lessons in electric circuits 3 Semic

AMPLIFIERS AND ACTIVE DEVICES 1 1.1 F rom electric to electronic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.2 Active versus passive devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1.3 Ampli¯ers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1.4 Ampli¯er gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 1.5 Decibels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 1.6 Absolute dB scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 2 SOLIDST ATE DEVICE THEOR Y 15 2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 2.2 Quantum physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 2.3 Band theory of solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 2.4 Electrons and holes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 2.5 The PN junction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 2.6 Junction diodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 2.7 Bipolar junction transistors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 2.8 Junction ¯elde®ect transistors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 2.9 Insulatedgate ¯elde®ect transistors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 2.10 Thyristors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 2.11 Semiconductor manufacturing techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 2.12 Superconducting devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 2.13 Quantum devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 2.14 Semiconductor devices in SPICE . . . .

Third Edition, last update August 23, 2002 Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume III – Semiconductors By Tony R Kuphaldt Third Edition, last update August 23, 2002 i c 2000-2002, Tony R Kuphaldt This book is published under the terms and conditions of the Design Science License These terms and conditions allow for free copying, distribution, and/or modification of this document by the general public The full Design Science License text is included in the last chapter As an open and collaboratively developed text, this book is distributed in the hope that it will be useful, but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE See the Design Science License for more details PRINTING HISTORY • First Edition: Printed in June of 2000 Plain-ASCII illustrations for universal computer readability • Second Edition: Printed in September of 2000 Illustrations reworked in standard graphic (eps and jpeg) format Source files translated to Texinfo format for easy online and printed publication • Third Edition: Printed in January 2002 Source files translated to SubML format SubML is a simple markup language designed to easily convert to other markups like LATEX, HTML, or DocBook using nothing but search-and-replace substitutions ii Contents AMPLIFIERS AND ACTIVE DEVICES 1.1 From electric to electronic 1.2 Active versus passive devices 1.3 Amplifiers 1.4 Amplifier gain 1.5 Decibels 1.6 Absolute dB scales 1 2 13 SOLID-STATE DEVICE THEORY 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Quantum physics 2.3 Band theory of solids 2.4 Electrons and ”holes” 2.5 The P-N junction 2.6 Junction diodes 2.7 Bipolar junction transistors 2.8 Junction field-effect transistors 2.9 Insulated-gate field-effect transistors 2.10 Thyristors 2.11 Semiconductor manufacturing techniques 2.12 Superconducting devices 2.13 Quantum devices 2.14 Semiconductor devices in SPICE 15 15 15 27 29 30 30 31 31 32 33 34 34 34 34 DIODES AND RECTIFIERS 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Meter check of a diode 3.3 Diode ratings 3.4 Rectifier circuits 3.5 Clipper circuits 3.6 Clamper circuits 3.7 Voltage multipliers 3.8 Inductor commutating circuits 3.9 Zener diodes 35 35 42 46 47 53 53 53 53 56 iii iv CONTENTS 3.10 Special-purpose diodes 3.10.1 Schottky diodes 3.10.2 Tunnel diodes 3.10.3 Light-emitting diodes 3.10.4 Laser diodes 3.10.5 Photodiodes 3.10.6 Varactor diodes 3.10.7 Constant-current diodes 3.11 Other diode technologies 64 64 64 65 68 69 69 69 70 BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTORS 4.1 Introduction 4.2 The transistor as a switch 4.3 Meter check of a transistor 4.4 Active mode operation 4.5 The common-emitter amplifier 4.6 The common-collector amplifier 4.7 The common-base amplifier 4.8 Biasing techniques 4.9 Input and output coupling 4.10 Feedback 4.11 Amplifier impedances 4.12 Current mirrors 4.13 Transistor ratings and packages 4.14 BJT quirks 71 71 74 77 82 91 109 118 126 140 147 154 155 158 159 JUNCTION FIELD-EFFECT TRANSISTORS 5.1 Introduction 5.2 The transistor as a switch 5.3 Meter check of a transistor 5.4 Active-mode operation 5.5 The common-source amplifier – PENDING 5.6 The common-drain amplifier – PENDING 5.7 The common-gate amplifier – PENDING 5.8 Biasing techniques – PENDING 5.9 Transistor ratings and packages – PENDING 5.10 JFET quirks – PENDING 161 161 163 166 168 178 179 179 179 179 180 INSULATED-GATE FIELD-EFFECT TRANSISTORS 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Depletion-type IGFETs 6.3 Enhancement-type IGFETs – PENDING 6.4 Active-mode operation – PENDING 6.5 The common-source amplifier – PENDING 6.6 The common-drain amplifier – PENDING 6.7 The common-gate amplifier – PENDING 181 181 181 191 191 192 192 192 CONTENTS 6.8 6.9 6.10 6.11 6.12 Biasing techniques – PENDING Transistor ratings and packages – IGFET quirks – PENDING MESFETs – PENDING IGBTs v PENDING 192 192 193 193 193 THYRISTORS 7.1 Hysteresis 7.2 Gas discharge tubes 7.3 The Shockley Diode 7.4 The DIAC 7.5 The Silicon-Controlled Rectifier (SCR) 7.6 The TRIAC 7.7 Optothyristors 7.8 The Unijunction Transistor (UJT) – PENDING 7.9 The Silicon-Controlled Switch (SCS) 7.10 Field-effect-controlled thyristors 197 197 198 201 208 209 220 222 223 223 225 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Single-ended and differential amplifiers 8.3 The ”operational” amplifier 8.4 Negative feedback 8.5 Divided feedback 8.6 An analogy for divided feedback 8.7 Voltage-to-current signal conversion 8.8 Averager and summer circuits 8.9 Building a differential amplifier 8.10 The instrumentation amplifier 8.11 Differentiator and integrator circuits 8.12 Positive feedback 8.13 Practical considerations: common-mode gain 8.14 Practical considerations: offset voltage 8.15 Practical considerations: bias current 8.16 Practical considerations: drift 8.17 Practical considerations: frequency response 8.18 Operational amplifier models 8.19 Data 227 227 227 232 238 241 244 249 250 253 255 256 259 263 267 269 274 275 276 281 PRACTICAL ANALOG SEMICONDUCTOR CIRCUITS 9.1 Power supply circuits – INCOMPLETE 9.1.1 Unregulated 9.1.2 Linear regulated 9.1.3 Switching 9.1.4 Ripple regulated 9.2 Amplifier circuits – PENDING 283 283 283 283 284 284 285 vi CONTENTS 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8 9.9 Oscillator circuits – PENDING Phase-locked loops – PENDING Radio circuits – PENDING Computational circuits Measurement circuits – PENDING Control circuits – PENDING Contributors 285 285 285 285 304 304 304 10 ACTIVE FILTERS 305 11 DC MOTOR DRIVES 307 12 INVERTERS AND AC MOTOR DRIVES 309 13 ELECTRON TUBES 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Early tube history 13.3 The triode 13.4 The tetrode 13.5 Beam power tubes 13.6 The pentode 13.7 Combination tubes 13.8 Tube parameters 13.9 Ionization (gas-filled) tubes 13.10Display tubes 13.11Microwave tubes 13.12Tubes versus Semiconductors 311 311 311 314 317 318 319 320 323 325 329 332 335 14 ABOUT THIS BOOK 14.1 Purpose 14.2 The use of SPICE 14.3 Acknowledgements 339 339 340 341 15 CONTRIBUTOR LIST 15.1 How to contribute to this book 15.2 Credits 15.2.1 Tony R Kuphaldt 15.2.2 Warren Young 15.2.3 Your name here 15.2.4 Typo corrections and other “minor” contributions 343 343 344 344 344 345 345 16 DESIGN SCIENCE LICENSE 16.1 Preamble 16.2 Definitions 16.3 Rights and copyright 16.4 Copying and distribution 16.5 Modification 347 347 347 348 348 349 CONTENTS 16.6 16.7 16.8 16.9 No restrictions Acceptance No warranty Disclaimer of liability vii 349 349 349 350 14.3 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 341 computer program called SPICE It is a text-based piece of software intended to model circuits and provide analyses of voltage, current, frequency, etc Although nothing is quite as good as building real circuits to gain knowledge in electronics, computer simulation is an excellent alternative In learning how to use this powerful tool, I made a discovery: SPICE could be used within a textbook to present circuit simulations to allow students to ”observe” the phenomena for themselves This way, the readers could learn the concepts inductively (by interpreting SPICE’s output) as well as deductively (by interpreting my explanations) Furthermore, in seeing SPICE used over and over again, they should be able to understand how to use it themselves, providing a perfectly safe means of experimentation on their own computers with circuit simulations of their own design Another advantage to including computer analyses in a textbook is the empirical verification it adds to the concepts presented Without demonstrations, the reader is left to take the author’s statements on faith, trusting that what has been written is indeed accurate The problem with faith, of course, is that it is only as good as the authority in which it is placed and the accuracy of interpretation through which it is understood Authors, like all human beings, are liable to err and/or communicate poorly With demonstrations, however, the reader can immediately see for themselves that what the author describes is indeed true Demonstrations also serve to clarify the meaning of the text with concrete examples SPICE is introduced early in volume I (DC) of this book series, and hopefully in a gentle enough way that it doesn’t create confusion For those wishing to learn more, a chapter in the Reference volume (volume V) contains an overview of SPICE with many example circuits There may be more flashy (graphic) circuit simulation programs in existence, but SPICE is free, a virtue complementing the charitable philosophy of this book very nicely 14.3 Acknowledgements First, I wish to thank my wife, whose patience during those many and long evenings (and weekends!) of typing has been extraordinary I also wish to thank those whose open-source software development efforts have made this endeavor all the more affordable and pleasurable The following is a list of various free computer software used to make this book, and the respective programmers: • GNU/Linux Operating System – Linus Torvalds, Richard Stallman, and a host of others too numerous to mention • Vim text editor – Bram Moolenaar and others • Xcircuit drafting program – Tim Edwards • SPICE circuit simulation program – too many contributors to mention • TEX text processing system – Donald Knuth and others • Texinfo document formatting system – Free Software Foundation • LATEX document formatting system – Leslie Lamport and others • Gimp image manipulation program – too many contributors to mention 342 CHAPTER 14 ABOUT THIS BOOK Appreciation is also extended to Robert L Boylestad, whose first edition of Introductory Circuit Analysis taught me more about electric circuits than any other book Other important texts in my electronics studies include the 1939 edition of The “Radio” Handbook, Bernard Grob’s second edition of Introduction to Electronics I, and Forrest Mims’ original Engineer’s Notebook Thanks to the staff of the Bellingham Antique Radio Museum, who were generous enough to let me terrorize their establishment with my camera and flash unit I wish to specifically thank Jeffrey Elkner and all those at Yorktown High School for being willing to host my book as part of their Open Book Project, and to make the first effort in contributing to its form and content Thanks also to David Sweet (website: (http://www.andamooka.org)) and Ben Crowell (website: (http://www.lightandmatter.com)) for providing encouragement, constructive criticism, and a wider audience for the online version of this book Thanks to Michael Stutz for drafting his Design Science License, and to Richard Stallman for pioneering the concept of copyleft Last but certainly not least, many thanks to my parents and those teachers of mine who saw in me a desire to learn about electricity, and who kindled that flame into a passion for discovery and intellectual adventure I honor you by helping others as you have helped me Tony Kuphaldt, July 2001 ”A candle loses nothing of its light when lighting another” Kahlil Gibran Chapter 15 CONTRIBUTOR LIST 15.1 How to contribute to this book As a copylefted work, this book is open to revision and expansion by any interested parties The only ”catch” is that credit must be given where credit is due This is a copyrighted work: it is not in the public domain! If you wish to cite portions of this book in a work of your own, you must follow the same guidelines as for any other copyrighted work Here is a sample from the Design Science License: The Work is copyright the Author All rights to the Work are reserved by the Author, except as specifically described below This License describes the terms and conditions under which the Author permits you to copy, distribute and modify copies of the Work In addition, you may refer to the Work, talk about it, and (as dictated by "fair use") quote from it, just as you would any copyrighted material under copyright law Your right to operate, perform, read or otherwise interpret and/or execute the Work is unrestricted; however, you so at your own risk, because the Work comes WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY see Section ("NO WARRANTY") below If you wish to modify this book in any way, you must document the nature of those modifications in the ”Credits” section along with your name, and ideally, information concerning 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of files comprising this book, it is recommended that you submit any revisions or expansions to the original author (Tony R Kuphaldt) You are, of course, welcome to modify this book directly by editing your own personal copy, but we would all stand to benefit from your contributions if your ideas were incorporated into the online “master copy” where all the world can see it 15.2 Credits All entries arranged in alphabetical order of surname Major contributions are listed by individual name with some detail on the nature of the contribution(s), date, contact info, etc Minor contributions (typo corrections, etc.) are listed by name only for reasons of brevity Please understand that when I classify a contribution as “minor,” it is in no way inferior to the effort or value of a “major” contribution, just smaller in the sense of less text changed Any and all contributions are gratefully accepted I am indebted to all those who have given freely of their own knowledge, time, and resources to make this a better book! 15.2.1 Tony R Kuphaldt • Date(s) of contribution(s): 1996 to present • Nature of contribution: Original author • Contact at: liec0@lycos.com 15.2.2 Warren Young • Date(s) of contribution(s): August 2002 • Nature of contribution: Provided initial text for ”Power supply circuits” section of chapter 15.2 CREDITS 15.2.3 345 Your name here • Date(s) of contribution(s): Month and year of contribution • Nature of contribution: Insert text here, describing how you contributed to the book • Contact at: my email@provider.net 15.2.4 Typo corrections and other “minor” contributions • The students of Bellingham Technical College’s Instrumentation program • Don Stalkowski (June 2002) Technical help with PostScript-to-PDF file format conversion • Joseph Teichman (June 2002) Suggestion and technical help regarding use of PNG images instead of JPEG 346 CHAPTER 15 CONTRIBUTOR LIST Chapter 16 DESIGN SCIENCE LICENSE Copyright c 1999-2000 Michael Stutz stutz@dsl.org Verbatim 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1.25 2000/03/14 13:14:14 m Exp m $] Index α ratio, 118, 155 β ratio, 87, 155 10-50 milliamp signal, 250 4-20 milliamp signal, 250 4-layer diode, 201 741 operational amplifier, 232 Bipolar-mode MOSFET, 194 Bistable, 260 Breakdown, diode, 40 Breakdown, transistor, 207 Breakover, thyristor, 207 Bridge rectifier circuit, 49 Bridge rectifier circuit, polyphase, 50 Bypass capacitor, 152 A-weighted dB scale, 13 A/D converter, 237 AC-DC power supply schematic, 212 Active device, Active mode, transistor, 82 Alpha ratio, 118, 155 Amplification, definition, Amplifier, differential, 228 Amplifier, inverting, 243 Amplifier, noninverting, 242 Amplifier, single-ended, 228 Analog-to-digital converter, 237 Angular Momentum quantum number, 20 Anti-static foam, 167 Antilogarithm, Artifact, measurement, 301 Astable, 262 Averager, 251 Calculus, 232, 257, 289 Capacitance, diode, 47 Capacitor, bypass, 152 Capacitor, coupling, 134 Capacitor, op-amp compensation, 275 Cat-Eye tube, 330 Cathode, 314 Cathode Ray Tube, 329 Center-tap rectifier circuit, 48 Characteristic curves, transistor, 87, 174 Check valve, 36 Clamper circuit, 53 Class A amplifier operation, 126 Class AB amplifier operation, 128 Class B amplifier operation, 127 Class C amplifier operation, 129 Class D amplifier operation, 129 Class, amplifier operation, 126 Clipper circuit, 53 CMRR, 264 Coherent light, 68 Cold-cathode tube, 326 COMFET, 194 Common-base amplifier, 118 Common-collector amplifier, 109 Common-emitter amplifier, 92 Common-mode rejection ratio, 264 Common-mode voltage, 264 Band, electron, 27 Bandwidth, amplifier, 147 Beam power tube, 318 Bel, Beta ratio, 87, 155 Beta ratio, bipolar transistor, 323 Beta variations, 88 Bias current, op-amp, 269 Bias, diode, 35 Bias, transistor, 99, 126 Bilateral, 175 351 352 Commutating diode, 54, 55 Commutation, 55 Commutation time, diode, 47 Commutation, forced, 223, 224 Commutation, natural, 213, 224 Comparator, 234 Compensation capacitor, op-amp, 275 Conduction band, 28 Conductivity-Modulated Field-Effect Transistor, 194 Constant-current diode, 69, 90 Controlled rectifier, 217 Conventional flow, 36 Coupling capacitor, 134 Coupling loop, resonator, 332, 335 Critical rate of voltage rise, 207, 209 Crossover distortion, 338 Crowbar, 212 CRT, 329 Current mirror, 155 Current source, 83, 249 Current sourcing vs sinking, 157 Current, diode leakage, 47 Current-limiting diode, 69 Current-regulating diode, 69 Curve, characteristic, 87, 174 Cutoff voltage, 165 Cutoff, transistor, 75, 82 Darlington pair, 116 Datasheet, component, 46 dB, dB, absolute power measurements, 13 dB, sound measurements, 13 dBA, 13 dBk, 13 dBm, 13 dBW, 13 DC restorer circuit, 53 Decibel, Decineper, 12 Degenerative feedback, 147 Derivative, calculus, 290 DIAC, 208 Differential amplifier, 228 Differential pair, 277, 278 INDEX Differentiation, 232 Differentiation, calculus, 257, 289 Diode, 35 Diode check, meter function, 43, 78 Diode equation, the, 39 Diode junction capacitance, 47 Diode leakage current, 47 Diode PIV rating, 40 Diode tube, 314 Diode, constant-current, 69, 90 Diode, Esaki, 65 Diode, four-layer, 201 Diode, laser, 68 Diode, light-activated, 69 Diode, light-emitting, 65 Diode, PNPN, 201 Diode, Schottky, 64 Diode, Shockley, 201 Diode, tunnel, 64 Diode, varactor, 69 Diode, zener, 57 DIP, 233 Discharge tube, 327 Distortion, amplifier, 147 Distortion, crossover, 338 dn, 12 Drift, op-amp, 274 Dropout, thyristor, 207 Dual Inline Package, 233 Dual power supply, 228 Duty cycle, square wave, 235 Duty cycle, squarewave, 130 Edison effect, 313 Effect, Edison, 313 Electrode, cathode, 314 Electrode, grid, 313 Electrode, screen, 317 Electrode, suppressor, 319 Electron, 16 Electron flow, 36 Emitter follower, 112 Equation, diode, 39 Equilibrium, 238 Esaki diode, 65 Exclusion principle, 22 INDEX Failure mode, zener diode, 58 Faraday’s Law, 54, 55 Feedback, amplifier, 147 Feedback, negative, 238 Feedback, positive, 259 Firing, thyristor, 207 Flash converter, 237 Floating, 75, 209 Flow, electron vs conventional, 36 Foam, anti-static, 167 Forced commutation, 223, 224 Forward bias, 35 Forward voltage, diode, 38 Four-layer diode, 201 Frequency response, op-amp, 275 Full-wave rectifier circuit, 48, 49 Gain, Gain, AC versus DC, Gate-Controlled Switch, 209 Gate-Turn-Off thyristor, 209 GCS, 209 Glow tube, 328 Grid, 313 Ground, 227 Ground, virtual, 243 GTO, 209 Half-wave rectifier circuit, 47 Harmonic, 220 Harmonic, even vs odd, 220 Harmonics and waveform symmetry, 220 Heptode, 320 hfe, 88 Holding current, SCR, 211 Hot-cathode tube, 326 Hybrid parameters, 88 Hysteresis, 260, 326 IC, 157 IGBT, 194, 226 IGT, 194, 226 Inductive output tube, 332 Inert elements, 24 Input, inverting, 229 Input, noninverting, 229 353 Insulated-Gate Bipolar Transistor, 194, 226 Insulated-Gate Transistor, 194, 226 Integrated circuit, 157 Integration, calculus, 257, 289 Inverting amplifier, 94, 243 Inverting summer, 252 Ionization, 198, 325 Joule’s Law, 10, 58 Junction capacitance, diode, 47 Kickback, inductive, 53 Kirchhoff’s Current Law, 73 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law, 111 Klystron, 332 Laser diode, 68 Laser light, 68 Latch-up, 266 Latching, thyristor, 207 Leakage current, diode, 40, 47 LED, 65 Light-emitting diode, 65 Load line, 130 Logarithm, Magic-Eye tube, 330 Magnetic quantum number, 20 Mechanics, quantum, 19 Mho, 177 Microphonics, electron tube, 337 Monochromatic light, 68 MOS Controlled Thyristor, 225 MOS-gated thyristor, 225 Mu, tube amplification factor, 321 Multiplier circuit, diode, 53 Natural commutation, 213, 224 Negative feedback, 147, 238 Negative resistance, 65 Neper, 11 Neutron, 16 Noble elements, 24 Noninverting amplifier, 242 Noninverting summer, 252 Number, quantum, 20 354 Offset null, op-amp, 268 Offset voltage, op-amp, 267 Ohmic region, JFET, 176 Op-amp, 153, 232 Operational amplifier, 153, 232 Orbital, electron, 21 Oscillator, 147 Oscillator, op-amp, 262 Oscillator, relaxation, 198 Oscillator, voltage-controlled, 333 Over-unity machine, Passive averager, 251 Passive device, PCB, 44 Pentagrid tube, 320 Pentode tube, 185 Perpetual motion machine, Photodiode, 69 Pinch-off voltage, 165 PIV rating, diode, 40 Plasma, 198, 325 PNPN diode, 201 Polyphase bridge rectifier circuit, 50 Positive feedback, 147, 197, 259 Power supply schematic, AC-DC, 212 Principal quantum number, 20 Printed circuit board, 44 Process variable, 231 Proton, 16 Pulse-width modulation, 236 Push-pull amplifier, 127 PWM, 236 Quantum mechanics, 19 Quantum number, 20 Quantum physics, 15 Quiescent, 130 Rail voltage, 240 Rectifier circuit, 47 Rectifier circuit, full-wave, 48, 49 Rectifier circuit, half-wave, 47 Rectifier, controlled, 217 Reference junction, thermocouple, 269 Reflex klystron, 333 INDEX Regenerative feedback, 147, 197 Regulator, voltage, 115 Relaxation oscillator, 198 Resistance, negative, 65 Restorer circuit, 53 Reverse bias, 35 Reverse recovery time, diode, 47 Reverse voltage rating, diode, 40 Rheostat, 89, 177 Richter scale, Ripple voltage, 52 Runaway, thermal, 150 s,p,d,f subshell notation, 21 Saturable reactor, Saturation voltage, 240 Saturation, transistor, 75, 82 Schottky diode, 64 SCR, 209, 329 SCR bridge rectifier, 217 Screen, 317 SCS, 223 Secondary emission, 318 Semiconductor, defined, 28 Sensitive gate, SCR, 211 Setpoint, 231 Shell, electron, 20 Shockley diode, 201 Siemens, 177, 250 Signal, 10-50 milliamp, 250 Signal, 4-20 milliamp, 250 Silicon-controlled rectifier, 209, 329 Silicon-controlled switch, 223 Single-ended amplifier, 228 Sink, current, 157 Slicer circuit, 53 Slide rule, Small-scale integration, 279 Snubber, 55 Solid-state, Sound intensity measurement, 13 Spark gap, 326 Spin quantum number, 20 Split power supply, 228 SSI, 279 Subshell, electron, 21 INDEX Superposition theorem, 135 Suppressor, 319 Switching time, diode, 47 Tetrode tube, 185, 317 Theorem, Superposition, 135 Thermal runaway, BJT, 150 Thermal voltage, diode, 40 Thermocouple, 269 Three-phase bridge rectifier circuit, 50 Thyratron, 329 Thyratron tube, 199 Thyristor, 326 Time, diode switching, 47 Totalizer, 258 Transconductance, 177, 250 Transconductance amplifier, 250 Triode tube, 185, 199, 314 Tube, discharge, 327 Tunnel diode, 64 Unit, Unit, Unit, Unit, Unit, bel, decineper, 12 mho, 177 neper, 11 siemens, 177, 250 Valence band, 28 Valence shell, 21 Varactor diode, 69 VCO, 201 Virtual ground, 243 VMOS transistor, 194 Voltage buffer, 240 Voltage doubler circuit, 53 Voltage follower, 112, 240 Voltage multiplier circuit, 53 Voltage regulator, 115 Voltage regulator tube, 328 Voltage rise, critical rate of, 207, 209 Voltage, bias, 99, 126 Voltage, common-mode, 264 Voltage, forward, 38 Voltage, op-amp output saturation, 240 Voltage, ripple, 52 Voltage-controlled oscillator, 201, 333 355 Volume units, 13 VU scale, 13 Waveform symmetry and harmonics, 220 Zener diode, 57 Zener diode failure mode, 58 ... 27 29 30 30 31 31 32 33 34 34 34 34 DIODES AND RECTIFIERS 3. 1 Introduction 3. 2 Meter check of a diode 3. 3 Diode ratings 3. 4 Rectifier circuits 3. 5 Clipper circuits. .. tubes 13. 10Display tubes 13. 11Microwave tubes 13. 12Tubes versus Semiconductors 31 1 31 1 31 1 31 4 31 7 31 8 31 9 32 0 32 3 32 5 32 9 33 2 33 5 14 ABOUT THIS BOOK 14.1 Purpose... 28.0855 32 .06 26.9815 30 .9 738 Metals 3s2 Boron 10.81 Nonmetals 3p1 3p2 3p3 3p4 3p5 3p6 23 Cr 22 V 26 Co 21 Ti 25 Fe 29 Zn 24 Mn 28 Cu 33 Se 35 Kr 36 27 Ni 31 Ge 30 Ga 32 As 34 Br 20 Sc K 19 Ca