 Mass flux, 70, 106 Mass fraction, 49 Mass transfer, 103–131 diffusion coefficients for, 106–115 equation, 103–104 at interface, 115–126 in molecular diffusion, 104–106 operating diagrams for concentration gradient, 126–131 overall mass transfer rate constant, 456–457 of solute in adsorption, 382–386 through RO membranes, 339–343 in two-film model, 120–121 Mass transfer coefficients: concentration polarization, 350–351 and diffusion coefficient/ boundary layer thickness, 116 in film model, 118 and flux, 340 local, 120 in packed-tower aeration, 464–468 Mass transfer-limited processes, 103 Mass transfer zone (MTZ), 383, 384, 405, 407 Mass units, 623 Maturation, 242–243 Maximum contaminant level (MCL), 20, 538, 573, 575 Maximum contaminant level goal (MCLG), 20 Maximum specific throughput, 404 MCL, see Maximum contaminant level MCLG (maximum contaminant level goal), 20 Mean residence time, 89–90, 92–95 Mechanical dewatering, 609–610 Mechanical flocculation, 170–174 Mechanical gravity thickening, 605, 606 Medium-pressure high-intensity UV lamps, 544–546 Membrane elements, reverse osmosis, 329–331 Membrane filters, 286–296 chemistry of, 289 flow in, 305–309 geometry of, 286–288 internal structure, 289, 291–292 module configuration, 292–296 physical properties of, 289–291 Membrane filtration, 281–322 defined, 282, 301 equipment for, 286–296 fouling, 309–315 hydraulics of flow in membrane filters, 305–309 membrane processes, 282–284 membrane skid sizes, 316–319 particle capture in, 301–305 process, 296–301 rapid granular filtration vs., 281, 284–286, 320–321 reverse osmosis vs., 284 sustainability and energy consumption of, 319–321 Membrane flux, 306–307 Membrane fouling, see Fouling Membrane fouling index (MFI), 312–315 Membrane processes: classification of, 282–284 reverse osmosis vs., 327–329 Membrane resistance coefficient, 306, 307 Membrane skids: defined, 293 for reverse osmosis, 332 sizing of, 316–319 Metal ion coagulants: and cationic organic polymers, 158, 159 stochiometric of, 152–155 Metal salts: aluminum and iron, 150–151 initial mixing with, 157 prehydrolyzed, 155 Methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE), 481–484 MFI (membrane fouling index), 312–315 Microfiltration (MF) membranes: backwashing of, 299 defined, 283 removal of microorganisms by, 304, 305 retention rating for, 302 and sustainability, 320 Microflocculation (perikinetic flocculation): collision frequency for, 169–170 defined, 141, 165 and destabilization, 148 Microorganisms: action spectrum of, 547–548 observed disinfection data for, 556–557 removal by membrane filtration, 304–305 and residual maintenance of disinfection, 575–576 in residuals, 595 specific log inactivation of, 530 Middle-wave UV (UV-B), 543, 544 MIEX (magnetic ion exchange) resin, 427–429 Minimum carbon usage rate, 404 Mixing, 157, 162–163 Module configuration, membrane filter, 292–296 Molar concentration (molarity), 48–49 Molecular diffusion, mass transfer in, 104–106 Molecular separation at collision, 114 Index Molecular weight cutoff (MWCO), 302, 341 Mole fraction, 49 Monitoring, membrane filter, 300–301 Monochloramine, 533, 534 Monod equation, 62 MS2 bacteriophage, 553–554 MTBE (methyl tert-butyl ether), 481–484 MTZ, see Mass transfer zone Multicomponent adsorption, 382 Multicomponent ion exchange, 396–399 Multimedia filters, 272 Multiple-barrier concept, 32–33 Municipal drinking water systems, source waters, 9–16 MWCO (molecular weight cutoff), 302, 341 N N (normality), 49–50 Nanofiltration (NF) membranes, 283, 284, 328, 341 NaOH (sodium hydroxide), 153, 487 National Interim Primary Drinking Water Regulations (NIPDWR), 17 National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit, 601, 602 National Primary Drinking Water Regulations (NPDWR), 17 National Secondary Drinking Water Regulations (NSDWR), 17–18 Natural organic matter (NOM): and AOP performance, 483–484 and chlorine addition, 531 and coagulation, 156 and enhanced coagulation, 159–160 fouling by, 311 in groundwater, 11 in hydrogen peroxide/UV light process, 513–518 hydroxyl radical from ozone and, 487, 490–491 removal of, 139–140 in rivers, 14 Nernst–Haskell equation, 111–112 NF membranes, see Nanofiltration membranes NIPDWR (National Interim Primary Drinking Water Regulations), 17 NOM, see Natural organic matter Nominal molecular weight limit (NMWL), 302 Normality (N), 49–50 NPDES (National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System) permit, 601, 602 NPDWR (National Primary Drinking Water Regulations), 17 NSDWR (National Secondary Drinking Water Regulations), 17–18 Number of transfer unit (NTU), 457–459 O Odor compounds, 375 Onda correlations, 464–465 Online production factor, 316–317 Operating diagrams, 126–131, 452 Operating history, process selection and, 34 Operating line, 127–128, 452, 453 Opportunistic pathogens, 6–7 Order, reaction, 61–62, 79–80 Organic compounds: diffusion coefficients for, 112–115 volatile, 447–448 Organic particles, 139 Organic polymers, coagulation with, 157–159 Orthokinetic flocculation, see Macroflocculation Osmosis, 336 Osmotic coefficient, 337, 338 Osmotic pressure: and energy consumption, 361–362 647 and performance of RO membranes, 345 and reverse osmosis, 335–339 Outlet currents, 229–230 Outlet zone, 215 Outside-in filtration, 287–288 Overall cycle time, for ion exchange columns, 420 Overall mass transfer rate constant (KL a), 456–457 Overflow rate, 202 Overflow weirs, 215, 226 Over–under baffled contactors, 570–571 Oxidant, 66 Oxidation, 66 See also Advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) conventional vs advanced, 477–478 of soluble metals, 358 Oxidation–reduction reactions, 66, 477 Oxygen: from ambient air, 539–541 liquid, 541–542 for ozone production, 539–542 pure, 541–542 side-stream injection of, 542 Ozonation, 486–494 in batch/plug flow reactor, 492–494 bench-scale tests of destruction by, 494 hydroxyl radical production, 487–492 Ozone See also Hydrogen peroxide/ozone process addition of, to process stream, 531 addition of hydrogen peroxide and, 499 decomposition of, 79–80 disinfection with, 527–529, 538–542 hydrogen peroxide in water with, 499–500 in hydroxyl radical production, 487–492 ratio of hydrogen peroxide to, 495 Ozone decay, 539 648 Index Ozone demand, 538–539 Ozone injection systems, 542 P PAC, see Powdered activated carbon Packed towers: cleaning of, 471 cross-sectional area of, 461–464 design vs rating analysis of, 468–470 height of, 455–459, 468–470 mass balance analysis for, 449–452 performance of, 470–471 Packed-tower air stripping, 449–471 analysis, 468–471 design, 459–470 minimum air-to-water ratio, 453–455 stripping factor, 452–453 Packing density, 287 Packing factor, 461 PACl (polyaluminum chloride), 596 Paddle wheel flocculators, 181–186 Parallel operation, of fixed-bed contactors, 416–417 Particle capture: in depth filtration, 246–247 efficiency of, 242 and fundamental filtration model, 246–255 in membrane filtration, 301–305 in rapid granular filtration, 246–255 in straining, 246 Particle collision: frequency function, 166–170 rate of, 165–166 Particles in water: destabilization of, 148 electrical properties of, 142–146 particle-solvent interactions, 142 stability of, 146–148 Particle–particle interactions, 146–148 Particle porosity, for fixed-bed contactors, 403 Particle removal: by depth filtration, 246–247 in sedimentation basin, 203–205 with tube and lamella plate clarifiers, 220, 222 Particle settling, see specific types, e.g.: Discrete (Type I) particle settling Particle–solvent interactions, 142 Particle surface charge, 143–144 Particulate matter: fouling by, 353–354 and UV disinfection, 549, 550 Pathogens, 6–7 Peclet number, 250 Percent transmittance, 549 Perikinetic flocculation, see Microflocculation Periodic table of elements, 634 Permeate, 287, 327, 334 Permeate collection tubes, 330 PFRs, see Plug flow reactors pH, 50 and AOP performance, 484–485 and coagulation, 156 and Henry’s constant, 449 of RO permeate, 334 Photolysis, 508–510 Photonic intensity per unit volume, 508 Physical adsorption, 375, 376 Physical properties: of coagulation sludge, 598 of gases, 627–629 of membrane filters, 289–291 of residuals, 591–594 and sedimentation, 228–230 of water, 631–632 Physiochemical properties: process selection based on, 26–28 of waste wash water, 600–601 Pilot plants, 41 Pilot testing: of adsorption systems, 385, 386 of fixed-bed contactors, 407–409 of membrane filters, 316–319 process selection based on, 41 of rapid granular filters, 259–264 of reverse osmosis systems, 361, 362 Pipeline contactors, 568 Piping, for rapid granular filters, 241 pK values, 58 Plate-and-frame filter presses, 612–613 Plate clarifiers, 220–222 Plug flow reactors (PFRs): hydraulic characteristics, 82–84 as ideal reactors, 75–76 operating diagram in analysis of, 130–131 ozonation performance in, 492–494 reactions in, 86–88 p notation, 50 Point of exhaustion, 384 Polyaluminum chloride (PACl), 596 Polyamide membranes, 332 Polyelectrolytes, 141, 158 Polymers: cationic organic, 158, 159 as conditioners for dewatering sludge, 609 organic, 157–159 for sludge thickening, 610 Polymer bridging, 149 Polypropylene membranes, 289 Pore blocking, 310 Pore constriction, 310 Pore size: for adsorption, 370–372 IUPAC convention, 372 for membrane filtration, 302 Porosity: adsorbent, 370–372 bed, 266–267, 403 particle, 403 Posttreatment: membrane filtration, 301 reverse osmosis, 334 Powdered activated carbon (PAC): dose determination, 127–131, 425, 427 in fixed-bed vs suspendedmedia contactors, 374, 375 Index Power input to water, 182 Power number, 176–177 Power units, 623 Precipitates, 471, 596 Precipitation: and enmeshment destabilization, 150 of inorganic salts, 354–358 and iron/alum coagulants, 595–597 Precipitation–dissolution reactions, 65–66 Prehydrolyzed metal salts, 155 Preliminary process analysis, for fixed-bed contactors, 406 Presaturant, 387, 395–399 Presedimentation, 194 Pressure: atmospheric, 628–629 and membrane filtration hydraulics, 308–309 osmotic, 335–339 and performance of RO membranes, 344–345 pressure drop in ion exchange columns, 419 pressure drop in packed tower, 460–465 transmembrane, 293, 294 vapor, 443–444 Pressure-based integrity monitoring, 300 Pressure belt filters, 610–613 Pressure units, 623 Pressure-vessel membrane modules, 293–294 Pretreatment: for membrane filtration, 298–299 for rapid granular filtration, 244–245 for reverse osmosis, 332–334, 358 ‘‘Pristine’’ water, Process reliability, 31 Process selection, 25–43 contaminant properties in, 26–30 cost in, 34 and multiple-barrier concept, 32–33 operating history in, 34 and process train selection, 39–42 reliability in, 31–33 removal efficiency in, 30–31 sustainability and energy consumption in, 34–39 utility experience in, 34 Process train, see Treatment trains Products, 52 Pseudo first order disinfection data, 557 Pseudo-first-order rate constant, 480, 499 Pseudo-steady-state approximation, 496, 497, 511–513 Public health, 5–9 Pulse input, tracer test, 77 Pumps: booster, 362–363 reverse osmosis feed, 361, 362 specific energy consumption for, 37–38 variable frequency drive, 320 Pumping number, 176, 177 Pure oxygen, 541–542 Q Quantum yield, of hydrogen peroxide/UV light process, 508 Quenching rate, 482 R RAA (running annual average), 573 Radial flow impellers, 174, 178 Radicals, 479, 495–496 See also Hydroxyl radical Raoult’s law, 443–445 Rapid filtration, 235 Rapid granular filters, 236–242 Rapid granular filtration, 235–275 backwash hydraulics, 266–273 clean-bed head loss, 255–258 filters for, 236–242 membrane filtration vs., 281, 284–286, 320–321 optimization, 264 particle capture in, 246–255 performance modeling, 258–264 649 process, 242–245 sustainability and energy consumption for, 273–274 unit filter run volume for, 264–266 Rapid-mix practices, 163–165 Rapid small-scale column testing (RSSCT), 385–386, 409–411 Rate equations, 61–62 Rate laws for decay, 498–500 Rates of formation (radicals), 495–496 Rating analysis, packed tower, 468–470 RCRA (Resource Conservation and Recovery Act), 616 Reactants, 52 Reaction characteristics, in reactor analysis, 76 Reaction order, 61–62, 79–80 Reaction rate, 60–62 See also Kinetics Reaction rate constants, 63, 79–80 Reaction stoichiometry, 53–55 Reaction time, advanced oxidation, 481–482 Reactivity, 513 Reactors, 73–103 batch, see Batch reactors defined, 73 flow, see Flow reactors hydraulics of UV, 550–551 for hydrogen peroxide/ozone process, 501–505 for hydrogen peroxide/UV light process, 510 and reactor analysis, 73–77 real, 73, 74 for UV disinfection, 545–547, 554–555 Reactor clarifiers, 222, 225 ‘‘Reactor’’ control volumes, 68 Real flow reactors, 95–103 hydraulic performance, 95–101 reactions in, 101–103 Real reactors, 73, 74 Recovery, 37 allowable, 355–357 of coagulant, 613 of energy from concentrate stream, 334 650 Index Recovery (continued) from membrane filters, 316 from rapid granular filters, 265–266 from reverse osmosis, 342, 343, 363 Rectangular sedimentation basins: applications of, 223 design of, 212–218, 223 discrete sedimentation in, 201–205 with tube and lamella plate clarifiers, 220–222 Recycle waste streams, 601–602 Reductant, 66 Reduction, 66 Reference materials, process selection based on, 41 Regeneration: co-current, 417–418 countercurrent, 418 of ion exchange columns, 390, 417–418 in ion exchange system design, 420–421 Regeneration curves, 414–415 Regeneration cycle time, 421–423 Regulations: for disinfection by-products, 573, 575 for water treatment, 17–21, 526, 564, 565 Regulatory constraints, for residuals management, 590 Regulatory guidance, for process selection, 41 Rejection, 302–303, 340–341 Reliability, in process selection, 31–33 Removal efficiency: and diameter of filter media, 253–255 in process selection, 30–31 Rennecker–Mari˜ nas model, 561–564 Research, process selection based on, 41 Reservoirs, 15–16 Residence time (t10 ), 531 hydraulic, 81–82, 84–85 mean, 89–90, 92–95 Residence time distribution (RTD), 89, 91, 95, 566 Residuals: from membrane filtration, 301 properties of, 591–595 quantities of, 586, 589 semisolid, 587, 614–616 solid, 587 sources of, 586–589 Residual maintenance, of disinfection, 530, 575–576 Residuals management, 585–617 for coagulation sludge, 595–599 constituents of concern, 588, 590 constraints for, 590 defined, 585 for liquid waste, 599–604 and membrane filtration, 301 properties of residuals, 591–595 quantities of residuals, 586, 589 reuse and disposal of semisolid residuals, 614–616 sources of residuals, 586–589 unit processes for residual sludge, 604–613 Resins, ion exchange, see Ion exchange resins Resistance-in-series model, 311–312 Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), 616 Retentate, 287 Retention rating, membrane, 302 Reuse, of semisolid residuals, 614 Reverse osmosis (RO), 327–364 concentration polarization, 348–353 defined, 339 fouling, 353–354, 358–359 membrane array design, 359–361 membrane filtration vs., 284 membrane performance, 343–348 membrane processes vs., 327–329 membranes for, 282–284 and osmotic pressure, 335–339 residuals management for concentrate, 604 scaling, 354–358 Reverse osmosis facilities, 329–335 concentrate management, 334–335 energy recovery from concentrate stream, 334 membrane elements, 329–331 membrane skids, stages, and arrays, 332 membrane structure and chemistry, 331–332 posttreatment in, 334 pretreatment in, 332–334 Reverse osmosis membranes: elements of, 329–331 fouling of, 353–354, 358–359 mass transfer through, 339–343 membrane array designs, 359–361 performance of, 343–348 scaling of, 354–358 skids, stages, and arrays of, 332 structure and chemistry of, 331–332 Reversibility, of fouling, 310–311 Reversible reactions, 52 Reynolds number, 123–125 and drag coefficient, 197–199 and flow regimes, 256 and horizontal-flow velocity, 214–215 for horizontal paddle wheel flocculators, 182 for vertical turbine flocculators, 175–176 Rinse water, ion exchange system, 421 Ripening, 242–243 Rivers, 12–15 RO, see Reverse osmosis Root-mean-square (RMS) velocity gradient, 162–163, 168 Roughing filters, 226 RSSCT (rapid small-scale column testing), 385–386, 409–411 RTD, see Residence time distribution Running annual average (RAA), 573 S SAC exchange resins, see Strongacid cation exchange resins Index Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA), 17–18 Salinity, groundwater, 11 Salt(s): limiting, 355–358 metal, 150–151, 155, 157 precipitation of, 354–358 Salt rejection, 341 Saltwater intrusion, 12, 13 Saturation concentration, 496 Saturation loading curve, 413–414 SBA exchange resins, see Strong-base anion exchange resins Scaling, 332, 333, 354–358 Scavenging, 482–484 Schmidt number, 123, 124 SDI (silt density test), 354 SDWA (Safe Drinking Water Act), 17–18 Seawater, 16 Secondary disinfection, 526 Second-order reactions, 61–62 Sedimentation, 193–232 alternative processes, 220–228 ballasted, 225, 227–228 conventional, 194 defined, 193 discrete particle settling, 196–205 flocculant particle settling, 205–206 in fundamental filtration model, 250–251 high-rate, 602, 603 hindered particle settling, 206–211 physical factors affecting, 228–230 pre-, 194 in rectangular sedimentation basins, 201–205 sustainability and energy consumption, 230–231 and types of particle suspensions, 194–196 Sedimentation basins, 194, 211–219 See also Rectangular sedimentation basins circular, 218–219, 223 conventional design, 211–219 discrete particle settling in, 201–205 flocculant particle settling in, 206 flow equalization for, 601 Segregated-flow model (SFM), 566 Selectivity, 392–394 Semibatch strategy, 296 Semipermeable materials, 327 Semisolid residuals, 587, 614–616 Separation factor, 395–397 Separation process, mass balance analysis for, 71–73 Septic systems, 11 Series operation, of fixed-bed contactors, 415–416 Serpentine basin contactors, 568–569 Service loading rate, 402 Settling velocity: critical, 202–203 and settling zone design, 213–214 and solids flux, 207–208 terminal, 197–201 Settling zone, 201–202, 213–215 SFM (segregated-flow model), 566 Sherwood number, 123–125 Short circuiting, 218, 551, 566–567 Short-wave UV (UV-C), 543, 544 Side-stream injection, of oxygen, 542 Sieving, see Straining Silt density test (SDI), 354 Simplified pseudo-steady-state (Sim-PSS) model, 499 AdOx and pseudo-steady-state model vs., 511–513 estimating effluent concentration with, 514–517 of hydrogen peroxide/UV light process, 508–510 SI units, 622–626, 631 Skids, see Membrane skids ‘‘Skinned’’ structure, 291 Sludge: conditioning of, 609 density of, 592–594 gravity and pressure belt filters for, 610–613 651 iron and alum coagulation, 595–599 liquid waste from sludgeprocessing operations, 601–604 recovery of coagulant from, 613 residuals management for, 595–599, 604–613 thickening/dewatering of, 605–610 unit processes for, 604–613 volume of, 593–594 Sludge blanket, 226 Sludge blanket clarifiers, 222, 225, 226 Sludge lagoons, 606–608 Sludge produced to coagulant added (CR) ratio, 597 Sludge zone, 215–216 Small-diameter columns, ion exchange, 412–415 Small neutral molecules, diffusion coefficients for, 108–110 SOCs (synthetic organic chemicals), 478 Sodium chloride, 338, 339 Sodium hydroxide (NaOH), 153, 487 Sodium hypochlorite, 532–533, 536–537 Solids concentration, 229, 295, 296 Solids contact clarifiers, 222–227 design criteria and applications of, 224 reactor clarifiers, 222, 225 roughing filters and adsorption clarifiers, 226–227 sludge blanket clarifiers, 222, 225, 226 Solids flux analysis, 207–209 Solid residuals, 587 Solids thickening, 209–211 Solubility, 151–152, 377 Solubility product, 65 Soluble metals, oxidation of, 358 Solute(s): Freundlich isotherm for single solute, 379–382 Langmuir isotherm for single solute, 377–379 652 Index Solute(s): (continued) mass transfer of, in adsorption, 382–386 multicomponent adsorption, 382 Solute flux, 341–343, 350 Solute rejection, 340–341 Solution–diffusion model, 340 Solvents, 142 Source waters (municipal drinking water systems), 9–16 groundwater, 9–12 lakes and reservoirs, 15–16 rivers, 12–15 seawater, 16 wastewater-impaired waters, 16 Specific area, 116–117 Specific deposit, 259–260 Specific energy consumption, 37–38 Specific flux, 308–309 Specific gravity, 592 Specific log inactivation, 530 Specific resistance, 594 Specific throughput, maximum, 404 Spiral-wound membrane elements, 330–331, 351–352 Stability, of particles in water, 146–148 Stages, RO membrane, 332 Stage D/DBP Rule, 573 Stage D/DBP Rule, 573 Stagnant layers, of two-film model, 119 Standardization, of RO operating data, 345–348 Steady state, 69, 76 Step input, tracer test, 77 Steric exclusion, see Straining Stern layer, 145 Stoichiometry, 53–55, 152–155 Stokes–Einstein equation, 108 Stokes’ law, 199 Straining, 246, 303, 304 Stratification, 271–272 Stripping factor, 452–455 Strong-acid cation (SAC) exchange resins, 387–389 exchange capacity, 390 selectivity, 393 separation factors for, 396, 397 Strong-base anion (SBA) exchange resins, 387–390 exchange capacity, 390 selectivity, 393 separation factors for, 396, 397 Structural imperfections, surface charge and, 143 Submerged membrane modules, 294–296 Substrate, 62 Superficial velocity, 402 Surface area: for adsorption, 370–372 for mass transfer, 116–118 Surface interactions, 375, 376 Surface loading rate, 213 Surface wash system, 240, 244 Surface waters, 602 Surface Water Treatment Rule (SWTR), 530, 565 Surfactants, 448–449 Suspended-media contactors, 374 Suspended-media reactors, 423–429 dose requirements, 423–425 performance of, 426–429 Suspended particles, 142 Sustainability: of adsorption/ion exchange, 429–430 of advanced oxidation processes, 518–519 of air stripping, 471–472 defined, 34 of disinfection processes, 577–578 of flocculation/coagulation, 186–187 of membrane filtration, 319–321 and process selection, 34–39 of rapid granular filtration, 273–274 of sedimentation, 230–231 in water treatment, Sweep floc, 150 SWTR (Surface Water Treatment Rule), 530, 565 Synthetic organic chemicals (SOCs), 478 System boundaries, 68 T t10 , see Residence time t10 /τ ratio, 96–97 designing disinfection contactors for, 569–570 and number of tanks in TIS model, 100–101 Tanks-in-series (TIS) model, 97–101 for disinfection, 566 number of tanks in, 100–101 and reactions in real flow reactors, 101–103 Tapered flocculation, 174 Target compound, see Destruction of target compound Taste compounds, 375 Taylor’s dispersion equation, 568 TCLP (toxicity characteristic leaching procedure), 614, 615 TDS (total dissolved solids), 393–394 TE model of filtration, 248–249 attachment efficiency of, 252–253 media diameter and removal efficiency for, 253–255 transport mechanisms in, 249–252 Temperature: and coagulation, 156 and density currents, 228–229 and density of air, 627–628 and equilibrium constants, 60 and Henry’s constant, 448 and membrane filtration hydraulics, 307–309 and packed-tower performance, 470 and performance of RO membranes, 344 and rate constants, 63 Temperature units, 624 Terminal settling velocity, 197–201 Textbooks, process selection based on, 41 Thickening: area required for, 209–211 dissolved air flotation, 606 flotation, 606 Index with gravity and pressure belt filters, 610–613 mechanical gravity, 605–608 of sludge, 605–608, 610–613 Thin-film composite membranes, 332 THMs, see Trihalomethanes THM Rule, 573 Time, for destruction of target by ozonation, 493–494 Time available for water production, 316–317 Time dependence, of reactor analysis, 76 TIS model, see Tanks-in-series model Total dissolved solids (TDS), 393–394 Total solids, 592 Total transport efficiency, 251–252 Towers, 442 See also Packed towers Toxicity characteristic leaching procedure (TCLP), 614, 615 Trace inorganics, in groundwater, 10 Tracers: defined, 76, 89 mass of tracer recovered from test, 90–91 Tracer curves, 81–84 Tracer tests, 88–95 cumulative exit age distribution, 91–92 defined, 76 exit age distribution, 91 inputs for, 77 mass of tracer recovered from, 90–91 mean and variance, 89–90 Trailing vortices, 178 Transition flow, 199 Transmembrane pressure, 293, 294 Transmission, of UV light, 507 Transmittance, 549, 550 Transport efficiency, 247–248 by diffusion, 249–250 by interception, 251 by sedimentation, 250–251 total, 251–252 Transport mechanisms, in fundamental filtration model, 249–252 Trapezoidal rule, 90 Traveling bridges, 216 Treatment techniques, 41 Treatment trains, 25–26, 39–42 Trichloramine, 533 Trihalomethanes (THMs), 572–574, 576 Tube clarifiers, 220–222 Tubular membranes, 287 Turbidity, 247, 285, 286 Turbine flocculators, 174–181 Turnover, lake, 16 Two-film model, 118–122 applications of, 121–122 conditions at interface, 119–120 conditions in stagnant layers, 119 mass transfer relationship, 120–121 Two-stage filtration, 245 Type I particle settling, see Discrete (Type I) particle settling Type II particle settling, see Flocculant (Type II) particle settling Type III particle settling, see Hindered (Type III) particle settling Type IV particle settling, 195–196 U UBWV (unit backwash volume), 265 UC (uniformity coefficient), 237–239 UFRV (unit filter run volume), 264–266 Ultrafiltration (UF) membranes: backwashing of, 299 defined, 283, 284 removal of microorganisms by, 304, 305 retention rate for, 302 and sustainability, 320 Ultraviolet (UV) equipment, 545–546 Ultraviolet (UV) light See also Hydrogen peroxide/UV light process 653 action spectrums of, 547–548 addition to process stream, 531 disinfection with, 527–529, 543–555 dose of, 548, 551–554 dose-response curves for, 551–554 in electromagnetic spectrum, 543–544 inactivation by, 546 intensity of, 551–552 performance of UV disinfection systems, 548–551 sources of, 544–545 transmission of, 507 validation testing of UV reactors, 554–555 Underdrain: flow to the, 208–210 for rapid granular filter, 239–240 Underflow, 586 Underground storage tanks, 11 Uniformity coefficient (UC), 237–239 Unit backwash volume (UBWV), 265 Unit conversion factors, 445–447, 622–626 U.S customary units, 622–626, 632 U.S Environmental Protection Agency (U.S EPA), 616 disinfection by-product regulations, 573, 575 disinfection contact time, 566 TCLP procedure, 614, 615 treatment techniques, 41 water treatment regulations from, 17, 18, 564, 565 U.S Public Health Service (U.S PHS), 17 Unit filter run volume (UFRV), 264–266 Unit processes: defined, 25 for residual sludge, 604–613 selection of, see Process selection Upflow clarifiers, 218–219, 223 Utility experience, 34 UV-A (long-wave UV), 543 654 Index UV-B (middle-wave UV), 543, 544 UV-C (short-wave UV), 543, 544 UV (ultraviolet) equipment, 545–546 UV light, see Ultraviolet light UV light/hydrogen peroxide (UV/H2 O2 ) process, 505–506 V Validation testing, UV reactor, 554–555 Valves, rapid granular filter, 241 Van der Waals forces, 146–147 Van’t Hoff equation, 336–337 Van’t Hoff relationship, 60 Vapor pressure, 443–444 Variable frequency drive (VFD) pumps, 320 Variance, of tracer test results, 90, 92–95 Velocity gradient, RMS, 162–163, 168 Velocity units, 624 Vertical turbine flocculators, 174–181 design of, 178–181 in flocculation practice, 171–173 impeller design, 174–177 impeller shape, 177–178 VFD (variable frequency drive) pumps, 320 Viruses, 305 Volatile organic compounds (VOCs), 447–448 Volume: bed, 401 control, 67–68 equivalents/volume, 49–50 of sludge, 593–594 unit backwash, 265 unit filter run, 264–266 Volume units, 624 W WAC exchange resins, see Weak-acid cation exchange resins Wash troughs, 241 Waste extraction test (WET), 615 Waste wash water, 599–602 Wastewater collection system, 602, 604 Wastewater-impaired waters, 16 Water: addition of hydrogen peroxide to water containing ozone, 499–500 adsorbate–water interactions, 375, 376 air-to-water ratio, 453–455 air–water interface, 457–459 particles in, see Particles in water physical properties of, 631–632 Waterborne disease: history of, 5–7 transmission of, 7–9 Water distribution system, maintenance of disinfection in, 575–576 Water flux, 341–343 Water mass loading rate, 462 Water quality: effect on inorganic metallic coagulants, 156–157 and public health, 5–9 Water–surface interactions, 375, 376 Water treatment: chemical reactions in, 63–66 coagulation and flocculation in, 140–142 defined, principles, 2–3 sustainability in, trends and challenges, 21–23 Water treatment regulations, 17–21, 526, 564, 565 Water vapor, 540, 541 Watson, Herbert, 557 Watson equation, 557–559 Watson plots, 558–559 Weak-acid cation (WAC) exchange resins, 387–389, 391, 393 Weak-base anion (WBA) exchange resins, 387–388, 390, 391, 393 Website, textbook, 635 Weight, equivalent, 50 Weirs: and outlet currents, 229–230 for rectangular sedimentation basins, 215 for sludge blanket clarifiers, 226 for upflow clarifiers, 218 WET (waste extraction test), 615 Wet sludge, volume of, 593 Wet-volume capacity, 390, 391 Width, of settling zone, 215 Wilke–Lee correlation, 112–115 Wind effects, 229 Z Zeolites, 372 Zero liquid discharge (ZLD), 335, 363 Zero point of charge (ZPC), 144 Zeta potential, 146 ZLD (zero liquid discharge), 335, 363 Zone settling, see Hindered (Type III) particle settling Zoonotic diseases, 6, ZPC (zero point of charge), 144 [...]... the length of this one, that provides more comprehensive coverage of the field of drinking water treatment and is suitable as both a textbook and a reference for practicing professionals The unit process chapters of MWH’s Water Treatment: Principles and Design contain a detailed analysis of the principles of treatment processes as well as in-depth material on design MWH’s Water Treatment: Principles. .. focus of this book is the principles of water treatment for the production of potable or drinking water on a municipal level Water treatment, however, encompasses a much wider range of problems and ultimate uses, including home treatment units and facilities for industrial water 1 2 1 Introduction treatment with a wide variety of water quality requirements that depend on the specific industry Water treatment. .. microbiological quality of water, removal of selected contaminants, internal corrosion of water conduits, and case studies that are not included in this book Students who use this textbook in a class on water treatment and go on to a career in design of water treatment facilities are encouraged to consult MWH’s Water Treatment: Principles and Design on topics that were beyond the scope of this textbook xv... in the water treatment industry that require engineers to have a greater understanding of fundamental principles underlying treatment processes Some of these changes include increasing contamination of water supplies, increasing rate of technological development, and increasing sophistication of treatment facilities Early treatment practices were primarily focused on the aesthetic quality of water and... complexity of treatment processes Chapter 2 describes the relationship between water quality and public health, introduces the types of constituents that are present in various water supplies, and outlines some of the challenges faced by water treatment professionals Chapter 3 introduces how the physicochemical properties of constituents in water and other factors guide the selection of treatment processes... number of natural and synthetic chemicals Increasing population and the contamination of water with municipal, agricultural, and industrial wastes has led to a deterioration of water quality and nearly all sources of water require some form of treatment before potable use This textbook is designed to serve as an introduction to the field of water treatment and the processes that are used to make water. .. Tchobanoglous, G (2012) MWH’s Water Treatment: Principles and Design, 3rd ed., Wiley, Hoboken, NJ Kawamura, S (2000) Integrated Design and Operation of Water Treatment Facilities, Wiley, New York 2 2-1 2-2 2-3 2-4 Water Quality and Public Health Relationship between Water Quality and Public Health Source Waters for Municipal Drinking Water Systems Regulations of Water Treatment in the United States... changes the water quality at the location of the intake, requiring changes in treatment practices Seawater Declining availability of freshwater sources may portend an increase in the use of ocean water or seawater as a water supply About 97.5 percent of the Earth’s water is in the oceans and about 75 percent of the world’s population lives in coastal areas The salinity of the ocean ranges from about 34,000... xvii 1 Introduction 1 1-1 The Importance of Principles 1-2 The Importance of Sustainability References 2 4 4 2 Water Quality and Public Health 2-1 Relationship between Water Quality and Public Health 2-2 Source Waters for Municipal Drinking Water Systems 2-3 Regulations of Water Treatment in the United States 2-4 Evolving Trends and Challenges in Drinking Water Treatment 2-5 Summary and Study Guide References... sources of contaminants in water supplies The basic features of drinking water regulations in the United States are introduced The chapter ends with a description of some of the challenges, competing issues, and compromises that water treatment engineers must balance to successfully design a water treatment system 2-1 Relationship between Water Quality and Public Health Prior to the middle of the nineteenth