Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume III – Semiconductors

Fifth Edition, last update April 05, 2009 Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume III – Semiconductors By Tony R Kuphaldt Fifth Edition, last update April 05, 2009 i c 2000-2010, Tony R Kuphaldt This book is published under the terms and conditions of the Design Science License These terms and conditions allow for free copying, distribution, and/or modification of this document by the general public The full Design Science License text is included in the last chapter As an open and collaboratively developed text, this book is distributed in the hope that it will be useful, but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE See the Design Science License for more details Available in its entirety as part of the Open Book Project collection at: www.ibiblio.org/obp/electricCircuits PRINTING HISTORY • First Edition: Printed in June of 2000 Plain-ASCII illustrations for universal computer readability • Second Edition: Printed in September of 2000 Illustrations reworked in standard graphic (eps and jpeg) format Source files translated to Texinfo format for easy online and printed publication • Third Edition: Printed in January 2002 Source files translated to SubML format SubML A is a simple markup language designed to easily convert to other markups like LTEX, HTML, or DocBook using nothing but search-and-replace substitutions • Fourth Edition: Printed in December 2002 New sections added, and error corrections made, since third edition • Fith Edition: Printed in July 2007 New sections added, and error corrections made, format change ii Contents AMPLIFIERS AND ACTIVE DEVICES 1.1 From electric to electronic 1.2 Active versus passive devices 1.3 Amplifiers 1.4 Amplifier gain 1.5 Decibels 1.6 Absolute dB scales 1.7 Attenuators 1 3 14 16 SOLID-STATE DEVICE THEORY 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Quantum physics 2.3 Valence and Crystal structure 2.4 Band theory of solids 2.5 Electrons and “holes” 2.6 The P-N junction 2.7 Junction diodes 2.8 Bipolar junction transistors 2.9 Junction field-effect transistors 2.10 Insulated-gate field-effect transistors (MOSFET) 2.11 Thyristors 2.12 Semiconductor manufacturing techniques 2.13 Superconducting devices 2.14 Quantum devices 2.15 Semiconductor devices in SPICE Bibliography 27 27 28 41 47 50 55 58 60 65 70 73 75 80 83 91 93 DIODES AND RECTIFIERS 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Meter check of a diode 3.3 Diode ratings 3.4 Rectifier circuits 3.5 Peak detector 3.6 Clipper circuits 97 98 103 107 108 115 117 iii CONTENTS iv 3.7 Clamper circuits 3.8 Voltage multipliers 3.9 Inductor commutating circuits 3.10 Diode switching circuits 3.11 Zener diodes 3.12 Special-purpose diodes 3.13 Other diode technologies 3.14 SPICE models Bibliography 121 123 130 132 135 143 163 164 172 BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTORS 4.1 Introduction 4.2 The transistor as a switch 4.3 Meter check of a transistor 4.4 Active mode operation 4.5 The common-emitter amplifier 4.6 The common-collector amplifier 4.7 The common-base amplifier 4.8 The cascode amplifier 4.9 Biasing techniques 4.10 Biasing calculations 4.11 Input and output coupling 4.12 Feedback 4.13 Amplifier impedances 4.14 Current mirrors 4.15 Transistor ratings and packages 4.16 BJT quirks Bibliography 175 176 178 181 185 191 204 212 220 224 237 249 258 265 266 271 273 280 JUNCTION FIELD-EFFECT TRANSISTORS 5.1 Introduction 5.2 The transistor as a switch 5.3 Meter check of a transistor 5.4 Active-mode operation 5.5 The common-source amplifier – PENDING 5.6 The common-drain amplifier – PENDING 5.7 The common-gate amplifier – PENDING 5.8 Biasing techniques – PENDING 5.9 Transistor ratings and packages – PENDING 5.10 JFET quirks – PENDING 283 283 285 288 290 299 300 300 300 301 301 INSULATED-GATE FIELD-EFFECT TRANSISTORS 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Depletion-type IGFETs 6.3 Enhancement-type IGFETs – PENDING 6.4 Active-mode operation – PENDING 303 303 304 313 313 CONTENTS 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9 6.10 6.11 6.12 v The common-source amplifier – PENDING The common-drain amplifier – PENDING The common-gate amplifier – PENDING Biasing techniques – PENDING Transistor ratings and packages – PENDING IGFET quirks – PENDING MESFETs – PENDING IGBTs THYRISTORS 7.1 Hysteresis 7.2 Gas discharge tubes 7.3 The Shockley Diode 7.4 The DIAC 7.5 The Silicon-Controlled Rectifier (SCR) 7.6 The TRIAC 7.7 Optothyristors 7.8 The Unijunction Transistor (UJT) 7.9 The Silicon-Controlled Switch (SCS) 7.10 Field-effect-controlled thyristors Bibliography 314 314 314 314 314 315 315 315 319 319 320 324 331 331 343 346 346 352 354 356 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Single-ended and differential amplifiers 8.3 The ”operational” amplifier 8.4 Negative feedback 8.5 Divided feedback 8.6 An analogy for divided feedback 8.7 Voltage-to-current signal conversion 8.8 Averager and summer circuits 8.9 Building a differential amplifier 8.10 The instrumentation amplifier 8.11 Differentiator and integrator circuits 8.12 Positive feedback 8.13 Practical considerations 8.14 Operational amplifier models 8.15 Data 357 357 358 362 368 371 374 380 382 384 386 387 390 394 410 415 PRACTICAL ANALOG SEMICONDUCTOR CIRCUITS 9.1 ElectroStatic Discharge 9.2 Power supply circuits – INCOMPLETE 9.3 Amplifier circuits – PENDING 9.4 Oscillator circuits – INCOMPLETE 9.5 Phase-locked loops – PENDING 9.6 Radio circuits – INCOMPLETE 417 417 422 424 424 426 426 CONTENTS vi 9.7 Computational circuits 9.8 Measurement circuits – INCOMPLETE 9.9 Control circuits – PENDING Bibliography 10 ACTIVE FILTERS 435 457 458 458 461 11 DC MOTOR DRIVES 463 11.1 Pulse Width Modulation 463 12 INVERTERS AND AC MOTOR DRIVES 13 ELECTRON TUBES 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Early tube history 13.3 The triode 13.4 The tetrode 13.5 Beam power tubes 13.6 The pentode 13.7 Combination tubes 13.8 Tube parameters 13.9 Ionization (gas-filled) tubes 13.10Display tubes 13.11Microwave tubes 13.12Tubes versus Semiconductors 467 469 469 470 473 475 476 478 478 481 483 487 490 493 A-1 ABOUT THIS BOOK 497 A-2 CONTRIBUTOR LIST 501 A-3 DESIGN SCIENCE LICENSE 507 INDEX 511 Chapter AMPLIFIERS AND ACTIVE DEVICES Contents 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.1 From electric to electronic Active versus passive devices Amplifiers Amplifier gain Decibels Absolute dB scales Attenuators 1.7.1 Decibels 1.7.2 T-section attenuator 1.7.3 PI-section attenuator 1.7.4 L-section attenuator 1.7.5 Bridged T attenuator 1.7.6 Cascaded sections 1.7.7 RF attenuators 3 14 16 17 19 20 21 21 23 23 From electric to electronic This third volume of the book series Lessons In Electric Circuits makes a departure from the former two in that the transition between electric circuits and electronic circuits is formally crossed Electric circuits are connections of conductive wires and other devices whereby the uniform flow of electrons occurs Electronic circuits add a new dimension to electric circuits in that some means of control is exerted over the flow of electrons by another electrical signal, either a voltage or a current A-2.2 CREDITS A-2.2.2 503 Dennis Crunkilton • Date(s) of contribution(s): July 2004 to present • Nature of contribution: Original author: Karnaugh mapping chapter; 04/2004; Shift registers chapter, June 2005 • Nature of contribution: Mini table of contents, all chapters except appendicies; html, latex, ps, pdf; See Devel/tutorial.html; 01/2006 • Nature of contribution: Completed Ch4 Bipolar junction transistors, CH7 Thyristors; Ch9 Practical anlog ckts, a few additions; Ch8 Opamps, minor; 04/2009 • Contact at: dcrunkilton(at)att(dot)net A-2.2.3 Bill Marsden • Date(s) of contribution(s): May 2008 • Nature of contribution: Original author: “ElectroStatic Discharge” Section, Chapter • Nature of contribution: Chapter 3, LED’s update, photodiode update, Feburary 2009 • Nature of contribution: Chapter 11, Section author: ”Pulse Width Modulation”, Feburary 2010 • Contact at: bill marsden2(at)hotmail(dot)com A-2.2.4 Your name here • Date(s) of contribution(s): Month and year of contribution • Nature of contribution: Insert text here, describing how you contributed to the book • Contact at: my email@provider.net A-2.2.5 Typo corrections and other “minor” contributions • line-allaboutcircuits.com (June 2005) Typographical error correction in Volumes 1,2,3,5, various chapters ,(:s/visa-versa/vice versa/) • Colin Creitz (May 2007) Chapters: several, s/it’s/its • Dennis Crunkilton (October 2005) Typographical capitlization correction to sectiontitles, chapter • Jeff DeFreitas (March 2006)Improve appearance: replace “/” and ”/” Chapters: A1, A2 • Paul Stokes, Program Chair, Computer and Electronics Engineering Technology, ITT Technical Institute, Houston, Tx (October 2004) Change (10012 = -810 + 710 = -110 ) to (10012 = -810 + 110 = -110 ), CH2, Binary Arithmetic 504 APPENDIX A-2 CONTRIBUTOR LIST • Paul Stokes, Program Chair Computer and Electronics Engineering Technology, ITT Technical Institute, Houston, Tx (October 2004) Near ”Fold up the corners” change Out=B’C’ to Out=B’D’, 14118.eps same change, Karnaugh Mapping • The students of Bellingham Technical College’s Instrumentation program, • Roger Hollingsworth (May 2003) Suggested a way to make the PLC motor control system fail-safe • Jan-Willem Rensman (May 2002) Suggested the inclusion of Schmitt triggers and gate hysteresis to the ”Logic Gates” chapter • Don Stalkowski (June 2002) Technical help with PostScript-to-PDF file format conversion • Joseph Teichman (June 2002) Suggestion and technical help regarding use of PNG images instead of JPEG • Unregistered@allaboutcircuits.com (November 2007) “Boolean algebra”, images 14019.pes 14021.eps output of gates incorrect s/0/A s/1/A • Dan Simon (February 2008) “Numeration Systems”, After BINARY TO OCTAL CONVERSION, position of decimal point — • Timothy Kingman (March 2008) Changed default roman font to newcent • Imranullah Syed (March 2008) Suggested centering of uncaptioned schematics • Chris01720@allaboutcircuits.com (March 2008) Ch 15, Inaccuracy involving CD-ROM production • studiot@allaboutcircuits.com (March 2008) Ch 15, s/disk/disc/ in CDROM • Keith@allaboutcircuits.com (April 2008) Ch 12, s/laralel-out/parallel-out/ • Ken Braswell (May 2008) Ch 3, s/drips/drops/ • Guest@allaboutcircuits.com (Oct 2008) Ch 2, s/are in close/are close/ • Radoslav@allaboutcircuits.com (Oct 2008) Ch 8, s/that mA of/that mA/ • Scanman@allaboutcircuits.com (Dec 2008) Ch 2, s/shells are hold/shells hold/ • dgeorge@allaboutcircuits.com (Dec 2008) Ch 7, image 03320.png, swapped anode and anode gate left diagram • Unregistered Guest@allaboutcircuits.com (Feb 2009) Ch s/than FET’s/than JFET’s • Unregistered Guest@allaboutcircuits.com (March 2009) Ch 8, 13061.png, change formula for inverting gain to include ”-” • dezurtrat@allaboutcircuits.com (March 2009) Ch 3, 03443.png, s/p-p/peak A-2.2 CREDITS 505 • Bill Marsden@allaboutcircuits.com (April 2009) Ch 3, s/I would/It would/ • Peter O@allaboutcircuits.com (April 2009) Ch 1, closing parenthesis, above replaced with reference to figure • Nanophotonics@allaboutcircuits.com (April 2009) Ch 9, image 53009.jpg s/courtisy/courtesy • Bill Marsden@allaboutcircuits.com (April 2009) Ch 8, images 2001.png, 2002.png appearance • D Crunkilton (April 2009) Ch 4, images 23006.png, 23007.png updated • Unregistered Guest@allaboutcircuits.com (June 2009) Ch 7, s/SCR schematic symbol/TRIAC schematic symbol • Peter O’Dette (June 2009) Ch 1, s/is watts/is Watt , s/10 watt/10 Watts , s/ watt/ Watt • Unregistered Guest@allaboutcircuits.com (June 2009) Ch 3, s/being/begin , near ”voltage at which they” s/is/in near ”The diodes must be” • regrehan@allaboutcircuits.com (June 2009) Ch 4, s/r1 1/r1 1k in commonemitter amplifier SPICE list • Unregistered Guest@allaboutcircuits.com (July 2009) Ch 3, s/Note polarity change on coil changed/Note polarity change on coil • Unregistered Guest@allaboutcircuits.com (August 2009) Ch 4, Swap PNP & NPN at (b) & (c), caption of 03075.png • Unregistered Guest@allaboutcircuits.com (August 2009) equation typos 03077.png 03479.png • Peter O’Dette@allaboutcircuits.com (August 2009) Ch 2, Numerous changes, and 03409.png • Bill Marsden@allaboutcircuits.com (November 2009) Ch 4, Beta formula, ”Transistor atings and Packages” • Unregistered Guest@allaboutcircuits.com (November 2009) Ch 3, Image 03288.eps changed polarized capacitor to non-polarized • Unregistered Guest@allaboutcircuits.com (November 2009) Ch s/hasre/share/ s/common=emitter/co emitter/ • Uisge@allaboutcircuits.com (November 2009) Ch 3, s/once every half-cycle/one half of every full cycle/ , s/much/half/ • Unregistered Guest@allaboutcircuits.com (November 2009) Ch s/To maintaining/To maintain 506 APPENDIX A-2 CONTRIBUTOR LIST • Unregistered Guest@allaboutcircuits.com (November 2009) Ch s/[model]/[modelname]/ • gareththegeek@allaboutcircuits.com (November 2009) Ch numerous typos, omissions • Dcrunkilton@allaboutcircuits.com (November 2009) Ch minor chages to text and image 03392.eps • waynerr@allaboutcircuits.com (December 2009) Ch equations and of image 03488.eps • jkenny@allaboutcircuits.com (January 2010) Ch s/will will/will/ • BHijazi@allaboutcircuits.com (February 2010) Ch 1, Clarification of text between images 03378.png and 03379.png • SgtWookiei@allaboutcircuits.com (March 2010) Ch 4, image 03375.png, flipped pnp and battery • Bill Marsden@allaboutcircuits.com (March 2010) Ch 9, Changes to ESD section • SgtWookiei@allaboutcircuits.com (April 2010) Ch 4, image 03078.png, added resistors • silv3rmOOn@allaboutcircuits.com (April 2010) Ch 4, typo in SPICE listing near image 20004.png • optomist1@allaboutcircuits.com (July 2010) Ch 2, typo s/campared/compared/ • Bill Marsden@allaboutcircuits.com (July 2010) Ch 11, change [I] to italic tags in dcdrive.sml Appendix A-3 DESIGN SCIENCE LICENSE Copyright c 1999-2000 Michael Stutz stutz@dsl.org Verbatim copying of this document is permitted, in any medium A-3.1 Preamble Copyright law gives certain exclusive 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shall be affected APPENDIX A-3 510 A-3.8 DESIGN SCIENCE LICENSE No warranty THE WORK IS PROVIDED ”AS IS,” AND COMES WITH ABSOLUTELY NO WARRANTY, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, TO THE EXTENT PERMITTED BY APPLICABLE LAW, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE A-3.9 Disclaimer of liability IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS WORK, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS [$Id: dsl.txt,v 1.25 2000/03/14 13:14:14 m Exp m $] Index α ratio, 209, 264 β ratio, 186, 264 10-50 milliamp signal, 376 4-20 milliamp signal, 376 4-layer diode, 320 741 operational amplifier, 358 A-weighted dB scale, 14 A/D converter, 363 AC-DC power supply schematic, 331 Active device, Active mode, transistor, 182 Alpha ratio, 209, 264 Amplification, definition, Amplifier, differential, 355 Amplifier, inverting, 369 Amplifier, noninverting, 368 Amplifier, single-ended, 355 Analog-to-digital converter, 363 Angular Momentum quantum number, 31 Anti-static foam, 285 Antilogarithm, 10 Artifact, measurement, 445 Astable, 388 Attenuator, 16 Attenuator, bridged T, 21 Attenuator, coaxial, 23 Attenuator, L, 20 Attenuator, PI, 20 Attenuator, rf, 23 Attenuator, T, 18 Avalanche photodiode, 151 Averager, 377 Band, electron, 45 Bandwidth, amplifier, 255 Bardeen, John, 58, 63 Beam power tube, 468 Bel, Beta ratio, 186, 264 Beta ratio, bipolar transistor, 473 Beta variations, 186 Bias current, op-amp, 395 Bias, BJT, base, 234 Bias, BJT, calculations, 234 Bias, BJT, collector-feedback, 235 Bias, BJT, emitter, 236 Bias, BJT, voltage divider, 242 Bias, diode, 95 Bias, transistor, 195, 221 Bilateral, 292 Bipolar-mode MOSFET, 312 Bistable, 386 Brattain, Walter, 58, 63 Breakdown, diode, 100 Breakdown, transistor, 324 Breakover, thyristor, 324 Bridge rectifier circuit, 108 Bridge rectifier circuit, polyphase, 109 Bypass capacitor, 260 Calculus, 358, 383, 433 Capacitance, diode, 106 Capacitor, bypass, 260 Capacitor, coupling, 230 Capacitor, op-amp compensation, 401 Cascode amplifier, 217 Cat-Eye tube, 480 Cathode, 465 Cathode Ray Tube, 479 Center-tap rectifier circuit, 107 Characteristic curves, transistor, 184, 291 Check valve, 96 Clamper circuit, 119 511 INDEX 512 Class A amplifier operation, 222 Class AB amplifier operation, 223 Class B amplifier operation, 222 Class C amplifier operation, 224 Class D amplifier operation, 224 Class, amplifier operation, 221 Clipper circuit, 115 clipper, zener diode, 140 CMRR, 390 Cockcroft-Walton, voltage multiplier, 126 Coherent light, 149 Cold-cathode tube, 476 COMFET, 312 Common-base amplifier, 209 Common-collector amplifier, 201 Common-emitter amplifier, 188 Common-mode rejection ratio, 390 Common-mode voltage, 390 Commutating diode, 128, 129 Commutation, 129 Commutation time, diode, 106 Commutation, forced, 349 Commutation, natural, 331, 349 Comparator, 360 Compensation capacitor, op-amp, 401 Conduction band, 46 Conductivity-Modulated Field-Effect Transistor, 312 Constant-current diode, 160 Controlled rectifier, 336 Conventional flow, 96 Cooper pair, 78 Coupling capacitor, 230 Coupling loop, resonator, 482, 485 Critical rate of voltage rise, 325, 327 Crossover distortion, 488 Crowbar, 331 CRT, 479 Crystal radio, 420 Current mirror, 264 Current source, 183, 375 Current sourcing vs sinking, 266 Current, diode leakage, 106 Current-limiting diode, 160 Current-regulating diode, 160 Curve, characteristic, 184, 291 Cutoff voltage, 283 Cutoff, transistor, 176, 182 Czochralski process, silicon , 73 Darlington pair, 208 Datasheet, component, 105 dB, dB, absolute power measurements, 15 dB, sound measurements, 14 dBA, 14 dBk, 15 dBm, 15 dBW, 15 DC restorer circuit, 119 Decibel, Decibels, attenuator, 17 Decineper, 13 Degenerative feedback, 255 Derivative, calculus, 434 DIAC, 326 Differential amplifier, 355 Differential pair, 405, 406 Differentiation, 358 Differentiation, calculus, 383, 433 Diode, 95 Diode check, meter function, 102, 179 Diode equation, the, 99 Diode junction capacitance, 106 Diode leakage current, 106 Diode PIV rating, 100 Diode tube, 465 Diode, 4-layer, 71 Diode, constant-current, 160 Diode, Esaki, 142 Diode, four-layer, 320 Diode, hot carrier, 141, 156 Diode, IMPATT, 158 Diode, laser, 149 Diode, light-activated, 150 Diode, light-emitting, 144 diode, MIIM, 83 diode, MIM, 161 Diode, pin, 158 Diode, PNPN, 320 Diode, schottky, 141 Diode, Shockley, 320 INDEX Diode, snap, 158 Diode, SPICE, 162 Diode, tunnel, 142 Diode, varactor, 156 Diode, varicap, 156 Diode, zener, 134 DIP, 359 Discharge tube, 477 Distortion, amplifier, 255 Distortion, crossover, 488 dn, 13 Double-layer tunneling transistor, 82 Drift, op-amp, 401 Dropout, thyristor, 324 Dual Inline Package, 359 Dual power supply, 354 Duty cycle, square wave, 361 Duty cycle, squarewave, 224 Edison effect, 463 Effect, Edison, 463 Electrode, cathode, 465 Electrode, grid, 464 Electrode, screen, 467 Electrode, suppressor, 470 Electron, 26 Electron flow, 96 Emitter follower, 204 Emitter-follower amplifier, 201 Equation, diode, 99 Equilibrium, 364 Esaki diode, 142 Exclusion principle, 34 Failure mode, zener diode, 134 Faraday’s Law, 128, 129 Feedback, amplifier, 255 Feedback, negative, 364 Feedback, positive, 385 FET, field effect transistor, 63 Field effect transistor , 63 Firing, thyristor, 324 Flash converter, 363 Floating, 176, 327 Flow, electron vs conventional, 96 Foam, anti-static, 285 513 Forced commutation, 349 Forward bias, 95 Forward voltage, diode, 97 Four-layer diode, 320 Frequency response, op-amp, 401 Full-wave rectifier circuit, 107, 108 Gain, Gain, AC versus DC, Gate turn off switch, 71 Gate-Controlled Switch, 328 Gate-Turn-Off thyristor, 328 GCS, 328 Glow tube, 478 Grid, 464 Ground, 354 Ground, virtual, 369 GTO, 328 GTO, gate turn off switch, 71 Half-wave rectifier circuit, 106 Harmonic, 340 Harmonic, even vs odd, 340 Harmonics and waveform symmetry, 340 Heptode, 471 hfe, 186 High temperature superconductors:, 80 Holding current, SCR, 331 hot carrier diode, 141 Hot-cathode tube, 476 Hybrid parameters, 186 Hysteresis, 386, 476 IC, 266 IGBT, 312, 352 IGFET, insulated gate field effect transistor, 68 IGT, 312, 352 IMPATT diode, 158 Inductive output tube, 482 Inert elements, 36 Input, inverting, 355 Input, noninverting, 355 Insulated gate field effect transistor, 68 Insulated-Gate Bipolar Transistor, 312, 352 Insulated-Gate Transistor, 312, 352 INDEX 514 Integrated circuit, 266 Integration, calculus, 383, 433 Inverting amplifier, 191, 369 Inverting summer, 378 Ionization, 316, 475 JFET, junction field effect transistor, 63 Josephson junctions, 78 Josephson transistor, 78 Joule’s Law, 11, 134 Junction capacitance, diode, 106 Kickback, inductive, 128 Kirchhoff ’s Current Law, 174 Kirchhoff ’s Voltage Law, 204 Klystron, 482 Laser diode, 149 Laser light, 149 Latch-up, 393 Latching, thyristor, 324 Leakage current, diode, 100, 106 LED, 144 Light-emitting diode, 144 Lilienfeld, Julius, 63 Load line, 225 Logarithm, 10 Magic-Eye tube, 480 Magnetic quantum number, 31 Magnetic tunnel junction, 86 Mechanics, quantum, 30 MESFET, metal semiconductor field effect transistor, 66 Metal oxide field effect transistor, 68 Mho, 294 Microphonics, electron tube, 487 MIIM, diode, 83 Miller effect, 276 MIM diode, 161 Monochromatic light, 149 MOS Controlled Thyristor, 350 MOS-gated thyristor, 350 MOSFET, metal oxide field effect transistor, 68 MTJ, magnetic tunnel junction, 86 Mu, tube amplification factor, 471 Multiplier circuit, diode, 121 Multiplier, frequency, varactor, 418 Natural commutation, 331, 349 Negative feedback, 255, 364 Negative resistance, 142 Neper, 13 Neutron, 26 Noble elements, 36 Noninverting amplifier, 368 Noninverting summer, 378 Number, quantum, 31 Offset null, op-amp, 394 Offset voltage, op-amp, 393 Ohmic region, JFET, 293 Op-amp, 261, 358 Operational amplifier, 261, 358 Orbital, electron, 33 Oscillator, 255 Oscillator, op-amp, 388 oscillator, phase shift, 418 Oscillator, relaxation, 317 Oscillator, voltage-controlled, 483 Over-unity machine, Passive averager, 377 Passive device, Pauli, exclusion principle, 34 PCB, 103 Peak detector, 113 Pentagrid tube, 471 Pentode tube, 304 Perpetual motion machine, Phase shift, op-amp, 402 Photodiode, 150 Photodiode amplifier, 450 Photodiode, APD, 151 Photodiode, PIN, 151 PI-network , 16 PIN diode, 158 PIN, photodiode, 151 Pinch-off voltage, 283 PIV rating, diode, 100 Plasma, 316, 475 INDEX PNPN diode, 320 Polyphase bridge rectifier circuit, 109 Positive feedback, 255, 315, 385 Power supply schematic, AC-DC, 331 Principal quantum number, 31 Printed circuit board, 103 Process variable, 357 Programmable unijunction transistor, 345 Proton, 26 Pulse-width modulation, 362 Push-pull amplifier, 222 PWM, 362 Quantum dot, 83 Quantum dot transistor, 83 Quantum mechanics, 30 Quantum number, 31 Quantum physics, 25 quantum tunneling, 81 Quiescent, 225 Radio, crystal, 420 Rail voltage, 366 Rectifier, 95 Rectifier circuit, 106 Rectifier circuit, full-wave, 107, 108 Rectifier circuit, half-wave, 106 Rectifier, controlled, 336 Reference junction, thermocouple, 395 Reflex klystron, 483 Regenerative feedback, 255, 315 Regulator, voltage, 206 Relaxation oscillator, 317 Resistance, negative, 142 Resonant tunneling diode, 82 Restorer circuit, 119 Reverse bias, 95 Reverse recovery time, diode, 106 Reverse voltage rating, diode, 100 Rheostat, 187, 294 Richter scale, Ripple voltage, 111 Runaway, thermal, 258 s,p,d,f subshell notation, 32 Saturable reactor, 515 Saturation voltage, 366 Saturation, transistor, 176, 182 Schottky diode, 141 SCR, 327, 479 SCR bridge rectifier, 336 SCR, silicon controlled rectifier, 71 Screen, 467 SCS, 349 Secondary emission, 468 Semiconductor, defined, 46 Sensitive gate, SCR, 329 Setpoint, 357 Shell, electron, 31 Shockley diode, 320 Shockley, William, 58, 63, 71 Siemens, 294, 376 Signal, 10-50 milliamp, 376 Signal, 4-20 milliamp, 376 Silicon controlled rectifier, 71 Silicon-controlled rectifier, 327, 479 Silicon-controlled switch, 349 Single-ended amplifier, 355 Sink, current, 266 Slicer circuit, 115 Slide rule, 10 Small-scale integration, 406 Snap diode, 158 Snubber, 129 Solar cell, 152 Solid-state, Sound intensity measurement, 14 Spark gap, 476 SPICE, diode, 162 Spin quantum number, 31 Spintronics, 85 Split power supply, 354 SQUID:, 78 SSI, 406 Step recovery diode, 158 Subshell notation, 32 Subshell, electron, 31 Superconduction quantum interference device, 78 Superconductivity, 77 Superposition theorem, 230 Suppressor, 470 INDEX 516 Switching time, diode, 106 T-network , 16 Tetrode tube, 304, 467 Theorem, Superposition, 230 Thermal runaway, BJT, 258 Thermal voltage, diode, 99 Thermocouple, 395 Three-phase bridge rectifier circuit, 109 Thyratron, 479 Thyratron tube, 317 Thyristor, 71, 476 Time, diode switching, 106 Totalizer, 384 Transconductance, 294, 376 Transconductance amplifier, 376 Transistor, field effect, 63 Transistor, insulated gate field effect, 68 Transistor, Josephson, 78 Transistor, metal oxide field effect, 68 Transistor, programmable unijunction, 345 Transistor, single electron, 83 Transistor, unijunction, 343 Triode tube, 304, 317, 465 Tube, discharge, 477 Tunnel diode, 142 Tunnel junction, magnetic, 86 tunneling, quantum, 81 Unijunction transistor, 343 Unipolar, conduction, 63 Unit, bel, Unit, decineper, 13 Unit, mho, 294 Unit, neper, 13 Unit, siemens, 294, 376 Valence band, 46 Valence shell, 32 Valve, “check”, 96 Varactor diode, 156 Varicap diode, 156 VCO, 319 Virtual ground, 369 VMOS transistor, 312 Voltage buffer, 366 Voltage doubler circuit, 121 Voltage follower, 204, 366 Voltage multiplier circuit, 121 Voltage multiplier, Cockcroft-Walton, 126 Voltage regulator, 206 Voltage regulator tube, 478 Voltage rise, critical rate of, 325, 327 Voltage, bias, 195, 221 Voltage, common-mode, 390 Voltage, forward, 97 Voltage, op-amp output saturation, 366 Voltage, ripple, 111 Voltage-controlled oscillator, 319, 483 Volume units, 15 VU scale, 15 Waveform symmetry and harmonics, 340 Zener diode, 134 Zener diode failure mode, 134 Zener diode, clipper, 140 INDEX 517 ... common-drain amplifier – PENDING The common-gate amplifier – PENDING Biasing techniques – PENDING Transistor ratings and packages – PENDING IGFET quirks – PENDING MESFETs – PENDING... amplifier – PENDING 5.6 The common-drain amplifier – PENDING 5.7 The common-gate amplifier – PENDING 5.8 Biasing techniques – PENDING 5.9 Transistor ratings and packages – PENDING 5.10... Table: Gain / loss in decibels Loss/gain as a ratio Poutput Pinput Loss/gain in decibels Poutput 10 log Pinput Loss/gain as a ratio Poutput Pinput Loss/gain in decibels Poutput 10 log Pinput 1000